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Medical Imaging
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Reference
William K. Pratt, “Digital Image Processing” ,

Techniques John Willey ,2001

Steve Webb, The physics of medical imaging,
Adam Hilger, Bristol, England, Philadelphia,
USA, 1988
Jain A.K., “Fundamentals of Digital Image
Processing”, PHI, 1995.

Dr. K. Adalarasu
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Textbook and Materials

Rafael C. Gonzalez, Richard E. Woods,
“Digital Image Processing”, 2nd Edition,
X-Ray & Computed
Pearson Education, 2003 Tomographic
Digital Image Processing by Jayaraman,
Veerakumar, 2012 Imaging
Khandpur R.S, Handbook of Biomedical
Instrumentation, 3/e, Tata McGraw
Hill,New Delhi, 2014

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X-Ray Imaging
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X-rays Machine
X-rays were discovered by the German
physicist Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen in
November 1895
Called the ‘new kind of ray’ or X-rays, X for the
unknown
Today, imaging with X-rays is perhaps the most
commonly used diagnostic tool with the
medical profession
Chest radiography to a digital subtraction
angiography or computer tomography depend
on the use of X-rays
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KA – MIT – Unit II – Jan, 2018, Sastra University
Basics of Diagnostic Radiology
 Radiological examination is one of the most
important diagnostic aids
 Various anatomical structures of the body have
different densities for the X-rays
 When X-rays from a point source penetrate a
section of the body
 The Internal body structures absorb varying amount of the
radiation
 Radiation that leaves the body has a spatial intensity
variation
 i.e. an image of the internal structure of the body
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Basics of Diagnostic Radiology
Basic set-up for a diagnostic radiology image formation process
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Basics of Diagnostic Radiology
 X-ray intensity distribution is visualized by a
suitable device like a photographic film
 Shadow image is generated
 Corresponds to the X-ray density of the organs in the
body section
 Main properties of X-rays
 Capability to penetrate matter coupled with differential
absorption observed in various materials
 Ability to produce luminescence and its effect on
photographic emulsions
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Basics of Diagnostic Radiology
X-ray picture is called a radiograph
Shadow picture produced by X-rays emanating
from a point source
Skeletal structures are easy to visualize
Untrained eye can sometimes observe fractures
and other bone abnormalities
Chest radiographs
Examination of the lungs and the heart
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Basics of Diagnostic Radiology
Air enclosed in the respiratory tract
Larger bronchi are seen as a negative contrast
Pulmonary vessels are seen as a positive contrast
against the air-filled lung tissue
Different types of lung infections
Diagnosis to be made from the location, size and
extent of the shadow
Heart examinations
Performed by taking frontal and lateral films
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Chest X-ray 13
Chest X-ray
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 Negative contrast
 X ray easily penetrate
 Medium – air, oxygen, carbon dioxide
 Area appear dark in film
 Positive contrast
 High atomic number, either barium sulphate or iodine
 Absorbs x ray
 Appear light in film
 Bones
 Absorb much of the X-ray radiation
 While lung tissue (which is filled with mostly air)
 Absorbs very little
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Low density material such as air

is represented as black on the
final radiograph
Very dense material such as
metal or contrast material is
represented as white

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Basics of Diagnostic Radiology
 Evaluation is performed
 Partly by calculating the total heart volume
 Partly on the basis of any changes in shape
 Visualization of the rest of the circulatory system
 Use is made of injectible, water-soluble organic
compounds of iodine
 Contrast medium is injected into an artery or vein
 Usually through a catheter placed in the vessel
 All the larger organs of the body can be examined by
visualizing the associated vessels and this technique is
called angiography
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Basics of Diagnostic Radiology
Negative and positive contrast media are used
for visualizing the spinal canal
Examination being known as myelography
Pneumography
Examine the central nervous system
Filling the body cavities with air
Computerized tomography
Greatly reduced the need for some of the invasive
neuro-radiological methods
Involve discomfort and a certain risk for the patient
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Basics of Diagnostic Radiology

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Nature of x-rays
 Examination is designated according to the organ  X-rays are electromagnetic radiation
examined  Located at the low wavelength end of the electromagnetic
 Coronary angiography spectrum
 Coronary vessels of the heart  Wavelength of the order of 10-10m
 Angiocardiography  Propagate with a speed of 3X1010 cm/s
 Heart  Unaffected by electric and magnetic fields
 Cerebral angiography  Electromagnetic radiation consists of photons
 The brain
 ‘packets’ of energy
 Entire gastro-intestinal tract
 Using an emulsion of barium sulphate as a contrast
medium
 Pathological conditions such as ulcers, tumours or
inflammatory conditions
X-rays, the wavelength is directly dependent on the voltage
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Properties of X - rays Unit of x-radiation
 X-rays are able to penetrate through materials  Rontgen as a measure of the quantity of x-radiation
which readily absorb and reflect visible light  Based on the ability of radiation to produce ionization
 X-rays are absorbed when passing through matter  Abbreviated ‘R’
 Absorption depends upon the density of the matter  Amount of x-radiation which will produce 2.08 X 109 ion
pairs per cubic centimetre of air
 X-rays produce secondary radiation in all matter
 At standard temperature (0°C) and pressure (760 mmHg
through which they pass at sea level and latitude 45°)
 Secondary radiation is composed  Biological effects of X-rays are due to energy
 Scattered radiation imparted to matter
 Characteristic radiation and electrons
 These effects are more closely correlated with the
absorbed dose than with exposure

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Properties of X - rays Unit of x-radiation

Diagnostic radiology  Unit of absorbed dose (D) is rad
 Radiation dose which will result in an energy absorption of
Scattered radiation which is of practical importance 1.0 X10-2 J/Kg in the irradiated material
X-rays produce ionization in gases D = f R
Influence the electric properties of liquids and  Where D - absorbed dose
solids  R – Rontgen
Ionizing property is made use of in the  f- proportionality constant
 Depends upon both the composition of the irradiated material and
construction of radiation-measuring instruments quality of the radiation beam
X-rays also produce fluorescence in certain  Air f=0.87 rad/R
materials to help them emit light  Soft tissues f=1 rad/R
 Bone, f is larger but significantly decreases with an
Fluoroscopic increase in kV
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Unit of x-radiation Production of x-rays
Dose equivalent (DE) X-rays are produced
Product of the absorbed dose D and a modifying Whenever electrons collide at very high
quality factor (QF)
speed with matter
DE = (QF) D
Thus suddenly stopped
Rontgens express incident energy
Energy possessed by the electrons
rads give an indication of how much of this
incident energy is absorbed Parcel of energy in the form of highly
penetrating electromagnetic waves (X-rays)
rems are a measure of the relative biological of many different wavelengths
damage caused
Which together form a continuous spectrum

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Production of x-rays
X-rays are produced in a specially
constructed glass tube
A source for the production of electrons
Production of x- A energy source to accelerate the electrons
A free electron path
rays A means of focusing the electron beam
A device to stop the electrons
Stationary mode tubes and rotating anode
tubes are the two main types of X-ray tubes

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Stationary Anode Tube Stationary Anode Tube

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Stationary Anode Tube

 Normal tube is a vacuum diode
 Which electrons are generated by thermionic
emission from the filament of the tube
 Electron stream is electrostatically focused on a
target on the anode by means of a suitably shaped
cathode cup

https://www.tes.com/lessons/RnryLgKjh7ZrMQ/x-ray-generator

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Stationary Anode Tube
 Kinetic energy of the electrons impinging on the
target is converted into X-rays
 Most electrons emitted by the hot filament become
current carriers across the tube
 Tube current by adjusting the filament temperature
 Tube voltage by adjusting primary voltage
 Some X-ray tubes function as a triode
 With a bias voltage applied between the filament and the
cathode cup
 Bias voltage can be used to control the size and shape of
the focal spot
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Stationary Anode Tube
 Cathode block
 Which contains the filament
 Usually made from nickel or from a form of stainless steel
 Filament is a closely wound helix of tungsten wire
 0.2 mm thick, the helix diameter being about 1.0–1.5 mm
 Target is normally comprised of a small tablet of
tungsten about
 15 mm wide
 20 mm long
 3 mm thick soldered into a block of copper
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Stationary Anode Tube
 Tungsten
 Combines a high atomic number (74)
 It has a high melting point (3400oC) enabling it to withstand
the heavy thermal loads
 In special cases, molybdenum targets are also used
 Case of mammography - where in improved subject
contrast in the breast is desirable
 Lower efficiency of X-ray production
 Lower melting point make molybdenum unsuitable for
general radiography
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Stationary Anode Tube
 Tube will emit X-rays in all directions
 Protection needs to be provided except where the
useful beam emerges from the tube
 Lot of heat will be generated by the tube
 Hence this heat will cause the oil temperature to rise, the
oil will expand
 Being a liquid, oil is incompressible
 Either of oil resistant
 Rubber or thin metal, is provided to accommodate the
expansion
 Stationary anode tubes are employed mostly in small
capacity X-ray machines
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Rotating Anode Tube Rotating Anode Tube
 More penetrating X-rays, requiring higher tube
voltages and current
 X-ray tube itself becomes a limiting factor in the
output of the system
 Due to the heat generated at the anode
 Heat capacity of the anode
 Function of the focal spot area
 Absorbed power can be increased if the effective
area of the focal spot can be increased
 Accomplished by the rotating anode type of X-ray tubes

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Rotating Anode Tube
 Tubes with rotating anode are based on the removal
of the target from the electron beam before it
reaches too high a temperature under the electron
bombardment
 Rapid replacement of it by another cooler target
 Anode is a disk of tungsten or an alloy of tungsten
and 10% rhenium
 Alloy helps to reduce the changes in the anode track due
to stress produced in the track as a result of the rapidly
changing temperature
 Anode rotates at a speed of 3000–3600 or 9000–
10000 rpm
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Rotating Anode Tube
 Tungsten disk that represents the anode has a
bevelled edge that may vary from 5°–20°
 Typical angles are around 15°
 Keeping with the line focus principle
 With the rotating anode
 Heat produced during an exposure is spread over a
large area of the anode
 Thereby increasing the heat loading capacity of the tube
 Allowing higher power levels to be used which produces
more intense x-radiation
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Rotating Anode Tube X - rays

 Rotor is made from copper, either cast or from Diagnostic applications
special quality rod It is usual to employ high milliamperes and
 Anode rotation system is a high speed system lower exposure time
 Bearings must be properly lubricated Therapeutic
 Commonly used lubricants are lead, gold, graphite High kV and relatively lower mA
or silver
 Lubricants are usually applied to the bearing
surfaces in the form of a thin film

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Rotating Anode Tube

Tube housing
Electrical isolation between the high voltage
circuits and the environment

x-ray Machine
Lead-lined to keep the amount of leakage
radiation below legal levels
Providing radiation protection for both the patient
and the operator
Waste-heat handling system
Circulating water through a heat exchanger
contained in the tube housing or by circulating
insulating oil through an external radiator
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X-ray Machine

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