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AGRADECIMIENTOS ....................................................................................................... 29

INTRODUCCIÓN GENERAL ....................................................................................... 35

Estructura del documento ....................................................................................................... 44

PARTE I. SIGNIFICADOS Y SENTIDOS EMPRESARIALES

DE LA RESPONSABILIDAD SOCIAL CORPORATIVA

CAPÍTULO I.
Aproximación genealógica o sociohistórica .................................................................. 53
1. Enfoque, procesos y decisiones de investigación
1.1. Enfoque cualitativo ................................................................................................ 55
1.2. Problematización de la noción empresarial RSC ............................................... 62
1.3. Organización en períodos y análisis de la génesis del campo general .......... 73
1.3.1. El encuentro entre la aproximación genealógica
y el análisis sociológico del discurso .................................................... 78
1.4. Aproximación a otro campo colindante ............................................................. 84

CAPÍTULO II.
!"#$"%&'()*+,$+-.,#)+(,+/'+0!1+,$+,/+234"5)+'&'(63"&) ........................................ 87
2. Desarrollo conceptual de la RSC
2.1. Décadas 1950 y 1960: Primeros debates y posicionamientos ......................... 88
2.2. Década 1970: Formalización académica ............................................................. 95
2.3. Décadas 1980 y 1990: Especialización temática ................................................ 106
2.4. Desde 2000 hasta 2010: Reconceptualizaciones y nuevas aproximaciones ... 116
Conclusiones .............................................................................................................................. 124

CAPÍTULO III.
7"*5)8"&"('(+9+,:,&5)*+(,+*,$5"()+(,+/)*+*"#$"%&'()*+
'&'(63"&)*+'58"4."()*+'+/'+0!1 .......................................................................................... 131
3. El carácter político fundacional del desarrollo conceptual de la RSC
3.1. Hegemonía keynesiana, lucha contra el comunismo
e incipiente protesta contra el poder corporativo [1950-1960] ...................... 132
3.2. La revolución cultural del empresariado [1970] ................................................ 144
3.3. Globalización neoliberal y activismos políticos [1980-1990] ........................... 156
3.4. Gobernanza global, capitalismo inclusivo
y regulación privada del comportamiento empresarial [2000-2010] .............. 171
Conclusiones .............................................................................................................................. 179

CAPÍTULO IV.
0,&)$5,;5.'/"<'&"=$+(,+/)*+*"#$"%&'()*+,$+,/+234"5)+>?4/"&)+
,.8)>,)+9+,*>'@)/ .................................................................................................................... 185
4. Institucionalización pública
4.1. Europa ...................................................................................................................... 186
4.2. España ...................................................................................................................... 210
Conclusiones .............................................................................................................................. 224
PARTE II. EL HACER DEL DECIR SOBRE RSC EN EMPRESAS
TRANSNACIONALES ESPAÑOLAS

PRELUDIO:
!"#$%&'$(%)*)+,%-$.").,)/&),012,+$(%)empresa transnacional ................................ 233

CAPÍTULO V.
312"0$#&'$(%).$+'42+$5& ....................................................................................................... 239
5. Perspectiva, procedimientos analíticos y decisiones de investigación
5.1. Formulación del problema y perspectiva de investigación ............................. 244
5.2. Características y procedimientos del
Análisis Sociológico del Sistema de Discursos (ASSD) ................................... 247
5.2.1. Conjeturas preanalíticas .......................................................................... 253
5.3. El corpus de textos a analizar: base empírica del ASSD ................................... 255
5.3.1. Características de los textos co-producidos:
las entrevistas semiestructuradas ......................................................... 261

CAPÍTULO VI.
6,+4/-&."+7)/")84,)/&+),#12,+&+)9&',%)'4&%.")9&:/&%).,)6;< ............................. 267
6.1. Coordenadas, maniobras y efectos del discurso empresarial
6.1.1. Fronteras dichas de la RSC ................................................................................. 268
6.1.2. Fronteras no dichas o inobservadas de la RSC ..................................................... 283
6.2. Aculturación y orden del discurso ................................................................................... 291
6.2.1. La innovación como atractor principal y condensador simbólico .............. 294
6.2.2. La franqueza de la innovación, ¿una posible reinvención identitaria? .............. 299
6.2.3. Stakeholders: materia prima de la innovación ................................................... 312
6.2.4. La funcionalidad de la innovación discursiva
socialmente responsable: historia e historias .................................................. 317
Conclusiones .............................................................................................................................. 322

CONCLUSIONES FINALES.
6,+14,+-&+)&/'&%=&.&+>)'4,+-$"%,+)&:$,2-&+)*)&/?4%&+)2,@,0$"%,+ ........................... 327

REFERENCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS ........................................................................... 339

ANEXOS
Anexo I.
!"#$"%&'()*%+,%+-."/0*1%2%/*'34/0*1%5('(6"7*1%.*6%"$58'"1%7(%$"1%.64'/4."$(1%
multinacionales españolas en América Latina ........................................................... 397
Anexo II.
Tabla Anexo II. Decisiones muestrales y unidades de estudio en la investigación.
La Responsabilidad Social de las Empresas en España: conceptos,
actores e instrumentos ................................................................................................. 401
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En relación con su carácter de estrategia de investigación -que nos permite
conocer la singularidad y transformación de la construcción discursiva de la RSC
en el ámbito académico y en el público- debemos especificar que su elección
estuvo principalmente motivada por la naturaleza de nuestro objeto de estudio.

Como es sabido, a día de hoy conviven posiciones que defienden que la naturaleza
del objeto a estudiar determina el paradigma desde el que diseñar una
investigación social junto con otras que lo niegan10.

En este trabajo, a pesar de no adoptar una posición dogmática sobre esta

cuestión, el nivel latente y oculto de los significados y sentidos atribuidos a la
RSC, así como el nivel discursivo de realidad al que hacen referencia (tanto en las
escuelas de negocios y los espacios de promoción como en los discursos de los
DIRSE) fueron los vectores que nos situaron en el mapa del paradigma
cualitativo. Por lo tanto, seguimos las aproximación demarcacionista que tanto Ortí
(1994) como Alonso (1994) -y el propio Conde (2008)- ofrecen para construir los
ejes sobre los que debe articularse la decisión sobre la elección de la perspectiva
de investigación, y que se representan en la Figura 1.

10 La relación entre la pregunta de investigación, el paradigma y el método ha sido ampliamente

debatida en las Ciencias Sociales sin que hayan ofrecido una posición unánime. Según Fernando
Conde (1994), los argumentos que desde las Ciencias Sociales se han defendido para establecer qué
perspectiva (cualitativa y/o cuantitativa) utilizar en el proceso de investigación social han sido de tres
tipos: demarcacionista, paradigmático e instrumental. El primero, el argumento demarcacionista se
centra en la idea de que la perspectiva a desarrollar será dada por el nivel de la realidad en la que se
sitúe el fenómeno a estudiar. El argumento paradigmático, en cambio, centra la elección de una
perspectiva u otra en función de los paradigmas que subyacen en cada una de ellas
[positivista/neopositivistas (cuantitativo) versus interpretativo (cualitativo)]. Y, por último, el
argumental instrumental concibe lo cualitativo como un paso previo a la única forma de acceder
científicamente a la realidad social: la cuantitativa.

57
En la figura vemos como el nivel de la realidad social compuesto por los hechos
sociales, en el sentido durkheimiano, incluye aspectos manifiestos (hechos
externos, acontecimientos y opiniones), susceptibles de ser tratados como datos, y
opera en el momento y función referencial de la comunicación. En éste la
cuantificación tiene su razón y lugar metodológico principal, como representa la
zona coloreada de gris en el cuadrado sombreado inferior. En cambio, los niveles
de la realidad social conformados por los discursos y las motivaciones incluyen
significados, intencionalidades, sentidos y subjetividades latentes y ocultas, los
cuales habitan en las funciones más connotativas y retóricas del lenguaje11. En

11 Roman Jakobson publica en 1960 su artículo Lingüística y poética, en el cual desarrolla su modelo de
comunicación. Éste, basado en los postulados funcionalistas, concibe la comunicación como un
proceso determinado por las intenciones del emisor, el cual puede orientar su mensaje hacia
cualquiera de los elementos del proceso (hablante, oyente, medio o canal, código, situación y
mensaje), creando así lo que Jakobson denomina las distintas funciones del lenguaje. Estas funciones
están presentes en toda relación de comunicación pero la jerarquía entre ellas depende de cada caso
(Cabrera y Pelayo, 2002; Conde, 2008). En todo intercambio comunicativo están presentes las seis

58
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La primera investigación que nos posibilitó estudiar la responsabilidad social de
las empresas transnacionales (ETN) fue la desarrollada bajo el proyecto Social
Regulation of European Transnational Companies (ESTER), adscrito al VI Programa
Marco para la Investigación y el Desarrollo de la Comisión Europea (2003-
2007)16. En él participamos juristas, economistas y sociólogos de siete países
europeos (Alemania, Bélgica, España, Francia, Gran Bretaña, Holanda e Italia) y
trabajamos con el fin de discernir las similitudes y diferencias en el desarrollo de
la responsabilidad social de veintiocho grandes empresas transnacionales europeas
con sede en los países ya citados. Para profundizar sobre cómo la RSC cobraba
vida en cada uno de los países no sólo nos encargamos de entrevistar y analizar lo
dicho y escrito por cuatro destacadas empresas con sede en cada Estado, sino que
también estudiamos a grupos de interés con los que las empresas se relacionaban
o con aquellos que, a pesar de no mantener relaciones formales con las empresas,
habían iniciado actuaciones cuyo objetivo era la contestación de algún aspecto de
las políticas que estas empresas implementaban17.

En el caso de España, estudiamos en profundidad a cuatro importantes grupos

empresariales españoles, líderes en el desarrollo de iniciativas socialmente
responsables (Ferrovial, Repsol-YPF, Santander y Telefónica), y a representantes
de diversos stakeholders (grupos de interés o partes interesadas). Además, y para
acceder al conocimiento experto que nos permitiese ampliar la mirada y triangular
nuestros hallazgos, entrevistamos a ocho especialistas en la materia. En suma,
realizamos cincuenta y seis entrevistas semiestructuradas18.

16 La profesora doctora Isabelle Daugareilh, de la Universidad Montesquieu-Bordeaux IV, asumió la

coordinación europea. En España, ésta fue compartida por el catedrático Joaquín Aparicio
(responsable del equipo de la Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha) y la Profesora Titular Margarita
Barañano (responsable del equipo de la Universidad Complutense de Madrid).
17 A medida que avanzábamos en la investigación descubrimos que la RSC no sólo genera relaciones
de cooperación sino también de conflicto con determinados colectivos. Principalmente, estamos
hablando de actores colectivos como secciones sindicales, organizaciones de consumidores, ONG,
inversores y accionistas, fondos e índices de inversión, agencias de calificación, etc.
18 La profesora Mar Maira Vidal, compañera de investigación en este proyecto, presenta en el Anexo
I de su tesis (La dimensión internacional de la responsabilidad social empresarial: un campo de negociaciones y
luchas entre distintas instituciones y actores, 2012) el listado de las entrevistas realizadas.

63
En esta investigación logramos evidenciar que la mayoría de las empresas
europeas no concebían la responsabilidad social como una nueva forma de hacer
negocios, sino como una novedosa herramienta que les permitía ordenar,
gestionar y comunicar mejor acciones responsables que desde el pasado venían
realizando. Digamos, como lo hace la profesora Barañano (2009 y 2013), que la
RSE era para estas empresas un instrumento que les permitía pasar de una
responsabilidad social latente a otra manifiesta. Esta nueva gestión de la
responsabilidad era considerada, según las corporaciones estudiadas, la respuesta
natural a los nuevos problemas de imagen y reputación que la globalización
imponía a las empresas (Barañano, 2009, 2010 y 2013; Baylos, 2005 y 2011;
Aparicio y Valdés, 2011).

No obstante, y a pesar de los consensos, las diferencias entre los países eran
palpables. Por ejemplo, tanto las empresas como los Estados del sur de Europa
abrazaron la retórica y las prácticas socialmente responsables más tardíamente que
los del norte y centro de la zona; además, los primeros se interesaron más por la
dimensión social de la RSE que los segundos, que se inclinaron hacia lo
medioambiental (por ejemplo, Bélgica y Holanda) y lo económico (Reino
Unido)19. Por otra parte, tampoco existía una definición compartida de la RSE: no
sólo se presentaba como un concepto elástico que aglutinaba prácticas de índole
económica, sociolaboral y medioambiental, sino también como un término vago y
polisémico.

Entre las empresas sometidas a estudio encontramos dos importantes

concepciones organizadoras de las narraciones y las prácticas socialmente
responsables. Algunas empresas definían la RSC como el cumplimiento de la ley

19 Las causas de las peculiaridades señaladas han sido analizadas en diferentes trabajos. De forma
breve podemos señalar que la demora de los países del sur de Europa se ha relacionado con: las
características del tejido empresarial, protagonizado por pequeñas y medianas empresas; la tardía
internacionalización económica; la falta de formación e insuficiente interés de las administraciones
públicas y de las propias empresas; y el propio modelo de Estado de Bienestar (Aragón y Rocha,
2004, 2005 y 2009; Lozano, 2005; García Perdiguero, 2005; Fundación Alternativas, 2006; Barañano,
2009 y 2010).

64
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'$
Entrados los años setenta, las publicaciones y encuentros sobre empresas
socialmente responsables se sucedían a un ritmo importante. En ellos se tomaba
partido sobre una RSC que se construía en el continuum RSC keynesiana - RSC
liberal (Figura 3), se consolidaba el consenso sobre la voluntariedad de la
responsabilidad social y se comenzaba a hablar de los stakeholders.

Figura 3. Continuum RSC keynesiana - RSC liberal

[Ideas que posibilitan ambos significantes]

RSC keynesiana RSC liberal

Imbricación de lo social y lo económico Separación radical entre la sociedad y el

Reconocimiento del conflicto entre
intereses públicos y los privados =
respuesta = mercado intervenido y
concertación social
Creación de riqueza y su distribución
genera bienestar
Racionalidad social, gubernamental,
controla la racionalidad económica /
Lo social organiza lo económico / ETN
adversarias
mercado
Reconocimiento del conflicto entre
intereses públicos y privados =
respuesta = laissez-faire = separación
absoluta regulación de Estado y de
mercado
Creación de riqueza genera bienestar
social
Racionalidad económica controla la
racionalidad social / Lo económico
como organizador de lo social / ETN
amigas

En relación con la voluntariedad, ésta era defendida por todas las posiciones que
componían el citado continuum de la RSC, incluso, por tanto, por aquellas visiones
que reconocían el poder de las empresas y apostaban por establecer límites a éste
y proteger el entorno social y medioambiental.

pensamiento (Toussaint, 2010). El pensamiento de Milton Friedman fue reconocido en 1976, por la
Academia Sueca de Ciencias, con la concesión del premio Nobel de Economía. La entrega de este
galardón estuvo cargado de críticas relacionadas con la visita un año antes de Friedman a Chile para
asesorar al dictador Augusto José Ramón Pinochet Ugarte. Chile es considerado por muchos autores
como el laboratorio de las ideas neoliberales que posteriormente se practicaron en EE. UU. y Reino
Unido (véase Harvey, 2007 y Toussaint, 2010).

97
Por ejemplo Keith Davis (1973), en relación con este tema argumentaba que la
obligación de las empresas era considerar en su proceso de toma de decisiones los
efectos que éstas tenían sobre el sistema social, lo que suponía tener en cuenta
aspectos del impacto de la empresa en la sociedad que no estaban contemplados
por ley. Como exponía, una “empresa no es socialmente responsable si
simplemente cumple los requisitos legales mínimos, pues esto es algo que
cualquier buen ciudadano haría” (en García González, 2012, p. 28).

Harold Johnson (1971), por su parte, enriquece la discusión sobre las

responsabilidades de las corporaciones incluyendo la noción de stakeholders. Según
este autor, ya no sólo se trataba de afirmar el vínculo existente entre negocios y
sociedad, sino también de reconocer a aquellos colectivos con los que la empresa
se relaciona. Para éste, una empresa socialmente responsable era aquella “cuyo
personal directivo equilibra una multiplicidad de intereses. En vez de luchar sólo
por lograr mayores beneficios para sus accionistas, una empresa responsable
también tiene en cuenta a los empleados, a los proveedores, a los distribuidores, a
las comunidades locales, y a la nación” (Johnson 1971, p. 51).

Johnson defendía que esta comprensión de la RSC generaba beneficios

empresariales, lo que la hacía absolutamente compatible con las posiciones
académicas que privilegiaban la maximización del beneficio frente a cualquier otro
objetivo. De esta manera, Harold Johnson ofrecía al panorama académico una
incipiente concepción bisagra de la responsabilidad social empresarial, que
permitía sortear el conflicto teórico-ideológico entre las concepciones keynesianas
y liberales mediante la creación de un nuevo efecto de sentido para el significante
RSC: la RSC neoliberal (Figura 4).

98
 Figura 4. RSC neoliberal

RSC keynesiana
Imbricación de lo social y lo económico
Reconocimiento del conflicto entre
intereses públicos y los privados =
respuesta = mercado intervenido y
concertación social
Creación de riqueza y su distribución
genera bienestar
Racionalidad social, gubernamental,
controla la racionalidad económica / Lo
social organiza lo económico / ETN
adversarias
RSC liberal
Separación radical entre la sociedad y el
mercado
Reconocimiento del conflicto entre
intereses públicos y privados =
respuesta = laissez-faire = separación
absoluta regulación de Estado y de
mercado
Creación de riqueza genera bienestar
social
Racionalidad económica controla la
racionalidad social / Lo económico
como organizador de lo social / ETN
amigas

RSC neoliberal

Imbricación de la sociedad en lo económico (sociedad de mercado)

Abolición del conflicto entre intereses públicos y privados / Fragmentación

de lo social en stakeholders

El crecimiento económico y la competencia generan naturalmente, esto es,

sin intervención alguna, valor compartido (win-win)

Racionalidad económica en lo social / ETN amigas del desarrollo

Sin embargo, hubo que esperar a la publicación del documento Social

Responsibilities of Business Corporation (1971), encomendado por el Committee for
Economic Development (CED)54, para que este nuevo sentido de la RSC se

54 El CED es una fundación norteamericana creada en 1942, que reúne a representantes de las
empresas más importantes del país y a personalidades de la academia estadounidense. Su misión,
desde sus orígenes, ha sido el análisis e investigación de las principales cuestiones políticas y sociales
y la elaboración de recomendaciones tanto al sector público como al privado. Sin embargo, su
posicionamiento ideológico ha cambiado y, de manera especial, en los años en los que publicó su
Social Responsibilities of Business Corporation. Durante los años posteriores a la Segunda Guerra Mundial,
este think-tank era considerado una organización inspirada en parte en el keynesianismo, que durante
su existencia había tomado posiciones cercanas a las defendidas por Bowen y sus contemporáneos
(de hecho, el nombre del documento puede ser considerado un guiño al trabajado de Bowen). Sin
embargo, y tal como documenta el profesor Richard Marens, de la Universidad Estatal de California,

99
consolidase como el gozne teórico que permitiría a las producciones académicas
salir del debate normativo y entrar en las propuestas orientativas.

Concretamente, uno de los artículos que contenía dicha publicación, firmado por
Wallich y MacGowan, explicitaba su propósito de ofrecer una reconciliación entre
las posturas ante la RSC (Carroll, 2008; Lee, 2008). Wallich y MacGowan (1971),
al igual que lo hizo Johnson, defendían la posibilidad de armonizar el objetivo
rector de creación de beneficio con la asunción de responsabilidades sociales por
parte de las empresas. Este equilibro era factible, de acuerdo con los
planteamientos de los autores señalados, porque el tipo de accionista-propietario
había cambiado. Ya no se trataba de accionistas que poseían títulos en una única
empresa, sino de rentistas que habían diversificado sus inversiones, por lo que a
este nuevo tipo de accionista le interesaba tanto aumentar sus beneficios como no
deteriorar la base social en la que se asentaban sus múltiples negocios. Fuera cual
fuere la consistencia empírica de este argumento, permitió situar la RSC en el
espacio semántico del interés y el beneficio empresarial, en una lógica win-win
donde no había ganadores y perdedores, sino sólo ganadores, y en la que ser
responsable se entendía como sinónimo, a largo plazo, de rentabilidad económica
y social.

Desde esta racionalidad, el documento ofrecía una noción de responsabilidad que

englobaba actuaciones equivalentes a tipos de responsabilidades de distinta
naturaleza, y que se presentaba como un código de conducta (Domínguez, 2008).
Estas actuaciones fueron representadas en tres círculos concéntricos: uno interior,
otro intermedio y un último exterior.

(2008), esta fundación fue literalmente purgada de sus inclinaciones y personalidades keynesianas
durante la década de los setenta, tal y como lo demuestra la publicación en 1979 de su Redefining
Government’s Role in the Market System. En esta publicación, el CED abogó públicamente por la
reducción de impuestos y la reducción de regulación, medidas inhibidoras de la redistribución de la
riqueza hacia todas las clases sociales (Marens, 2008, p. 868).

100
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anglosajones, sino también en el iberoamericano, como lo demuestran, entre
otras, las investigaciones españolas comentadas en la introducción73.

En conclusión, en la primera década del siglo XXI, la producción académica

vinculada a las escuelas de negocios y los estudios de administración y dirección
de empresas anglosajones, ha dibujado un escenario de significados plurales de la
RSC. A pesar de que durante los años ochenta y los primeros de los noventa el
significante RSC neoliberal consiguió “sujetar” al significado académico del mismo,
esta sujeción se ha ido debilitando. Durante el primer decenio del nuevo siglo, la
academia reedita los significados liberales y neoliberales y ofrece un nuevo
significante, minoritario pero emergente, que aquí hemos llamado radical, que
aglutina aquellas posiciones críticas con el mito, despolitizado y ahistórico, de la
RSC y apuesta, desde distintas interpretaciones políticas del fenómeno de la RSC,
recuperar ciertas ideas (Figura 9) que permitirían una responsabilidad social
empresarial no tan apegada a los intereses de las élites empresariales.

Figura 9. RSC radical

[Ideas que posibilitan su nuevo efecto de sentido]

RSC radical

Reimbricación de lo económico en lo social

Reconocimiento del conflicto entre intereses privados y públicos (compensación y rendición

de cuentas)

Implantación de mecanismos duros de redistribución y de cese de la acumulación por desposesión

Democracia de alta intensidad (derechos económicos, sociales y culturales en el centro de lo

economía política)

ETN enemigas del desarrollo a escala humana

73 Destacan también las realizadas en el ámbito académico brasileño. Véase, por ejemplo, las
siguientes: Gangreiro y Antas (2012), De Azevedo y Mathis (2012) y De Araujo Lima (2012).

123
CONCLUSIONES

Comenzábamos el capítulo comentando que la producción teórica sobre RSC

había sido más expansiva que acumulativa, ahora estamos en disposición de
resumir los porqués. Por un lado, y a la luz de lo expuesto, la ausencia de acuerdo
sobre el significado de las responsabilidades sociales de las empresas y la
inconsistente vinculación del comportamiento responsable con la cuenta de
resultados han dificultado la consolidación académica de la RSC. Por otro, el
insoslayable ejercicio normativo que requiere la teorización de una cuestión tan
cargada de valores e internamente compleja como es la RSC, así como el
posicionamiento ideológico que supone la discusión sobre cómo la economía
debe ser organizada para controlar el poder de las empresas, han configurado la
RSC como, al menos, un concepto esencialmente disputado. Tanto es así, que cada uno
de los cuatro cortes temporales ofrecidos refleja no sólo el desarrollo del
concepto en la academia sino también el estado de la pugna ideológica que ha
posibilitado las elaboraciones teóricas sobre la RSC, tal y como representa la
Figura 10.

Figura 10. Desarrollo evolutivo y estado de la pugna ideológica de la RSC en el ámbito

académico anglosajón

1950 - 1960 1970 1980-1990 2000 - 2010

Formalización Especialización Reconceptualizaciones

Primeros debates y
y nuevas
posicionamientos académica temática aproximaciones

Elaboraciones
Argumentaciones Radicalización de la teóricas fruto del
pugna y La hegemonía
en una pugna reconocimiento de
elaboraciones teórica del business
ideológica la pugna ideológica
teóricas para salir de case
entre significantes
ella de RSE

124
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de una racionalidad maximizadora de beneficios que a pesar de apelar a una
racionalidad sustancial inspirada en valores, no pocas veces deja de lado las
prácticas más necesarias para la sociedad (Baden y Harwood, 2013). Los autores
y/o activistas que configuran este sentido radical de la RSC suelen defender un
paradigma de desarrollo sostenible en el que las decisiones sean tomadas de abajo
hacia arriba, mediante procesos horizontales y globales en los que se rescate el
derecho a decidir sobre lo económico y sus implicaciones.

El inevitable posicionamiento ideológico que supone la definición de la RSC

sobre cómo se debe organizar la política económica para controlar el poder de las
empresas, configura así la RSC no sólo como un concepto esencialmente disputado, tal y
como expone la profesora Okoye (2009), sino, sobre todo, como un concepto
ontológicamente conflictivo y constituyente de lo político, que refleja el enfrentamiento de
intereses, visiones, deseos y/o expectativas sobre lo colectivo (Mouffe, 1999 y
2007a); y, por ende, los cambios fundamentales que se han producido en la
política económica mundial.

Como muestra la Tabla 4, los efectos de sentido de los significados que el ámbito
académico ha producido desde los años cincuenta hasta hoy han generado unos
significantes que pueden agruparse alrededor de las posiciones teórico-ideológicas
existentes en las ciencias sociales y en la sociedad en general, para las décadas
señaladas, en relación con la regulación de la economía (keynesianismo,
liberalismo, neoliberalismo y anticapitalismo). El efecto de sentido hegemónico, es decir,
el significante que logra introducirse en la agenda académica y producir desde su
significado elaboraciones teóricas sobre la RSC, coincide con el modelo
ideológico de regulación de la economía imperante en Occidente, principalmente
en Estados Unidos y Europa.

127
Cada década se caracteriza no sólo por la pugna entre significados, sino también
por la hegemonía coyuntural de uno de ellos en el mundo académico de las
escuelas de negocios anglosajonas (véase Tabla 4)75. Por tanto, pareciera que la
RSC fuese, finalmente, lo que Laclau denomina un significante vacío, cuyos
significados son temporales y resultado de una competencia política (Laclau,
2008). Un significante que no es un concepto simplemente equívoco o ambiguo,
sino un significante que se conecta con diferentes sistemas de significación o
espacios semánticos porque su sentido está suspendido (Laclau, 2005). Éste
último depende de la lucha política en la que se integre.

Destinamos el siguiente capítulo a desgranar la lucha política que este significante

condensa y, por tanto, a conocer el marco en el que cada significado hegemónico
adquiere sentido.

75 Cuando hacemos uso de la noción hegemonía nos referimos al resultado, parcial y contingente, del
proceso de persuasión y consenso mediante el cual se ha logrado la adscripción del “otro” a un
proyecto social, cultural, político y/o económico concreto (Díaz-Salazar, 1992). Para que el proyecto
en cuestión sea verdaderamente hegemónico debe aparecer no solamente como el mejor sino
también como el único posible (Panizza, 2002).

128
 ,]^_]-./-`abcade]fgh-ic-jkibg-l-imiengh-fi-hicnafg-fi-_]-o`0-]e]fpqae]-hibrc-fpe]f]h
1pe]f]h `abcade]eagcih-ic-jkibg
RS = poder compensatorio al
poder corporativo
RS = control limitador del poder
corporativo
1950-1960:
Primeros RS = estrategia preventiva
debates y frente a la posible pérdida de
posicionamientos reputación
académicos
RS = iniciativa emocional y
corrosiva para la corporación
y la economía
RSC = doctrina socialista
1970: Formalización
académica de la RSC
RSC = lo voluntario
que supera la ley
RSC = reconocimiento de los
stakeholders
RSC = respuesta a lo social
RSC = proceso sistemático
78 Basado en Laval y Dardot (2013).
1ahskn]-afi]_-tki-_]h-gub]cav]
Benevolencia de la RS
disputa ideológica normativa
Malevolencia de la RS
Conculca la propiedad
privada y perjudica
los intereses de los
accionistas
disputa ideológica normativa y positiva
Favorece a los accionistas
y al conjunto de la sociedad
3miengh-fi-hicnafg
-2fi]h-^whae]h-tki-_]h-sgha^a_an]c78
45-xibiqycaegh6
Imbricación de lo social y lo económico
3uvwxwvyzyux{w4|u}4vwx~yv{w4ux{u4}w€4yx{uu€u€4‚ƒ}yvw€4
y los privados = respuesta = mercado intervenido
y concertación social (compensar) o`-7icilha]c]5
Racionalidad social, gubernamental, controla la
racionalidad económica / Lo social organiza lo
económico y compensa / ETN adversarias
Separación radical entre la sociedad y el mercado
3uvwxwvyzyux{w4|u}4vwx~yv{w4ux{u4yx{uu€u€4‚ƒ}yvw€4
y privados = respuesta = laissez-faire = separación
regulación de Estado y de mercado (proteger
al poder empresarial)
Creación de riqueza genera bienestar social RSC liberal
Racionalidad económica controla la racionalidad social
Lo económico como organizador de lo social
ETN amigas del crecimiento económico
Separación radical entre la sociedad y el mercado
3uvwxwvyzyux{w4|u}4vwx~yv{w4ux{u4yx{uu€u€4‚ƒ}yvw€ RSC liberal
y privados = respuesta = laissez-faire = separación
regulación de Estado y de mercado (proteger al poder
empresarial)
Creación de riqueza genera bienestar social
Racionalidad económica controla la racionalidad social
Lo económico como organizador de lo social
ETN amigas del crecimiento económico
Imbricación de la sociedad en lo económico
(sociedad de mercado)
5ƒw}yvy„x4|u}4vwx~yv{w4ux{u4yx{uu€u€4‚ƒ}yvw€4… o`0-cig_a^iu]_5
privados / Fragmentación de lo social en stakeholders
El crecimiento económico y la competencia generan
naturalmente, esto es, sin intervención alguna, valor
compartido (win-win) / Racionalidad económica en lo
social / ETN amigas desarrollo
 RSC = proceso que permita una forma
de “estar” socialmente responsable Modelos para la
RSC = conjunto de principios, procesos implementación
Imbricación de la sociedad en lo económico
y políticas
Consenso ideológico y disputa (sociedad de mercado)
RSC = cuestión ética
1980-1990: positiva que responde a la 5ƒw}yvy„x4|u}4vwx~yv{w4ux{u4yx{uu€u€4‚ƒ}yvw€4…
RSC = cuestión para la sostenibilidad
Consolidación y pregunta: privados / Fragmentación de lo social en stakeholders
RSC = ciudadanía corporativa
especialización de ¿Qué modelo permite a las El crecimiento económico y la competencia generan o`0-cig_a^iu]_
RSC = sistema de gestión basado en la
la RSC en el mundo empresas construir una RSC de naturalmente, esto es, sin intervención alguna, valor
triple cuenta de resultados
académico impacto positivo tanto para los compartido (win-win)
negocios como para la sociedad? Racionalidad económica en lo social
RSC = oportunidad de negocio
ETN amigas del desarrollo
RSC = creación de valor para los
stakeholders Modelos para
367484ux{†ƒ}u4††4}†€4‡x†x9†€ la rentabilidad

Imbricación de la sociedad en lo económico

(sociedad de mercado)
5ƒw}yvy„x4|u}4vwx~yv{w4ux{u4yx{uu€u€4‚ƒ}yvw€4…
RSC = empresas agentes Favorece a los accionistas privados / Fragmentación de lo social en stakeholders
de cambio social y al conjunto El crecimiento económico y la competencia generan
RSC = asunto global de la sociedad naturalmente, esto es, sin intervención alguna, valor o`0-cig_a^iu]_5
RSC = competitividad global compartido (win-win) / Racionalidad económica en lo
social / ETN amigas desarrollo
disputa ideológica normativa
Separación radical entre la sociedad y el mercado
2000-2004:
3uvwxwvyzyux{w4|u}4vwx~yv{w4ux{u4yx{uu€u€4‚ƒ}yvw€
Reconceptualización Conculca la propiedad y privados = respuesta = laissez-faire = separación
de la RSC en el privada y perjudica
RSC = iniciativa corrosiva regulación de Estado y de mercado (proteger al poder RSC liberal
marco de la los intereses de los accionistas
para las ETN empresarial) / Creación de riqueza genera bienestar
globalización
social / Racionalidad económica controla la
racionalidad social / Lo económico como organizador
disputa ideológica normativa de lo social / ETN amigas del crecimiento económico

Re-imbricación de lo económico en lo social

RSC = iniciativa cómplice con el
capitalismo y sus corporaciones
Coartada ideológica 3uvwxwvyzyux{w4|u}4vwx~yv{w4ux{u4yx{uu€u€4y:†|w€
de las élites …4‚ƒ}yvw€4;4<z}†x{†vy„x4|u4zuv†xy€zw€4duros de RSC radical
empresariales redistribución y de cese de la acumulación por
desposesión / Democracia de alta intensidad (DESC)/
ETN enemigas del desarrollo a escala humana
2"P.8;69!111!

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 Figura 13. Sentidos políticos que la historicidad de las elaboraciones teóricas dominantes le otorga a la RSC en cada período

Régimen de regulación económica Fordismo Post-fordismo

Economía global y globalización

ETN EE.UU ETN UE ETN japonesas ETN españolas nuevas ETN

Edad de oro del capitalismo

1.930 1.940 1.950 1.960 1.970 1.980 1.990 2.000 2.010

Pugna y hegemonía en los efectos RSE keynesiana vs RSE neoliberal RSE neoliberal vs
RSE neoliberal
de sentido académicos RSE liberal vs RSE liberal RSE liberal vs RSE radical

Reestructuración capitalista Post-II
GM [Economía mixta (liberalismo
económico +socialdemocracia)
Amplia legitimidad
La economía debía ser regulada por
el Estado para que el capitalismo
Historicidad y la empresa sean “salvados de sí
mismos” [Guerra Fría]
Desarrollo y universalización de
ETN estadounidenses
Crítica social organizada
(movimientos sociales) comienza a
utilizar a la empresa como espacio
para la contienda política
Élite del poder Gobiernos de Thatcher y Consolidación economía global
empresarial Reagan / Caída del Muro de Berlín
amenazada Explosión de mecanismos blandos
Economía global regulada bajo y multilaterales de control de las
Revolución cultural preceptos neoliberales / CW ETN (regulación privada)
del empresariado La economía no es una cuestión Especialización de redes globales
política sino técnica, interesada, de activistas y estrategias de
El capitalismo principalmente, en lograr el subversión de los instrumentos soft
no es el crecimiento económico (TINA y de RSE
problema, Retóricas de la Intransigencia)
es la solución RSE al servicio de la rentabilidad ETN invisibles para el derecho
internacional y socias, no enemigas,
Crisis del Politización sin precedentes de las en el proceso de desarrollo del Sur
petróleo ETN por las redes globales de
protesta y determinadas ONG Capitalismo inclusivo
Fracaso de la
Fragmentación cadena global Redes privadas de cooperación
ONU en el
ETN e instrumentos de control interempresarial sobre RSE
control de las
ETN soft de las ETN Crisis global 2008

Pugna por el modelo económico y Contraofensiva =|y‡v†4u}4v†y{†}y€zw

ideológica como Refundar el capitalismo
Sentido político de la RSC político alternativo al socialismo empresa neoliberal
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""#
Como hemos descrito, las organizaciones empresariales de cooperación privada
han desarrollado un papel muy activo de presión -incluyendo acuerdos a puerta
cerrada con la CE que socavaban el carácter democrático del debate
multistakeholder- y socialización de su ideario entre el mundo de los negocios, con
el propósito de deslizar el sentido público de la RSE hacia sus significaciones
liberales y neoliberales. Sus posiciones discursivas se han movido entre estos dos
marcos de sentido a la hora de establecer una postura común que, de forma casi
idéntica en Europa y en España, ha tolerado la imbricación de lo social que la
RSE supone en lo económico, pero explicitando la legitimidad de la empresa para
generar riqueza y supeditando a ésta la responsabilidad social. Todo ello ha
implicado la construcción del problema de la RSE como la conveniencia de
responder ante determinadas expectativas sociales y no como la obligación de
ocuparse de ciertas cargas, introduciéndose en el marco de la exculpación y no en
el de la imputación. El mundo de los negocios ha hecho uso de aquel sistema
discursivo que le ha permitido contener la intensidad de la democracia hacia el
aseguramiento de los derechos civiles y políticos, y que, además, les ha
posibilitado defender una orientación de la economía hacia el mercado y los
intereses privados.

A su vez, las organizaciones sociales y sindicales que han contestado esta visión
han hecho uso de las significaciones neokeynesianas y radicales para defender una
RSE que sea capaz de supeditar lo económico a determinados mecanismos
jurídicos y democráticos para lograr una “democratización de las relaciones
económicas internacionales y el establecimiento de un orden económico
internacional más justo y más equitativo que esté basado en una cultura universal
de los derechos humanos y no en la cultura del máximo beneficio” (Gómez Isa,
2007, p. 25). Las posiciones discursivas de estas organizaciones son diversas y
móviles, dependiendo del conflicto, de la coyuntura política, la relación de fuerzas
y el ideario de las asociaciones. Como hemos señalado en el texto, algunas de estas
organizaciones defienden la necesidad de un nuevo sistema social y económico
que supere al capitalismo para poder lograr una verdadera responsabilidad de las

225
organizaciones empresariales, otras argumentan que una regulación económica
más democrática y transparente sería capaz de ofrecer una RSE que
verdaderamente controlara y penara los comportamientos irresponsables de las
empresas. Sin embargo, y a pesar de la diversidad, creemos que el conjunto de
significaciones neokeynesianas-radicales traza las coordenadas desde las que
organizaciones sociales y sindicales, vinculadas a redes y movimientos a favor de
la justicia global, están intentando construir o re-enmarcar el problema público de la
RSE. Hacemos referencia al esfuerzo de esta variedad de organizaciones de
otorgar a las víctimas de los comportamientos empresariales un marco de justicia
transnacional al que recurrir (Fraser, 2008 y 2011)179.

Para estas organizaciones el marco de justicia en el actual contexto global se ha

convertido en el principal desafío de la lucha política en torno a la RSE, y esto en
un doble sentido. En primer lugar, sus esfuerzos y su lenguaje van encaminados a
lograr la justiciabilidad de la RSE, mediante el acceso a los tribunales y la
capacidad de reclamo judicial de los sujetos afectados por el comportamiento de
las ETN. Y, en segundo lugar, pretenden asegurar la construcción democrática de
este marco de imputación o, en su defecto, de algún sistema de control que
cumpla en la medida de lo posible las funciones de fiscalización y sanción de los
comportamientos empresariales.

179 La profesora de la New School University de Nueva York, Nancy Fraser, en sus reflexiones
teóricas sobre la reinvención de la justicia en un mundo globalizado defiende que el marco del
Estado-nación ha dejado de ser útil para pensar la justicia (2002, 2008, 2010, 2011 y 2015). Por ello,
propone introducir una nueva dimensión en el análisis de la justicia que sea capaz de responder al
reto que la globalización impone a las teorías vigentes de la justicia social. A los clásicos problemas
de redistribución, en el plano económico, y a los de representación, en el ámbito de lo cultural y
discursivo, Fraser añade la problemática de la representación en el plano político de lo transnacional
(Fraser, 2008 y 2011). En un mundo donde las vidas de las personas están cada vez más
condicionadas por la decisiones de una región o un Estado al que no pertenecen, por las actividades
de las empresas transnacionales o las decisiones de los especuladores en los mercados de materias
primas o divisas, Fraser señala con acierto cómo “los debates que solían centrarse de manera
exclusiva en la cuestión del qué se debe en términos de justicia a los miembros de una comunidad,
ahora se desplazan de manera súbita hacia una discusión sobre el quién debería contar como
miembro y cuál es la comunidad pertinente” (Fraser, 2002, p.44).

226
Por su parte, la CE ha seleccionado los significados más neoliberales de la RSE para
construir la posición comunitaria ante la misma, aunque la dinámica de conflictos,
presiones y la configuración de fuerzas políticas en el seno de la CE ha terminado
por producir un significante nuevo que, como hemos explicado, denominamos
ordoliberal. Tanto en Europa como en España, este efecto de sentido parece no
estar generando cambio alguno en el diseño de los textos que guiarán la
elaboración de políticas públicas, y es que no terminan de ser más abiertos a la
multilateralidad, a la corregulación y al uso de regulación complementaria que los
elaborados desde significados previos.

En suma, y como hemos relatado, la CE y el Gobierno Español han bloqueado

cualquier sentido de la RSE que suponga aumentar la intensidad de la democracia
y regular el gobierno de la economía con criterios públicos que favorezcan una
mayor redistribución social.

227
228
 P"583!11

36!$"235!036!03215!79=53!572!3/!3LP537"7
85"/7/"219/"637!37P">96"7

""'
")(
Por su naturaleza, la palabra es social. La palabra no es
una cosa, sino el medio eternamente móvil, eternamente
cambiante de la comunicación social. La palabra nunca
tiende a una sola conciencia, una sola voz. La vida de la
palabra consiste en pasar de boca en boca, de un contexto
a otro, de un colectivo social a otro, de una generación a
otra generación. Con ello la palabra no olvida su camino
y no puede liberarse plenamente de aquellos contextos
concretos cuya parte había formado. Cada miembro de un
colectivo de hablantes encuentra la palabra no como la
palabra neutral de la lengua, libre de intenciones, sin ser
poblada de otras voces. No: recibe la palabra de una voz
ajena y plena de voz ajena.
Bajtín en Bubnova, 2006

231
232
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"B"
En esta segunda parte de investigación, la estrategia metodológica diseñada tiene
como protagonista al ASSD, el cual se va a centrar en la puesta en práctica de los
procedimientos señalados con una profundidad y transparencia hasta ahora no
desplegados. Asimismo, se llevarán a cabo tres operaciones que Conde ofrece a
modo de sugerencias que, según su punto de vista, se vuelven útiles para el
estudio de las configuraciones narrativas y los espacios semánticos: detectar el
espacio creado por las asociaciones (sinonimias) y los desplazamientos (temáticos,
de contenido, de sentido, etc.), así como explotar la fecundidad analítica de las
condensaciones del lenguaje (como la metáfora o la metonimia).

5.2.1. Conjeturas preanalíticas

Como decíamos, la propuesta de Fernando Conde encuentra en la elaboración de

conjeturas preanalíticas el recurso más fructífero para la búsqueda de aquellas
intuiciones que mejor expliquen el texto en su totalidad. Conde argumenta que la
conjeturas buscan más la condensación que las síntesis y que éstas nos facilitan el
construir un hilo conductor con el
que comenzar a tejer una interpretación y una análisis inicial de lo que está
en juego en el texto, en la conjunción de las diferentes perspectivas
discursivas en presencia, de las posibles posiciones diferenciales que
subyacen en el texto o textos que estamos trabajando, siempre en relación
con los objetivos de la investigación. Hipótesis que, a su vez, se van a ir
modificando, matizando, enriqueciendo y transformándose en el proceso
de contraste de dichas conjeturas con el material empírico de la
investigación y en el paralelo proceso de reflexión por parte del equipo de
investigador en función de sus utilidad de cara a los objetivos de la
investigación (Conde, 2009, p. 124).

En nuestro caso, después de escuchar los audios de las entrevistas, recuperar las
notas de las mismas y hacer una doble lectura flotante del conjunto de textos a
analizar intuimos que lo que las empresas hacían cuando hablaban de RSC era

253
construir una nueva narrativa empresarial, que estructuraba un relato sobre la
empresa, con la que los narradores pretendían seducir y educar a su público. De
esta manera, nuestras empresas cuando hablaban sobre RSE reconstruían el
pasado y reconfiguraban el presente en aras de ofrecer un determinado sentido de
la identidad y función de la empresa en la sociedad. Para ello, nos pareció intuir
que las personas entrevistadas elaboraban un argumentario que asumía y revelaba,
de manera serena, la contradicción, la complejidad, el conflicto, como contraparte
irreversible de la acción económica, haciendo uso de manera constante de
metáforas y símiles. Recursos, estos últimos, que no han sido pues entendidos
como ornamentales sino como informativos, como recursos que nos dicen cosas
nuevas sobre la realidad (Ricoeur, 2006).

No obstante, cuando comenzamos con el análisis centrado ya en el corpus de

textos nos dimos cuenta de que la capacidad de dicha conjetura para explicar el
conjunto de opiniones, juicios y posiciones mantenidos por los entrevistadas era
limitada, aunque no inoperante. La narrativa empresarial se intuía en el texto, pero
no existía aún, al menos en el material analizado, una coherencia articulada, de
forma congruente y clara, entre los incidentes que componían la trama discursiva
de la RSC, que pudiese ser calificada como de “nueva narrativa”.

Consecuentemente, volvimos a trabajar sobre ella para darle un carácter más

amplio y más fiel a los textos. De este modo, nuestra interpretación analítica estuvo
orientada no por una, sino por dos conjeturas relacionadas entre sí. Éstas fueron
formuladas de la forma que sigue:

! Las empresas al hablar de RSC parecen imponer su sentido sobre la

misma mediante distintas maniobras, dentro de éstas se encuentra una
aparente reconstrucción identitaria, caracterizada por su franqueza y su
relación con la innovación.

254
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"$$
CAPÍTULO VI

Resultados: lo que las empresas hacen cuando hablan de RSC

Para construir el campo de la discursividad de la RSC, la élite empresarial española

despliega distintas tácticas y maniobras con el fin de mantener sus significaciones
dentro de las coordenadas, las fronteras y el orden discursivo que le imponen un
sentido economicista.

Los discursos de las empresas se construyen sobre una configuración narrativa

que dirige el sentido de la RSC hacia el rédito y el core business. Mantener este
sentido requiere del uso de continuos recursos y tácticas discursivas por parte de
los DIRSE para contener las significaciones de la responsabilidad en el marco del
lucro mercantil. Concretamente, hacemos referencia a las metáforas usadas para
representar de manera concisa y persuasiva la idea que se quiere explicar y a las
siguientes tácticas discursivas: la definición por negación, la modificación a la hora
de nominar la RSC y la ausencia de un lenguaje moral. Como veremos, el
argumento manifiesto que justifica el uso cada una de estas metáforas y tácticas
es la necesidad de diferenciar la RSC de la acción social. No obstante, cuando
realizamos un análisis más centrado en las condensaciones discursivas, nos damos
cuenta de que estas estrategias permiten al empresariado no sólo excluir las
significaciones más próximas a la filantropía, sino también aquellas que se acercan
a una racionalidad más social que económica.

Asimismo, la común comprensión de la RSC como una cuestión de negocios se

construye a base de expulsiones y mediante una determinada organización de lo
que se dice. Como veremos, se termina convirtiendo lo que era un tema
económico en un asunto al servicio de la administración y gestión de las empresas

267
(modelo de negocio), relacionada especialmente con el fomento de la innovación
como competencia sistémica. Sin más, pasamos a detallar el análisis.

6.1. Coordenadas, maniobras y efectos del discurso empresarial

6.1.1. Fronteras dichas de la RSC

Todo lo que cuentan los y las DIRSE sobre la RSC se mueve dentro de unas
coordenadas narrativas concretas, las cuales configuran la matriz discursiva de la
noción empresarial RSC. Ésta, representada en la Figura 18, está construida sobre
dos vectores o dimensiones que los profesionales imponen de un modo explícito
en sus narraciones mediante dos prácticas discursivas generalizadas: una es la
definición de la RSC como aquello que no es acción social, y la otra, su
incardinación en el campo semántico de la ganancia.

268
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"'(
keynesiano-) con la de “la racionalidad económica debe controlar la social pero
ceder parte de sus beneficios” (donaciones, mecenazgo, acción social, caridad
-filantropía empresarial-), tratándolas como igualmente ingenuas y fraudulentas
por altruistas232.

6.2. Aculturación y orden del discurso

La común comprensión de la RSC como una cuestión de negocios (cómo ganas el

dinero + core business) se construye no sólo con unas fronteras narrativas
concretas, sino también con una determinada organización de lo que se dice. En
nuestro caso, este orden se lo otorga la puesta en juego de unos determinados
atractores semánticos y el enlace entre ellos mediante hilos discursivos que
integran y resignifican ideas y argumentaciones provenientes de la literatura
gerencial y la crítica social233, tal y como hemos intentado representar en la
Figura 19.

232 De hecho, en 2014 la organización española Economistas sin Fronteras publicaba un dossier
titulado “RSC: Para superar la retórica”, en el que escribían los que podrían considerarse los
principales representantes españoles de esta RSE que nosotros hemos llamado keynesiana, pero que,
en realidad, podríamos calificar de socialdemócrata: Ramón Jáuregui (Diputado del PSOE), Marta de
la Cuesta (UNED y EsF), José Carlos González (Responsable Federal de Responsabilidad Social
(Inversión Responsable y Sostenibilidad, COMFIA-CCOO) y José Miguel Rodríguez (Universidad de
Valladolid), entre otros. Estos criticaban el uso instrumental y economicista que las ETN han dado a
la RSE y reivindicaban la necesidad de volver a hacer de la misma una cuestión social.
233 Como es de sobra conocido y ha sido ejemplarmente analizado por Boltanski y Chiapello (2002)
en su ya clásica obra El nuevo espíritu del capitalismo, el proceso mediante el cual el capitalismo
incorpora argumentos ajenos al mundo de la empresa y la ganancia para reforzar el compromiso
social que lo legitima y sustenta es denominado “aculturación”. A este proceso estamos haciendo
referencia al hablar del efecto que producen los atractores e hilos discursivos sobre el sentido de la
noción empresarial RSC.

291
Como hemos intentado plasmar en la figura, la innovación es uno de los
atractores que organizan la función más referencial de lo dicho por los DIRSE
en relación con lo que es la RSC. Es un concepto que además de funcionar
como un imán lo hace también como condensador simbólico, adquiriendo un
papel de lo que Conde (2009) denomina atractor principal.

La innovación debe ser una competencia sistémica “integrada en las prioridades

del liderazgo, infraestructura gerencial, procesos, herramientas, recursos
humanos, mecanismos culturales y valores” (Gibson en GESTIÓN, 2011, p. 21),
capaz de favorecer la creación continua en el modelo de negocio234. Según los
234 Gibson es un importante gurú de la innovación en el campo de la consultoría empresarial que
junto a Peter Skarzynski ha escrito un éxito de ventas en el mundo de la literatura gerencial, editado

292
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Específicamente, hacemos referencia a la tensión existente en el discurso
empresarial español entre el desafío que supone asumir un comportamiento
socialmente responsable y las limitaciones estructurales con las que la empresa se
encuentra para llevarlo a cabo, desembocando en un cinismo pragmático que permite
al empresariado transnacional defenderse ante la presunción de culpabilidad e
imponer su presunción de complejidad.

Dicho todo esto, podemos afirmar que el mundo de los negocios produce la
verdad en la que está en relación con sus responsabilidades, desplegando un
importante poder organizativo y defendiendo un ideario que persiste en mantener
la ficción de la capacidad de responder a las cuestiones sociales mediante la
incardinación de lo social en lo económico (sociedad de mercado), la abolición del
conflicto entre los intereses privados y públicos (relación con los stakeholders
razonables), y la propia dinámica de la competencia sin necesidad de intervención
alguna (win-win). Una ficción que para el caso de la RSC se sigue manteniendo
sobre una creencia que carece de evidencia empírica definitiva: su rentabilidad
financiera.

A estas alturas, estamos en disposición de asegurar que, como intuíamos, la RSC

del mundo de los negocios es mucho más que el resultado de la incorporación
simulada de las críticas sociales y el desarrollo de nuevas justificaciones morales
que legitimen el poder de las empresas (Boltanski y Chiapello, 2002; Utting, 2005;
Ingham, 2010; Mouffe, 2012). En primer lugar, y secundando parcialmente la
interpretación ofrecida por Peter Fleming, John Roberts y Christina Garsten
(2013), hemos visto que la RSC es una táctica empresarial mediante la cual el
empresariado organizado se moviliza con el propósito de adelantarse a la
intervención legal. En segundo lugar, la RSC forma parte de las estrategias
políticas que la élite empresarial ha desplegado tradicionalmente para imponer el
modelo de regulación económica y la intensidad democrática que mejor le
permita defender sus intereses. Y, en tercer lugar, la RSC asumida por las
empresas transnacionales españolas no es sólo una cuestión de imagen, sino

335
también un artefacto que les posibilita construir un repertorio discursivo útil para
enfrentarse a los conflictos relacionados con sus comportamientos de un modo
que integra la honestidad y la complejidad, pero que excluye la culpabilidad y la
heroicidad.

Además, aunque la RSC nunca supuso una crítica fundamental del capitalismo
como sistema de organización socioeconómico, sí que lo fue del poder
empresarial, gracias a su tratamiento desde el keynesianismo, la economía
institucionalista o la economía del bienestar. Una crítica -la de las consecuencias
sociales del poder empresarial- que ha desaparecido por completo de los marcos
de sentido empresariales sobre la RSC y que urge recuperar para ofrecer una
resistencia discursiva -política y social- más robusta, que no pivote
mayoritariamente en los significados radicales sino también en los socialdemócratas.

Consideramos, y esto es una reflexión personal, que la hegemonía neoliberal de

los significados empresariales de la RSC está directamente vinculada no sólo con
el contexto internacional ya descrito en el capítulo III de esta tesis, sino también
con el abandono por parte de la socialdemocracia occidental de la relación entre
el poder corporativo, la justicia social y la democracia económica.

Por ello, creemos absolutamente indispensable que en el debate político sobre la

RSC los significados (neo)keynesianos se robustezcan con la recuperación, como
mínimo, de las siguientes ideas:

! El reconocimiento del conflicto entre los intereses públicos y privados en un

contexto nacional e internacional donde lo económico organiza lo social.
! La imposibilidad de las ETN de ser responsables, en su sentido de reparar
un daño u ocuparse de ciertos deberes, en el actual marco global de
regulación del capital.
! La integración de la noción rendición de cuentas frente a la de respuesta o
responsiveness (o incluso su cambio de nombre).

336
 ! La necesidad de mecanismos de compensación al poder económico y político
de las ETN, mediante la concertación social y la regulación pública en
aras de una mayor igualdad social.
! El tratamiento de las ETN no como enemigas ni socias del desarrollo social
y medioambiental, sino como poderosas adversarias políticas que necesitan
ser sujetadas por un marco normativo que regule de un modo duro no
sólo sus derechos sino también sus deberes nacionales y supranacionales.
! El rechazo de una noción de RSC empresarial que sea la respuesta
corporativa al impacto de las sociedades en las empresas y le devuelva a la misma
su connotación de cuestión social. Es decir, que recupere a los ciudadanos
en sus discursos, no sólo a los consumidores o a los stakeholders, y sitúe la
economía en el plano de la satisfacción de necesidades y derechos
económicos y sociales.
! El develamiento de la deformación y parcialidad de las críticas que las ETN
integran en su modelo de negocio.

Somos conscientes de que estas ideas son necesarias, aunque insuficientes, para
sujetar el sentido de la RSC a sus significaciones más sociales. Sin embargo,
consideramos que, tal y como ha demostrado esta aproximación genealógica-
discursiva, el defender la RSC como una cuestión social hace que se cargue de
sentidos que dificultan su total aculturación empresarial y que se visibilicen otros
modos de entender lo económico. Y es que

si no se puede informar el porvenir con ayuda de una gran batalla,

es preciso dejar huellas del combate. Las verdaderas victorias sólo
se consiguen a largo plazo y de cara a la noche.
La lucidez es la herida más próxima al sol.
RENÉ CHAR (en Mouffe, 1999).

337
338
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ANEXOS

395
396
ANEXO I

397
398
 Tabla Anexo I. Impactos y conflictos generados por algunas de las principales multinacionales españolas en América Latina

Multinacional País Impacto y conflictos generados

Argentina Contaminación del territorio mapuche en Neuquén / Despidos masivos en la privatización de YPF
Bolivia Operaciones en 17 territorios indígenas / Actividades hidrocarburíferas en 6 áreas protegidas.

Repsol YPF Colombia Violaciones de derechos humanos en Arauca.

Ecuador Contaminación del parque Nacional Yasuní.
Perú Impacto medioambiental del gaseoducto de Camisea.
Nicaragua Muy mala calidad de la distribución de electricidad
Desplazamiento de comunidades cercanas al embalse de Salvajina / Mala calidad de la distribución de electricidad en
Colombia
Unión Fenosa la Costa del Caribe
Guatemala Falta de cobertura en la prestación del servicio
República Dominicana Mala calidad del servicio eléctrico
Desplazamiento de comunidades mapuche pehuenches en el Alto Bio-Bio / Construcción de grandes centrales
Chile
Endesa hidroeléctricas en la región patagónica de Aysén
Colombia Contaminación ambiental del embalse de Muña
Colombia Acusaciones de lavador de dinero
Ecuador Financiación del Oleoducto de Crudos Pesados
BBVA
México Congelación pon de las cuentas de grupos sociales
Perú Financiación del proyecto Camisea
Santander Brasil Financiación de las represas del río Madera
Aguas de Barcelona Colombia Contaminación por el vertido de aguas residuales
ENCE Uruguay Contaminación de la zona cercana a planta papelera en Fray Bentos
Bolivia Denuncia del gobierno boliviana ante el CIADI por la nacionalización del ENTEL
Telefónica
Perú Despidos masivos de trabajadores tras la privatización
Calvo El Salvador Acoso laboral y despido de trabajadoras
Fuente: Ramiro, P. y Pulido, A. (2009): Las multinacionales españolas y el negocio de la responsabilidad. Bogotá: OMAL y Asociación Paz con Dignidad. p. 24.
400
ANEXO II

40
40
 Tabla Anexo II. Decisiones muestrales y unidades de estudio en la investigación
La Responsabilidad Social de las Empresas en España: conceptos, actores e
instrumentos
Perfil Criterios metodológicos Técnica de investigación
Forman parte del Ibex35

Respetan el peso que cada sector

bursátil posee según la
Clasificación Sectorial Bursátil
de 2005

Empresas transnacionales Se encuentran entre las mejores 8 Entrevistas

españolas puntuadas por el estudio “La semiestructuradas
RSC en las memorias del
IBEX35” llevado a cabo por el
Observatorio de la RSC
publicado en 2008

No son empresas quemadas por

investigaciones previas.

Selección cuatro grandes ETN

españolas.
8 Entrevistas
Empresas subcontratadas
semiestructuradas
Acceso a 2 empresas
subcontratadas por estas ETN.

Sujetos y actores individuales Ámbitos de pertenencia:

7 Entrevistas
clave en el desarrollo de la académico, sindical, asociativo y
semiestructuradas
RSE en España empresarial

Ámbitos de pertenencia:
Sujetos y discursos colectivos
académico, sindical-asociativo y
clave en el desarrollo de la
empresarial. 2 Grupos de discusión
RSE en España

40