CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Groundwater and surface water contain both disintegrated and suspended strong. Coagulation and

flocculation are normally used to isolate the suspended solids from the water. Suspended particles

vary in source, molecule sixe, charge, thickness, and shape. Precise use of coagulation and

flocculation relies on these components. Suspended solids in water devour a negative charge and

since they have a similar sort of surface charge, they oppose each other when they connect

together. Therefore, suspended solids will hold on in suspension and won't attract together and

settle out of the water, unless appropriate coagulation and flocculation is utilized. Coagulation and

flocculation happens in progressive advances, permitting molecule crash and development of floc.

This is then trailed by sedimentation. On the off chance that coagulation is stained, flocculation

step will be unsuccessful, and if flocculation is fragmented, sedimentation will be unsuccessful.

2.2 River Water

River water quality and contamination control should be tended to desperately since 98 percent of

the aggregate water being utilized begins from the streams in Malaysia. Other than that, 70 percent

of the water assets in the nation are for the farming business. As waterway water contamination

rises quickly, groupings of the current toxins increment. Subsequently, it expands water 'amount

shortage' since great quality water accessible declines and influence the cost for the water treatment

costs because of the nearness of new contaminations. Moreover, the wellbeing of the water bodies

in our environmental and the encompassing eco-frameworks are deteriorating, influencing oceanic

lives and living space, and recreational exercises. (Yuk Feng Huang et.al, 2015)
2.2.1 River Water Quality

The Department of Environment (DOE) utilizes Water Quality Index (WQI) and National Water

Quality Standards for Malaysia (NWQS) to assess the status of the stream water quality. The WQI

presented by DOE is being drilled in Malaysia for around 25 years and fills in as the reason for the

appraisal of condition water quality, while NWQS orders the valuable employments of the

waterway in view of WQI. In 2012, nine streams inside the Klang River Basin under River of Life

Project were added to the national waterway water quality observing system. The stream water

quality was evaluated in view of an aggregate of 5,083 examples taken from a sum of 473

waterways. Out of 473 waterways checked, 278 (59 percent) were observed to be spotless, 161

(34 percent) marginally contaminated and 34 (7 percent) dirtied. (Yuk Feng Huang et.al, 2015)

2.2.2 Klang River and Langat River

As a downstream region, the seaside regions of Klang all effects from exercises and advancements

completed in the upstream catchments of two noteworthy waterways, to be specific Sungai Klang

and Sungai Langat. The two streams are truly contaminated by sewage releases, modern

wastewaters and land overflow, which are not appropriately treated. Klang stream streams

crosswise over many regions and Local Authorities in Klang Valley including Kuala Lumpur.

Langat stream streams from Gunung Nuang crosswise over Langat Basin to Kuala Langat,

covering four Local Authorities in Hulu Langat and Kuala Langat Districts. Notwithstanding the

upstream sources, there are likewise immediate releases of surface spillover, household sewage,

transport squanders and modern releases into seaside waters. Waterway and beach front waters are

tainted by E. coli. in overabundance of marine water quality guidelines. Different contaminants,

for example, inorganic chemicals, are likewise present, which won't just debilitate the biological

system, yet in addition enter the natural pecking order bringing about human wellbeing dangers.
2.3 Chemistry of Coagulation and Flocculation Process

Coagulation destabilizes the particles' charges. Coagulants with charges inverse to those of the

suspended solids are added to the water to kill the negative charges on scattered non-settable solids,

for example, mud and natural substances. Once the charge is killed, the little suspended particles

are fit for staying together. The marginally bigger particles framed through this procedure are

called microflocs are still too little to ever be noticeable to the bare eye. A high-vitality, fast blend

to appropriately scatter the coagulant and advance molecule impacts is expected to accomplish

great coagulation and arrangement of the microflocs. Over-blending does not influence

coagulation, but rather inadequate blending will leave this progression deficient. Appropriate

contact time in the quick blend chamber is normally 1 to 3 minutes.

Following coagulation, flocculation, a delicate blending stage, expands the molecule measure from

submicroscopic microfloc to unmistakable suspended particles. The microflocs are carried into

contact with each other through the procedure of moderate blending. Crashes of the microfloc

particles make them cling to deliver bigger, obvious flocs. The floc estimate keeps on working

through extra crashes and connection with inorganic polymers framed by the coagulant or with

natural polymers included. Macroflocs are shaped. High sub-atomic weight polymers, called

coagulant helps, might be added amid this progression to enable extension, to tie, and fortify the

floc, include weight, and increment settling rate. Once the floc has achieved its ideal size and

quality, the water is prepared for the detachment procedure (sedimentation, floatation or filtration).

Configuration contact times for flocculation go from 15 or 20 minutes to an hour or more.

2.3.1 Coagulation and Flocculation Separation

In water treatment, coagulation and flocculation are for all intents and purposes constantly

connected along these lines previously a physical detachment. The Coagulation-Flocculation

process comprises of the accompanying advances:

1) Coagulation-flocculation: The utilization of substance reagents to destabilize and

increment the span of the particles, blending, expanding of beat measure, a physical

division of the solids from the fluid stage. This detachment is normally accomplished by

sedimentation, buoyancy or filtration.

2) The regular reagents are: mineral and additionally natural coagulants (commonly iron and

aluminum salt, natural polymers), flocculation added substances (enacted silica, talcum,

initiated carbon), anionic or cationic flocculants and pH control reagents, for example,

acids or bases. Certain substantial metal chelating operators can likewise be included amid

the coagulation step.

2.3.2 Jar Test

The jar test is utilized to distinguish the most adjusted blend of synthetic mixes and fixations for

coagulation-flocculation. It is a clump test comprising of utilizing a few indistinguishable jugs

containing a similar volume and centralization of encourage, which are accused all the while of

six unique measurements of a conceivably compelling coagulant. The six containers can be mixed

at the same time at known rates. The treated sustain tests are blended quickly and afterward

gradually and afterward permitted to settle. These three phases are a guess of the successions in

view of the vast scale plants of fast blend, coagulation flocculation and settling bowls. Toward the

finish of the settling time frame, test tests are drawn from the containers and turbidity of

supernatant fluid is estimated. A plot of turbidity against coagulant measurements gives a sign of
the ideal dose (i.e. the base sum required to give worthy illumination). The criteria accordingly

acquired from a seat bump test are the nature of resultant floc and the lucidity of the supernatant

fluid in the wake of settling. The outline of the full-scale plant process is then done in view of the

seat scale choice of chemicals and their fixations.

2.4 Conventional Chemical Coagulant

The decision of coagulant substance relies on the kind of suspended strong to be evacuated, crude

water conditions, office plan, and cost of synthetic. Last determination of coagulant (or coagulants)

ought to be made with jar testing and plant scale assessment. Thought must be given to required

effusive quality, impact upon downstream treatment process execution, cost, strategy and cost of

slop taking care of and transfer, and cost of the dosage required for viable treatment.

2.4.1 Inorganic Coagulant

Inorganic coagulants, for example, aluminum and iron salts are the most regularly utilized. At the

point when added to water, these very charged particles to neutralize the suspended particles. The

inorganic hydroxides that are shaped create short polymer chains which improve microfloc

development. Inorganic coagulants typically offer the least cost per pound, are generally

accessible, and, when appropriately connected, are successful in expelling most suspended solids.

They are likewise equipped for expelling a bit of the natural antecedents which may consolidate

with chlorine to frame purification results. Inorganic coagulants create expansive volumes of floc

which can likewise entangle microbes as they settle. Inorganic coagulants may adjust the pH of

the water since they expend alkalinity. At the point when connected in a lime pop fiery remains

softening procedure, alum and iron salts create interest for lime and pop cinder. They additionally

require erosion safe stockpiling and bolster hardware. Note that huge volumes of settled floc must

be discarded in a naturally worthy way.

2.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages

1) Capable of evacuating 97% of suspended solids

2) Biological nitrification without including chemicals

3) Oxidation and nitration achieve

4) Biological phosphorous evacuation

5) Solids and fluids detachment

6) Removes organics

7) Cost influential

8) Easily to maintain

9) Self-supporting framework

Disadvantages

1) Cleaning is an issue

2) Most plants require no less than three tanks

3) Temperature changes influence the tank significantly

2.4.3 Aluminium Sulphate

Aluminum sulfate is a standout amongst the most adaptable chemicals utilized as a part of both

the civil and modern markets. End utilizes for aluminum sulfate include:

1) Potable Water Treatment

2) Wastewater Treatment (illumination and phosphorus evacuation)

3) Lakes (evacuation of abundance supplements, for example, phosphates that add to green

growth development… at last, this gives green growth control)

4) Paper plants (charge balance, rosin measuring and pitch control)

5) Dye (settling colors to textures and materials, without changing the shade of the color)

6) Synthetic impetus production

7) Poultry houses as a litter correction for smelling salts control.

Iron free Aluminum Sulfate (Alum) is most broadly utilized as a part of civil drinking water and

wastewater treatment frameworks. In consumable water applications, alum works as a great

essential coagulant. Through charge balance and flocculation in crude water, alum evacuates

turbidity, suspended solids, add up to total organic carbon (TOC), biochemical oxygen request

(BOD). Aluminum Sulfate effortlessly hydrolyses to frame insoluble hastens which help in

expulsion of minor particles that can't be effectively sifted and additionally are too little to settle

through gravity in a valuable timeframe.

Alum
2.4.4 Ferric Sulphate

Ferric Sulfates are viable essential coagulants in view of trivalent iron (Fe3+), and are great for

drinking water generation, wastewater treatment, phosphorus evacuation applications, striate

control and also sludge conditioning. The items are additionally proficient in anticipating scent

and erosion by controlling the development of hydrogen sulfide.

Ferric Sulfate

2.4.5 Ferric Chloride

Ferric chloride is the coagulant of choice for some mechanical and sterile wastewater treatment

applications, because of its high proficiency, viability in clarification, and utility as a slime

dewatering specialist. The concoction leaves slight colour, and offers great turbidity expulsion.

Ferric Chloride
2.5 Natural Coagulant

Natural coagulant can be described as a natural based coagulant that can be utilized as a part of

coagulation procedure of wastewater treatment to reduce turbidity. The objectives of this study

were to measure the possibility of utilizing natural coagulants as a contrasting option to the

synthetic coagulant, for example, aluminum sulfate, ferric sulfate and ferric chloride. Other than

that, it is to enhance the parameters related in the working state of coagulation process. In view of

the test results, it was inferred that this natural coagulant productivity which can expelled up to

99.1% of turbidity in manufactured wastewater is practically identical to the synthetic coagulant.

(Nur Fathinatul Akmal binti Saharudin and Rajesh Nithyanandam, 2014)

2.5.1 Cactus Opuntia

Opuntia stricta, have not been contemplated for its coagulation qualities up until now. It is a less

regular Opuntia spp. than Opuntiaficus-indica, however is broadly spread over South America and

Australia. It is additionally found in Cuba, Haiti and West Indies also. Opuntia stricta has

lightgreen oval to circular formed developed cladodes, which are all the more regularly gutless;

notwithstanding, there are broadly separated little glochids on the cladodes. It has occasional

lemon-yellow hued blooms and carmine-red hued lengthened club molded tore organic products.

Even though existent coagulating agent in Opuntia are uncertain; mucilage was found with

coagulation properties relating to Opuntia. Artificially, adhesive of Opuntia stricta contains

protein, fat, rough fiber, and fiery remains substance of around 5.18%, 0.38%, 0.07% and 29.93%,

separately. It has low intense risk levels and can be utilized as added substances in the

pharmaceutical and nutrition products. (Arslan Mukhtar et.al,2015)

2.5.2 Moringa Oleifera

The need of utilizing natural coagulant, for example, seeds of Moringa oleifera (Drumstick seed)

as water treatment materials are savvy, far-fetched to create treated water with outrageous pH and

profoundly biodegradable. Normally happening coagulants are generally assumed safe for human

health. While the commercial coagulants are viable just at certain pH range and great flocculation

may not be conceivable in some water. (Abirami.M and Rohini.C, 2017)

2.5.3 Chitosan

Chitosan, a natural biopolymer, was assessed for its capacity to be utilized as a coagulant to treat

water for consumable utilize both in segregation and in mix with other water treatment advances,

particularly particle trade and actuated carbon. Chitosan was observed to be extremely successful

for molecule evacuation at dosages far underneath those required for comparable turbidity

expulsion by inorganic coagulants. However, in the water sources tried, chitosan was not

especially effective for removal dissolved organic carbon (DOC) evacuation when connected as

the sole treatment step. At the point when connected as the last elucidation phase of a multi-step

treatment process, chitosan showed constrained turbidity lessening because of particular

flocculation prerequisites. This mix of treatment advances was additionally unfit to additionally

reduce optional water quality parameters, for example, disinfectant request and trihalomethane

(THM) arrangement. (R. Fabris, 2010)

2.6 Factor Affecting Coagulation

Effective coagulation is an element of many components, the total rundown of which is point by

point in Table 2-1. Probably the most essential variables impacting the viability of coagulation are

coagulant dosage and mixing times. There is a scope of ideal measurements for a coagulant at

which greatest settling and evacuation of suspended particles is most proficiently and successfully

achieve. Beneath this range, the amount of coagulant added is insufficient to satisfactorily

destabilize the particles. Over this range, the coagulant basically fills in as a coating which re-

settles the molecule. The window of worthy doses fluctuates with each coagulant and with a

significant number of these elements, making some less sensitive to imprecisely estimated

measurements. The following stage is flocculation. It is described by delicate blending and permits

destabilized particles to agglomerate together into bigger particles. The last stage comprises of no

blending. It permits flocculated particles to settle out of the framework. Inadequate times of

delicate blending result in poor agglomeration of particles. Drawn out fomentation periods, in any

case, prompt breaks in floc sections and dis-agglomeration of particles (Culp). (Kim Luu,2000)

TABLE 2-1: FACTORS AFFECTING COAGULATION

Coagulant Physical Raw Water Characteristics

Characteristics Characteristics

• Coagulant type • Settling time • Suspended solids

• Coagulant dose • Mixing intensity • Temperature

• Proper solution • Mixing time • pH

makeup and dilution • Coagulant addition • Alkalinity

• Proper coagulant age point • Ionic constituents (sulfate,

• Proper coagulant fluoride, sodium, etc.)

feed
2.6.1 Natural Coagulant with Alum

As an alternative, coagulant from natural coagulant will mix with alum is utilized for coagulation

in water treatment. It is more ecological well-disposed and compelling in term of cost. The

utilization of common coagulant can reduce the dosage of alum in water treatment. This research

objective to analyse the impact of different kinds of natural coagulant with alum and which will

give the upgraded result in turbidity removal at its ideal mixing ratio. Common coagulant mixes

with alum were added to the jugs containing one liter of crude water were contrasted with a jug

containing crude water included with Alum just which went about as a kind of perspective.

Distinctive proportions (1:1 and 1:2) of characteristic coagulant to alum were readied. Turbidity

and color were estimated and the outcomes acquired were assessed. It was found that by using the

extent of alum 1:2 has better turbidity removal of 71.27% from 2200 NTU to 632 NTU of 5 ml/L

separately for the designed water. Concerning lake water, it is exhibited that the mix of alum at

extent 1:1 and 6:6 ml/L has most essential turbidity removal of 95.51% from 12.8 NTU to 0.575

NTU. (Gasim Hayder and Asmah Ab Rahim, 2015)

2.6.2 Speed Mixing

There is an ideal scope of mixing times that most viably helps evacuation of particulate issue.

There are normally three periods of blending in a coagulation procedure: quick mix, gentle mix,

and no mix. The quick mix stage is a brief time off to a great degree turbulent mixing that permits

coagulants contact with suspended particles. (Kim Luu, 2000)

2.7 Conclusion

In spite of Opuntia ficus-Indica, removal proficiency of Opuntia stricta as coagulant for turbidity

evacuation in surface water stays predictable inside a wide pH extend (pH 5 to 10). Moreover, pH

of the water remain unaffected amid coagulation and pH alteration may not be required for

consequent treatment procedures, for example, filtration or purification, which may be required on

the off chance that metal coagulants are utilized. Presence of humic substances in normal surface

water may altogether adjust Opuntia measurements for optimum coagulation. Opuntia stricta was

not able to bring lingering turbidity beneath 10 NTU as achievable through Opuntia ficusindica.

Furthermore, residual turbidity underneath 20 NTU is conveniently achieve even at low doses of

Opuntia stricta. Therefore, Opuntia stricta may demonstrate valuable as essential coagulant for

consequent treatment through moderate sand filters. However, its effectiveness ought to likewise

be additionally researched for water of various qualities notwithstanding its used as coagulant aid.

Analysis of size and nature of flocs achieved through coagulation utilizing Opuntia stricta is

rational with the previous suppositions that potential system of coagulation through Opuntia is

adsorption and between molecule bridging. (Arslan Mukhtar, 2015)