Soil Formation ,Structure and Clay Mineral

Soil:Soil is an uncemented or loosely cemented accumulation of

minerals particles from by the weathering of rocks ,the void space
between the particles containing water and\or air.

Process of soil formation:

The destructive process in the formation of soil from rock may be either
physical or chemical.

The physical process :

The physical process may be erosion by the action of solid on glacier or
disintegration caused by alternate and thawing in cracks in the rock.The
resultant soil particles remain same composition as that of their parent
rock.Particles of this type approximately equidimensional and are
described as being of bulk from.The particulars may be angular,sub-
angular or rounded shape.Each particle being in direct contract with
adjoining particles without there being bond and cohesion between
them.The structure may be loose ,medium dense or dense depending
on the way one which the particular are patched together.

Chemical process:The chemical process results in changes in the

mineral form of the parent rock due to the action of water,carbon-
dioxide,oxygen.Chemical weather results in formation of group of
crystalline particles of quartile size known as clay minerals.
The basic unit of clay minerals with net scale:

The basic structural units of most clay minerals consist of a silicon

tetrahedron and aluminium tetrahedron.Silicon and aluminum partially
replaced by the other unit romorphus.The basic unit combined from
sheet structure which represent symbolically in figure.The various clay
minerals are from by the combination of basic sheet structures with
different form of bonding between combined sheet.
Illustrate the following clay mineral with the diagram of there structural
units and it chemical properties.
Kaolinite –

Kaolinite consist of a structure based on a single sheet of silica

tetrahedron combined with a single sheet of alumina octahedron.This is
very limited isomorphus substitutions.The combined silica alumina
sheet are hold together fairly,tighty by H-bond.A kaolinite particles may
be consist over 100 stacks.
• It varies little in composition.
• It does not absorb water.
• It does not expand when mixed with water.
Illite:Illite has a basic structure consisting of a sheet of aluminum
octahedron between and combined with to sheets of silica
tetrahedron.In octahedron sheet there is partial substation of
aluminum by magnesium and iron.In the tetrahedron sheet there is a
partial substation of silicon by aluminium.The combined sheets are link
together by fairly weak bonding.Due to potassium ion hold between
them.

Mont Monillomite:
Mont Morillomite has same basic structure of illite in the octahedron
sheet.There is partial substation of aluminum by magnesium space
between the combined sheet is occupied by water mouluculs cation
other than potassium. There is a very weak bond between the
combined sheets due to this ions.Considerable swelling of mont
morillomite can occure due to additional water being absorb between
the combined sheet.
1. It is the main consitituent of bentonite which derived from the
weathering volcanic ash.
2. It can expand volume by several times when it comes in contract
with water.
3. It is used for down thinner under water absorbent.
Geotechnical Engineering:Geotechnical engineering is a branch of
civil engineering that deals with soil,rock and underground water.And
there relation to the design,construction and operation of engineering
project.
#State the indivence of specific surface area and cation
exchange capacity of clay minerals on the properties of soil.
Specific surface area:The specific surface area of clay particles per unit
𝑚2
mass is known as specific surface area.It is measured as gm of
100
dry soil.In several samples having the same mass.The highest surface
area will be in the sample in which the particle size smallest.
Isomorphus substitution : In the structural unit of clay minerals the
substitution of one elements (oxygen,aluminum,magnesium,iron) for
another (silicon) without changing the crystallization from is called
isomorphus substation.
Cation Exchange Capacity(cec):
1. Clay particles carry net negative charge.
2. In an ideal crystal the positive and negative charge would be
balanced.
3. Thus occurs due to isomorphus substation and broken
continuity.There is a net negative charge on the surface on a clay
particles.
4. To balance the negative charge the clay particles attract positive
charge ion from the salt pressure in the pore water.
5. So cec is defined as the amount of exchange ion express as
𝑀𝐸
100 𝑔𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
6. And keep a attraction 𝑎𝑙3+ , 𝑚𝑔2+ , 𝑜 2−

Soil Profile and Horizon:

Clay
Sand
Sand
/////////////////
Rock

The composition of soil it terms of various layers illustrated in what

not known as soil profile each of the layer is called horizon.
 Soil structure:Soil structure is defined as the geometric
arrangement of soil particles with respect to one another.Factor that
effect the soil structure are:
1. Shape
2. Size
3. Mineral logical composition of soil particle
4. Nature and composition of soil water

Method of determination of plastic limit:

• Casagrande liquid limit device
• Cone penetrometer method
• One point method
Soil Mechanics:Soil mechanics is the branch of science that deals with
the study of physical properties of soil and the behavior of soil masses
subject to various type of pressure.

Importance of geo technical engineering study:

1. For analysis and design earth structure (dam,imbankment etc)
2. Evolution of the stability of artificial and natural slope.
3. Evolution of ability of soil deposit to provide support for various
structure.
4. Compute and magnitude and distribution of earth pressure
against various pressure.
5. Prediction of water movement through soils.
6. Improvement of soil properties by chemical and mechanical.

#Factor on which engineering properties of soil

depends-
 A. Composition factor
I. Types and amount of materials
II. Types of cation
III. Shape and size of particle
IV. Pore water composition
B. Environmental factors
I. Climate
II. Water
III. Density
IV. Fabric

# “Soil process complicated characteristic” explain it.

1. Soil does not process linear or unique stress strain relation.
2. Soil is different in nature and character in every location.
3. Behavior depends on time,pressure,stress,history,depositonal
environment etc.
4. Soil can not be seen but evaluated on the basis on small sample.
5. Laboratory test result does not represent the instinct soil condition.

# “Soil is a multiphase and particular material”

Due to interaction among the distinct graded parts of rocks atmospheric
condition.And the presence of organism consist of four phases.
➢ Mineral matter
➢ Water
➢ Air
➢ Organic matter
 “Stage or sequence of layer formation in a soil profile”
/////// ……………… …………… ……O…… .....O…..
///C/// ……O……… …….O….. A ||||A||||
Parent ////////// |||A||| B E
material ////C//// ////C/// C B
(P.M)Rock P.M P.M P.M ////C/////
P.M

C=exposed rock
O=under composed \ partially decomposed organic matter
A=decomposed organic matter
B=fine clay
E=fine particle
a) The parent rock comes into exposure to the atmosphere (C) which may be
slidely alter due to atmosphere factor.
b) Atmosphere organism and plants begins to colorize at the surface of
horizon as resulting a layer of uncomposed or partially decomposed organic
matter.
c) With time the organic matter is digested and decomposed by animals and
bacteria thus forming fumarase type organic matter of the horizon (A).
d) Continue weathering process fire particle which are transported downward
though the horizon (A) and taped between A and C.
Thus forming horizon B.
e) Alter a long period of time a horizon entirely cleaned up fine particle thus
forming horizon E.

Soil fabric:It refers to the arrangement of particles groups and pore

spaces soil mass.
“The different types of particles association available in
clay suspension”
1.Dispersed = No face to face association of clay particles.

2.Aregatted = Face to face association of several clay particles.

3.Flocculated = Edge to edge or edge to face association of aggregates.

Depopulated=No association between aggregates

a. Dispersed and populated
b. Aggregated but depopulated
c. Aggregated but populated
 “Structure in cohesion less soil”

1. Single grained structure → In single grained structure\oil

particles are in stable position with its particle in contract
with the sourrounding are.The shape and size distribution
position influence the denseness of packing thus a wide
range of oil ratio is possible.
 2. Honeycombed structure:In this structure relatively fine sand and sild
form small arch with bare of particles.Soil that exbit a honeycomb
structure have a large void ratio.And they can carry an ordinary static
load.However under a heavy load or when subjected to shocks loading
the structure breaks down.

Figure: Honeycombed Structure

#Show that for the equal sphere the void ratio for
loose packing is greater than densely packing.”

Answer : For loosely packing, D

Volume of cube,𝑉𝑐 = 𝐷 3
4 𝐷 3
Volume of solid,𝑉𝑠 = 𝛱 ( )
3

𝛱𝐷3
2
D
=
6
Soil Solid
Volume of void, 𝑉𝑣 = 𝑉𝑐− 𝑉𝑠
𝜋𝐷3
=𝐷 3 −
6
6𝐷3 −𝜋𝐷3
=
6

Void ratio , e = 𝑣𝑣 ÷ 𝑣𝑠
6𝐷3 −𝜋𝐷3
6
= 𝜋𝐷3
6

6−𝜋
=
𝜋

For densely packing,

3 2D
Volume of cube, 𝑉𝑐 = (√2𝐷) √2𝐷 D
=2√2𝐷 3
1 4 𝐷 3 1 4 𝐷 3
Volume of solid,𝑉𝑠 = 6 ∗ ∗ 𝜋( ) +8∗ ∗ 𝜋( )
2 3 2 8 3 2

4𝜋𝐷3 4𝜋𝐷3
= +
8 24
𝜋𝐷3 𝜋𝐷3
= +
2 6
2
= 𝜋𝐷 3
3
2 3
Volume of void, 𝑉𝑣 = 2√2𝐷 3 − 𝜋 𝐷
3

3∗2√2𝐷3 −2𝜋𝐷3
=
3

= .734𝐷 3
𝑣𝑣 0.734𝐷3
Volume ratio,e = = 2 = .35 <. 91
𝑣𝑠
3
𝜋𝐷3
# “State for the example of civil infrastructure where the knowledge of
geotechnical engineering is needed”?
1.Foundation : Building,bridge,tunnel,highways,wall,tower,dam etc.

2.Soil as a construction material : Slope stability, excavation etc.

3. Earth retaining structure : Sheet pile,retaining wall etc.

4.Special problem : Earthquake