PART A

1. What is viscoelasticity?

Viscoelasticity is the property of materials that exhibit both viscous and elastic characteristics
when undergoing deformation

2. Define creep?

is the tendency of a solid material to move slowly or deform permanently under the influence of
mechanical stresses.

3. Diffrentiate between resorbable and non resorbable ceramics?

Resorbable ceramics e.g., alumina and carbons show little chemical reactivity even after thousands of
hours or exposure to the physiological pH and therefore show minimal interfacial bonds with living
tissues.

Non resorbable ceramics exhibit an intermediate behaviour.In these ceramics, surface provides bonding
sites for the proteinaceous constituents of soft tissues and cell membranes, producing tissue
adherence.

4. Give the chemical composition of HAP?

is a naturally occurring mineral form of calcium apatite

5. Draw the structure of acrylic polymers?

6. What are monomers?

A monomer (mono-, "one" + -mer, "part") is a molecule that, as a unit, binds chemically or
supramolecularly to other molecules to form a supramolecular polymer. Large numbers
of monomerunits combine to form polymers in a process called polymerization.

7. What is a surgical tape?

Surgical tape or medical tape is a type of pressure-sensitive adhesive tape used in medicine
and first aid to hold a bandage or other dressing onto a wound. These tapes usually have a
hypoallergenic adhesive which is designed to hold firmly onto skin

8. List few blood interfacing implants?

Blood-interfacing materials can be divided into two categories: (1) short-term extracorporeal
devices such as membranes for artificial organs (kidney and heart/lung machine), tubes, and
catheters for the transport of blood, and (2) long-term in-situ implants such as
vascular implants and implantable artificial organs.

9. What are dental amalgams?

Dental amalgam is a common material used to fill cavities. Fillings made with amalgam also are
known as silver fillings

10. What are the drawbacks of materials used as heart valves?

increase a patient’s risk of blood clot formation as well as severe bleeding from the mandatory anti-
clotting medication

PART B

11. What are the various types of tissue response to implants and what are the factors affecting
performance of implants?

Biocompatibility is generally defined as the ability of a biomaterial, prosthesis, or medical device to

perform with an appropriate host response in a specific application, and biocompatibility assessment,
i.e. evaluation of biological responses, is a measure of the magnitude and duration of the adverse
alterations in homeostatic mechanisms that determine the host response. Practically speaking, the
evaluation of biological responses to a medical device is carried out to determine that the medical
device performs as intended and presents no significant harm to the patient or user. Thus the goal of
biological response evaluation is to predict whether a biomaterial, medical device, or prosthesis
presents potential harm to the patient or user by evaluating conditions that simulate clinical use.

FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF TISSUE RESPONSES TO MATERIALS Injury The process of implantation of a

biomaterial, prosthesis, or medical device results in injury to tissues or organs (1, 2). It is this injury and
the subsequent perturbation of homeostatic mechanisms that lead to the cellular cascades of wound
healing.

Blood-Material Interactions and Initiation of the Inflammatory Response

12. Discuss briefly the various types of mechanical properties of biomaterials?

Elastic modulus is simply defined as the ratio of stress to strain within the proportional limit.
Physically, it represents the stiffness of a material within the elastic range when tensile or
compressive load are applied. It is clinically important because it indicates the selected biomaterial
has similar deformable properties with the material it is going to replace. These force-bearing
materials require high elastic modulus with low deflection. As the elastic modulus of material
increases fracture resistance decreases. It is desirable that the biomaterial elastic modulus is similar
to bone. This is because if it is more than bone elastic modulus then load is born by material only;
while the load is bear by bone only if it is less than bone material. The Elastic modulus of a material
is generally calculated by bending test because deflection can be easily measured in this case as
compared to very small elongation in compressive or tensile load. However, biomaterials (for bone
replacement) are usually porous and the sizes of the samples are small. Therefore, nanoindentation
test is used to determine the elastic modulus of these materials. This method has high precision and
convenient for micro scale samples. Another method of elastic modulus measurement is non-
destructive method. It is also clinically very good method because of its simplicity and repeatability
since materials are not destroyed

Hardness
Hardness is one of the most important parameters for comparing properties of materials. It is used
for finding the suitability of the clinical use of biomaterials. Biomaterial hardness is desirable as equal
to bone hardness. If higher than the biomaterial, then it penetrates in the bone. As above said,
biomaterials sample are very small therefore, micro and nano scale hardness test (Diamond Knoop
and Vickers indenters) are used

Fracture strength
Strength of materials is defined as the maximum stress that can be endured before fracture occurs.
Strength of biomaterials (bioceramics) is an important mechanical property because they are brittle.
In brittle materials like bioceramics, cracks easily propagate when the material is subject to tensile
loading, unlike compressive loading. A number of methods are available for determining the tensile
strength of materials, such as the bending flexural test, the biaxial flexural strength test and
the weibull approach. In bioceramics, flaws influence the reliability and strength of the material
during implantation and fabrication. There are a number of ways that flaws can be produced in
bioceramics such as thermal sintering and heating. The importance is for bioceramics to have high
reliability, rather than high strength.

Fracture toughness
Fracture toughness is required to alter the crack propagation in ceramics. It is helpful to evaluate the
serviceability, performance and long term clinical success of biomaterials. It is reported that the high
fracture toughness material improved clinical performance and reliability as compare to low fracture
toughness.[4] It can be measured by many methods e.g. indentation fracture, indentation strength,
single edge notched beam, single edge pre cracked beam and double cantilever beam.

Fatigue
Fatigue is defined as failure of a material due to repeated/cyclic loading or unloading (tensile or
compressive stresses). It is also an important parameter for biomaterial because cyclic load is
applied during their serving life. In this cyclic loading condition, micro crack/flaws may be generated
at the interface of the matrix and the filler. This micro crack can initiate permanent plastic
deformation which results in large crack propagation or failure. During the cyclic load several factor
also contribute to microcrack generation such as frictional sliding of the mating surface, progressive
wear, residual stresses at grain boundaries, stress due to shear.

13. MANUFACTURE OF ORTHOPDIC IMPLANT DEVICES

Metal has been used extensively in the manufacturing of orthopedic implants in a

multitude of different forms. Multiple different materials throughout history have been
 tested as replacements for bone. Materials as diverse as ivory, wood, rubber,
acrylic, and Bakelite have been used in the manufacture of prosthetic implants.
The extensive use in modern times of metallic alloys is related to the availability and
success at the beginning of the 20th century of several different alloys made of the
noble metals. Implants made from iron, cobalt, chromium, titanium, and tantalum are
commonly used. Clinical studies have demonstrated that alloys made from these
metals can be used safely and effectively in the manufacturing of orthopedic
implants that are left in vivo for extended periods. The mechanical, biologic, and
physical properties of these materials play significant roles in the longevity of these
implants.

Implants are made in 3 basic ways:

 Implants can be machine milled or drilled into a desired shape.
 Implants can be cast, which means that the implant is formed from molten metal
that is poured into a mold.
 Implants can be forged, which means that the implant is shaped into its final form
with the use of forces such as bending or hammering.
Alloys that provide for a long-term stable implant need to have a high level of corrosion
resistance as well as certain mechanical properties

14. CARBON CERAMIC MATERIALS

Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are a subgroup of composite materials as well as a subgroup
of ceramics. They consist of ceramic fibres embedded in a ceramic matrix, thus forming a ceramic
fibre reinforced ceramic material. The matrix and fibres can consist of any ceramic material,
whereby carbon and carbon fibres can also be considered a ceramic material.

The motivation to develop CMCs was to overcome the problems associated with the conventional
technical ceramics like alumina, silicon carbide, aluminium nitride, silicon nitride or zirconia – they
fracture easily under mechanical or thermo-mechanical loads because of cracks initiated by small
defects or scratches. The crack resistance is – like in glass – very low. To increase the crack
resistance or fracture toughness, particles (so-called monocrystalline whiskers or platelets) were
embedded into the matrix. However, the improvement was limited, and the products have found
application only in some ceramic cutting tools. So far only the integration of long multi-strand fibres
has drastically increased the crack resistance, elongation and thermal shock resistance, and
resulted in several new applications.
Carbon (C), special silicon carbide (SiC), alumina (Al2O3) and mullite (Al2O3–SiO2) fibres are most
commonly used for CMCs. The matrix materials are usually the same, that is C, SiC, alumina and
mullite.
Generally, CMC names include a combination of type of fibre/type of matrix. For
example, C/C stands for carbon-fibre-reinforced carbon (carbon/carbon), or C/SiC for carbon-fibre-
reinforced silicon carbide. Sometimes the manufacturing process is included, and a C/SiC composite
manufactured with the liquid polymer infiltration (LPI) process (see below) is abbreviated as LPI-
C/SiC.
The important commercially available CMCs are C/C, C/SiC, SiC/SiC and Al2O3/Al2O3. They differ
from conventional ceramics in the following properties, presented in more detail below:
 Elongation to rupture up to 1%
 Strongly increased fracture toughness
 Extreme thermal shock resistance
 Improved dynamical load capability
 Anisotropic properties following the orientation of fibers

15. DIFFERENT TYPESOF POLYMERS

Polyethylene

Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is produced by free-radical polymerization at high

temperatures (200C) and high pressures (above 1000 atm). The high-density polymer
(HDPE) is obtained using Ziegler-Natta catalysis at temperatures below 100C and
pressures less than 100 atm. More polyethylene is produced each year than any other
plastic. About 7800 million pounds of low-density and 4400 million pounds of high-
density polyethylene were sold in 1980. Polyethylene has no taste or odor and is
lightweight, nontoxic, and relatively inexpensive. It is used as a film for packaging
food, clothing, and hardware. Most commercial trash bags, sandwich bags, and plastic
wrapping are made from polyethylene films. Polyethylene is also used for everything
from seat covers to milk bottles, pails, pans, and dishes.

Polypropylene

The isotactic polypropylene from Ziegler-Natta-catalyzed polymerization is a rigid,

thermally stable polymer with an excellent resistance to stress, cracking, and chemical
reaction. Although it costs more per pound than polyethylene, it is much stronger.
Thus, bottles made from poly-propylene can be thinner, contain less polymer, and cost
less than conventional polyethylene products. Polypropylene's most important impact
on today's college student takes the form of the plastic stackable chairs that abound on
college campuses.
16. HISHSTRENGTH THERMO PLASTICS

A thermoplastic, or thermosoftening plastic, is a plastic material, a polymer, that becomes

pliable or moldable above a specific temperature and solidifies upon cooling.[1][2]
Most thermoplastics have a high molecular weight. The polymer chains associate
through intermolecular forces, which weaken rapidly with increased temperature, yielding a
viscous liquid. Thus, thermoplastics may be reshaped by heating and are typically used to
produce parts by various polymer processing techniques such as injection molding, compression
molding, calendering, and extrusion.[3][4] Thermoplastics differ from thermosetting polymers, which
form irreversible chemical bonds during the curing process. Thermosets do not melt when
heated: they decompose and do not reform upon cooling.
Above its glass transition temperature and below its melting point, the physical properties of a
thermoplastic change drastically without an associated phase change. Some thermoplastics do not
fully crystallize below the glass transition temperature, retaining some or all of their amorphous
characteristics. Amorphous and semi-amorphous plastics are used when high optical clarity is
necessary, as light is scattered strongly by crystallites larger than its wavelength. Amorphous and
semi-amorphous plastics are less resistant to chemical attack and environmental stress
cracking because they lack a crystalline structure.
Brittleness can be decreased with the addition of plasticizers, which increases the mobility of
amorphous chain segments to effectively lower the glass transition temperature. Modification of the
polymer through copolymerization or through the addition of non-reactive side
chains to monomers before polymerization can also lower it. Before these techniques were
employed, plastic automobile parts would often crack when exposed to cold temperatures.These are
linear or slightly branched long chain molecules capable of repeatedly softening on heating and
hardening on cooling.
SILICONE RUBBER

Silicone rubber is an elastomer (rubber-like material) composed of silicone—itself a polymer—

containing silicon together with carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Silicone rubbers are widely used in
industry, and there are multiple formulations. Silicone rubbers are often one- or two-part polymers,
and may contain fillers to improve properties or reduce cost. Silicone rubber is generally non-
reactive, stable, and resistant to extreme environments and temperatures from -55 °C to +300 °C
while still maintaining its useful properties. Due to these properties and its ease of manufacturing
and shaping, silicone rubber can be found in a wide variety of products, including: automotive
applications; cooking, baking, and food storage products; apparel such as undergarments,
sportswear, and footwear; electronics; medical devices and implants; and in home repair and
hardware with products such as silicone sealants.

17. SOFT TISSUE REPLACEMENTS

The implants should closely approximate physical properties, especially in flexibility and texture. 2. The
implants should not deteriorate. 3. The implants should not cause severe tissue reaction. Although some
say that a minor tissue reaction may be beneficial for faster wound healing as in the case of nylon
sutures, it is generally accepted that minimum tissue reaction is most desirable. 4. The implants should
not induce fibrous tissue encapsulation or ingrowth. Such ingrowth causes the loss of the originally
intended function of the implant by the collagenous tissues. 5. The implants should be noncarcinogenic,
nonallergic, and nonimmunogenic. Other important factors are sterilizability, feasibility of mass
production, cost, fatigue life, aesthetic quality, etc. This chapter deals mainly with some biomaterials
used for soft tissue replacements such as sutures, artificial skins, and percutaneous devices.

18. TYPES OF HIP AND KNEE JOINT REPLACEMENTS

 Knee replacement, also known as knee arthroplasty, is a surgical procedure to replace
the weight-bearing surfaces of the knee joint to relieve pain and disability. It is most commonly
performed for osteoarthritis,[1] and also for other knee diseases such as rheumatoid
arthritis and psoriatic arthritis. In patients with severe deformity from advanced
rheumatoid arthritis, trauma, or long-standing osteoarthritis, the surgery may be more
complicated and carry higher risk. Osteoporosis does not typically cause knee pain, deformity, or
inflammation and is not a reason to perform knee replacement
Other major causes of debilitating pain include meniscus tears, cartilage defects, and ligament
tears. Debilitating pain from osteoarthritis is much more common in the elderly.
Knee replacement surgery can be performed as a partial or a total knee replacement.[2] In
general, the surgery consists of replacing the diseased or damaged joint surfaces of the knee
with metal and plastic components shaped to allow continued motion of the knee.
The operation typically involves substantial postoperative pain, and includes vigorous physical
rehabilitation. The recovery period may be 6 weeks or longer and may involve the use of mobility
aids (e.g. walking frames, canes, crutches) to enable the patient's return to preoperative mobility