(iv) What is OSI?

Short for Open System Interconnection, OSI is a network model developed by ISO in 1978 where peer-
to-peer communications are divided into seven layers. Each layer performs a specific task or tasks and
builds upon the preceding layer until the communications are complete. There are the seven layers.
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a conceptual model that characterizes and
standardizes the communication functions of a telecommunication or computing system without regard
to its underlying internal structure and technology. Its goal is the interoperability of diverse
communication systems with standard protocols. The model partitions a communication system into
abstraction layers.
OSI model by layer
7. Application layer
6. Presentation layer
5. Session layer
4. Transport layer
3. Network layer
2. Data link layer
1. Physical layer
(iii) What is bus topology?
Alternatively referred to as a line topology, a bus topology is a network setup in which each computer
and network device are connected to a single cable or backbone. Depending on the type of network
card used in each computer of the bus topology, a coaxial cable or a RJ-45 network cable is used to
connect computers together.

Advantages of bus topology

 It works well when you have a small network.
 It's the easiest network topology for connecting computers or peripherals in a linear fashion.
 It requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of bus topology
 It can be difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes down.
 It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.
 Bus topology is not great for large networks.
 Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.
 Additional devices slow the network down.
 If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits into two.

(v) What is Telnet?

Telnet is a protocol used on the Internet or local area networks to provide a bidirectional interactive
text-oriented communication facility using a virtual terminal connection. User data is interspersed in-
band with Telnet control information in an 8-bit byte oriented data connection over the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP).

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The term telnet is also used to refer to the software that implements the client part of the protocol.
Telnet client applications are available for virtually all computer platforms. Telnet is also used as a verb.
To telnet means to establish a connection using the Telnet protocol, either with command line client or
with a programmatic interface. For example, a common directive might be: "To change your password,
telnet into the server, log in and run the passwd command." Most often, a user will be telnetting to a
Unix-like server system or a network device (such as a router) and obtaining a login prompt to a
command line text interface or a character-based full-screen manager.

(viii) What is DNS?

Domain Name Servers (DNS) are the Internet's equivalent of a phone book. They maintain a directory of
domain names and translate them to Internet Protocol (IP) addresses.
This is necessary because, although domain names are easy for people to remember, computers or
machines, access websites based on IP addresses.
Information from all the domain name servers across the Internet are gathered together and housed at
the Central Registry. Host companies and Internet Service Providers interact with the Central Registry on
a regular schedule to get updated DNS information.
When you type in a web address, e.g., www.jnujaipur.ac.in, our Internet Service Provider views the DNS
associated with the domain name, translates it into a machine friendly IP address (for example
94.130.17.180 is the IP for www.jnujaipur.ac.in) and directs your Internet connection to the correct
website.
After you register a new domain name or when you update the DNS servers on your domain name, it
usually takes about 12-36 hours for the domain name servers world-wide to be updated and able to
access the information. This 36-hour period is referred to as propagation.
(ix) What is FTP?
The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used for the transfer of computer files
between a client and server on a computer network.
FTP is built on a client-server model architecture and uses separate control and data connections
between the client and the server. FTP users may authenticate themselves with a clear-text sign-in
protocol, normally in the form of a username and password, but can connect anonymously if the server
is configured to allow it. For secure transmission that protects the username and password, and
encrypts the content, FTP is often secured with SSL/TLS (FTPS). SSH File Transfer Protocol (SFTP) is
sometimes also used instead; it is technologically different.
The first FTP client applications were command-line programs developed before operating systems had
graphical user interfaces, and are still shipped with most Windows, Unix, and Linux operating systems.
Many FTP clients and automation utilities have since been developed for desktops, servers, mobile
devices, and hardware, and FTP has been incorporated into productivity applications, such as web page
editors
(x) What is ARP?
The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a communication protocol used for discovering the link layer
address associated with a given IPv4 address, a critical function in the Internet protocol suite.

ARP is used for mapping a network address such as an IPv4 address, to a physical address, such as a
MAC address. ARP has been implemented with many combinations of network and data link layer
technologies, such as IPv4, Chaosnet, DECnet and Xerox PARC Universal Packet (PUP) using IEEE 802
standards, FDDI, X.25, Frame Relay and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). IPv4 over IEEE 802.3 and
IEEE 802.11 is the most common usage.
In Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) networks, the functionality of ARP is provided by the Neighbor
Discovery Protocol (NDP).
When we try to ping an IP address on your local network, say 192.168.1.1, your system has to turn the
IP address 192.168.1.1 into a MAC address. This involves using ARP to resolve the address, hence its
name.
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Systems keep an ARP look-up table where they store information about what IP addresses are
associated with what MAC addresses. When trying to send a packet to an IP address, the system will
first consult this table to see if it already knows the MAC address. If there is a value cached, ARP is not
used.
Q.3 Explain OSI model in detail.

The OSI model (Open System Interconnection) model defines a computer networking framework to
implement protocols in seven layers. A protocol in the networking terms is a kind of negotiation and rule
in between two networking entities.
Layers of OSI model:

Physical layer
The Physical layer is also called as the Layer 1. Here are the basic functionalities of the Physical layer:
 Responsible for electrical signals, light signal, radio signals etc.
 Hardware layer of the OSI layer
 Devices like repeater, hub, cables, ethernet work on this layer
 Protocols like RS232, ATM, FDDI, Ethernet work on this layer
Data Link layer
The data link layer is also called as the Layer 2 of the OSI model. Here are the basic functionalities of the
data link layer:
 Responsible for encoding and decoding of the electrical signals into bits.
 Manages data errors from the physical layer
 Convers electrical signals into frames
 The data link layer is divided into two sub-layers
o The Media Access Control (MAC) layer
o Logical Link Control (LLC) layer.
 The MAC sublayer controls how a computer on the network gains access to the data and
permission to transmit it.
 The LLC layer controls frame synchronization, flow control and error checking.
 MAC address is a part of the layer 2.
 Devices like Switch work at this layer
Network Layer
The Network layer is also called as the layer 3 of the OSI model. Here are the basic functionalities of the
network layer:
 Switching and routing technologies work here
 Creates logical paths between two hosts across the world wide web called as virtual circuits
 Routes the data packet to destination

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  Routing and forwarding of the data packets.
 Internetworking, error handling, congestion control and packet sequencing work at this layer
 Router works at layer three
 Different network protocols like TCP/ IP, IPX, AppleTalk work at this layer
Transport layer
The Transport layer is also called as the layer 4 of the OSI model. Here are the basic functionalities of
the Transport layer:
 Responsible for the transparent transfer of data between end systems
 Responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control
 Responsible for complete data transfer.
 Protocols like SPX, TCP, UDP work here
Session layer
The Session layer is also called as the layer 5 of the OSI model. Here are the basic functionalities of the
Session layer:
 Responsible for establishment, management and termination of connections between
applications.
 The session layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and
dialogues between the applications at each end.
 It deals with session and connection coordination.
 Protocols like NFS, NetBios names, RPC, SQL work at this layer.
Presentation layer
The Presentation layer is also called as the layer 6 of the OSI model. Here are the basic functionalities of
the presentation layer:
 Responsible for data representation on your screen
 Encryption and decryption of the data
 Data semantics and syntax
 Layer 6 Presentation examples include encryption, ASCII, EBCDIC, TIFF, GIF, PICT, JPEG,
MPEG, MIDI.
Application Layer
The Application layer is also called as the layer 7 of the OSI model. Here are the basic functionalities of
the Application layer:
 Application layer supports application, apps, and end-user processes.
 Quality of service
 This layer is responsible for application services for file transfers, e-mail, and other network
software services.
 Protocols like Telnet, FTP, HTTP work on this layer.

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Q.4 What is the difference between Token bucket and leaky bucket algorithm.

Leaky Bucket :
Main working steps
1. When the host has to send a packet , packet is thrown in bucket.
2. Bucket leaks at constant rate.
3. Bursty traffic is converted into uniform traffic by leaky bucket.
4. In practice bucket is a finite queue outputs at finite rate.

Token Bucket :
Main working steps
1. In this leaky bucket holds tokens generated at regular intervals of time.
2. Bucket has maximum capacity.
3. If there is a ready packet , a token is removed from Bucket and packet is send.
4. If there is a no token in bucket, packet can not be send.

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Main advantage of token Bucket over leaky bucket -
1.If bucket is full in token Bucket , token are discard not packets.
While in leaky bucket , packets are discarded.
2. token Bucket can send Large bursts can faster rate while leaky bucket always sends packets at
constant rate.

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Q.5 Explain the three way hand shaking protocol of connection establishment in transport layer.
TCP 3-WAY HANDSHAKE (SYN,SYN-ACK,ACK)
The TCP three-way handshake in Transmission Control Protocol (also called the TCP-handshake; three
message handshake and/or SYN-SYN-ACK) is the method used by TCP set up a TCP/IP connection over
an Internet Protocol based network. TCP's three way handshaking technique is often referred to as "SYN-
SYN-ACK" (or more accurately SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK) because there are three messages transmitted by TCP
to negotiate and start a TCP session between two computers. The TCP handshaking mechanism is
designed so that two computers attempting to communicate can negotiate the parameters of
the network TCP socket connection before transmitting data such as SSH and HTTP web
browser requests.
This 3-way handshake process is also designed so that both ends can initiate and negotiate separate TCP
socket connections at the same time. Being able to negotiate multiple TCP socket connections in both
directions at the same time allows a single physical network interface, such as ethernet, to
be multiplexed to transfer multiple streams of TCP data simultaneously.
TCP 3-WAY HANDSHAKE DIAGRAM
Below is a (very) simplified diagram of the TCP 3-way handshake process. Have a look at the diagram on
the right as you examine the list of events on the left.
EVENT DIAGRAM
Host A sends a TCP SYNchronize packet to Host B
Host B receives A's SYN
Host B sends a SYNchronize-ACKnowledgement
Host A receives B's SYN-ACK
Host A sends ACKnowledge
Host B receives ACK.
TCP socket connection is ESTABLISHED.
TCP Three Way Handshake
(SYN,SYN-ACK,ACK)
SYNchronize and ACKnowledge messages are indicated by a either the SYN bit, or the ACK bit inside
the TCP header, and the SYN-ACK message has both the SYN and the ACK bits turned on (set to 1) in the
TCP header.
TCP knows whether the network TCP socket connection is opening, synchronizing, established by using
the SYNchronize and ACKnowledge messages when establishing a network TCP socket connection.
When the communication between two computers ends, another 3-way communication is performed to
tear down the TCP socket connection. This setup and teardown of a TCP socket connection is part of what
qualifies TCP a reliable protocol. TCP also acknowledges that data is successfully received and guarantees
the data is reassenbled in the correct order.
Note that UDP is connectionless. That means UDP doesn't establish connections as TCP does, so UDPdoes
not perform this 3-way handshake and for this reason, it is referred to as an unreliable protocol. That
doesn't mean UDP can't transfer data, it just doesn't negotiate how the conneciton will work, UDP just
transmits and hopes for the best.

Q.7 Explain in detail about any two congestion avoidance mechanism.

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