1.

SITE COATING INSPECTION

1. What type of abrasive would normally be used for

site blasting?

Expendable copper slag.

2. Which British gas specification relates to safety

during blast cleaning?

BGC PS SW 4. IGE/SR/21.

3. Which Swedish standard relates to surface

preparation?

SIS 05 5900.

4. What does St 3 mean?

Very thorough hand and power tool cleaning.

(Mechanical)

5. What is meant by Sa 2 ½?

Very thorough blast cleaning.

6. How is oil or grease removed from a pipe surface

before dry abrasive blasting?

By using organic solvents like toluene or xylene.

Any contaminant solvents shall be wiped off with
clean, dry lint free rags using fresh solvents in
order to prevent a film or residue forming on the
pipe.

7. What is a rogue peak?

A rogue peak is a peak, which stands out above the

required profile.

8. Can copper slag abrasive be used more than once?

Page 1 of 50
 No it is not reusable.

9. Can shot or grit be reused in a factory blasting

operation?

Yes.

10. What do you understand by the term amplitude

in relation to a blasted finish?

The size of the profile as measured from the peaks

to the troughs is known as the amplitude or peak to
trough height.

11. Name the corn plaster method of measuring

amplitude and describe its use?

Testex tape surface profile gauge is Press O Film

tape. Press O Film is a replica tape composed of
an incompressible Mylar backing of known
thickness (2 mils). Coated with a compressible
material. The tape is placed against the metal
surface rubbed with a blunt instrument. The
pressure applied to the tape causes the
compressible material to replicate the blasted
surface. By measuring the resultant tape
thickness with a spring micrometer, the
maximum peak to valley height can be obtained
by subtracting the thickness of the Mylar
backing from the total micrometer reading.
Press-o-film will also work accurately on convex
and concave surfaces. It is also possible to retain
the tape and have a permanent record of the blast
profile.

12.What are micrometer in relation to a millimeter?

Micrometer is an instrument used to measure

thickness in microns, whereas millimeter is a
measure of length or thickness. 10¯
Page 2 of 50
13. What is knocking out pot ?

It is a liquid moisture separator.

14. What is the usual Type/Shape of a blasting

nozzle ?

15. What is the maximum allowable pressure from a

blasting compressor to be in accordance
with British Gas requirements ?

100 P.S.I

16. How can pressure be measured near the blasting

nozzle ?

The pressure at the nozzle may be measured using

a hypodermic needle gauge. This is placed near the
nozzle with the hole in the needle facing the nozzle
at 45° inclination.

17. Describe the use of a deadman’s handle ?

Deadman shut off: It is a remote control valve,

which allows the machine to be operated by one
man. When the blaster triggers the valve closes. If
the abrasive hose is accidentally dropped it shuts
off (the flow of abrasive) thus eliminating
accidents. It is a cut off safety device. It is not used
in factory. Best suited for field application.

18. Explain the sequence of operations during the

footner duplex process.

Phosphating – only applies to the footner or duplex

process. The technique involves a final treatment
in a 1 to 2% phosphoric acid solution held at 80°c
for 1 to 2 minutes. This leaves a thin rust inhibitive
phosphate coating on the steel surface to which
Page 3 of 50
 the coating should be preferably applied while it is
still warm, possibly after a final wash.

19. Describe the disadvantages of wire brushing for

surface preparation.

The process is slow, laborious and costly. It is

impossible to remove all rust and millscale by this
method. Manual cleaning is the slowest and least
satisfactory method of surface preparation. The
biggest drawback to the use of power tools is the
“Burnishing Effect” that arises on the metal.

20. What is BS 7079 ?

BS 7079 : Preparation of steel substrates before

the application of paint and related products.

21. Describe the action of steel shot on a substrate

during blasting compared to steel grit.

Shot blasting work hardens a steel surface to a

greater degree than grit which has the effect of
reducing the chance of any stress corrosion
cracking, which could otherwise occur in the future.
Shot also reduces the occurrence of rogue peaks
i.e. peens over any rogue peaks. It does not cut
new profiles.

22.Why is sand containing silica not used as a

blasting abrasive ?

Associated health hazard of silicosis.

23. Name two methods of measuring peak to trough

height.

By use of a surface profile needle gauge. Using a

Testex tape.

Page 4 of 50
24. How many micrometers in a thou ?

25.4 microns = 1 thou ( 0.001" ), (40 thou = 1mm)

25. What is a typical maximum time lapse between

blasting and coating ?

BS 549 indicate a maximum delay of 4 hours and

require that if visible deterioration has occurred,
the surface preparation shall be repeated.

2. ENAMELS / TAPES

1. What is the British gas specification for coal tar

enamel materials ?

BGCS / PS /CW 1. Alternatively, BGC / PS / CW3.

2. What does the viscosity of a material mean ?

Viscosity means the measure of a fluid resistance

to flow.

3. How are coal tar enamel coatings applied in the

factory. List the sequence of operation.

1. Blast clean to SA 2 ½.
2. Remove grit etc., with a soft brush.
3. Prime area using a soft brush (spray). For coal tar
enamel, use a synthetic type B fast drying primer.
4. When the primer is dry, apply a flood coating of hot
enamel.
5. Apply a glass fibre inner wrap whilst applying a
second flood coating. The inner wrap must not
come within 1mm of the pipe surface.

Page 5 of 50
6. Apply a third flood coating whilst applying
impregnated glass fibre outer wrap (thermo glass).
7. Apply a white wash – solar protective coating.

4. Can Bitumen coating be overlapped with a coal

tar ?

No. enamels may be coal tar or bitumen based. The

two materials shall not in any circumstances be
mixed and in the case of application in the fluid the
material to be used should be chosen to match any
existing pipe coating to which it will be required to
adhere.

5. Describe a test to differentiate coal tar from

bitumen.

Take a very small (about 3mm diameter) ball of the

unknown enamel and place onto a sheet of white
blotting or filter paper. Put two or three drops of
xylene or toluene solvent onto the ball. The ring of
the liquid running off the enamel and soaking into
the paper will show yellow with coal tar and show
brown with bitumen.

6. Is it permissible to wrap welded butt joints using

coal tar if the abutting pipes are coated with
polyethylene cladding?
No. It is not suitable material for use with PE clad
pipe.

7. What precautions must be taken to prevent

tarwarts when handling / using coal tar enamels?

a. Keep bitumen and coal tar off your skin.

b. Wear protective clothing.
c. Do not put dirty rags or tools in your trouser
pockets.
d. Wash your hands before going to the lavatory.
e. Watch out for warts.

Page 6 of 50
 It is strongly advised that those who work or have
worked with coal tar or bitumen should seek
medical advice if they discover warts on their body.

8. What type of primer was / is used for the

application of a) bitumen b) coal tar.

For bitumen enamel use a synthetic or bitumen

based primer.
For coal tar enamel, use a synthetic type B fast
drying primer.

9. What is Asphalt?

Coal tar + chalk + bitumen.

10. Why is a herbicide incorporated in bitumen

coatings?

Bitumen enamel is capable of sustaining root

growth and the incorporation of a herbicide to
forestall this is desirable.

11. What was / is the application temperature of coal

tar enamels?

Coal tar enamels must be applied when it is at a

temperature of between 240°c and 255°c.

12. What was / is the maximum temperature of coal

tar can reach in the melting pot and what action
would be taken if this temperature was exceeded
and why?

The temperature in the melting pot may be

adjusted to suit site conditions provided that it
does not exceed 260°c. any enamel, the
temperature of which has been allowed to exceed
260°c shall be rejected.

Page 7 of 50
13. What was / is the application temperature of
bitumen enamels?

For bitumen enamels the application temperature

must not exceed 230°c.

14. Where does bitumen comes from?

It is a by-product of Hydrocarbons from Petroleum

Industry.

15. How could the temperature in a melting dope be

determined?

By Metallic thermometer.

16. Is it necessary to agitate enamel in a melting /

doped pot?

Yes. It is essentially needed to agitate the enamel.

A mechanical agitator shall be kept in operation
whilst the enamel is melted and periodically
thereafter.

17. Why is lime wash applied to the external surface

of enamel coated pipes?

To protect from direct sunrays. Solar protection, to

avoid excessive heat absorption etc.,

18. What do you understand by the terminology

disbonded thermo glass?

Outer wrap not adhering to the flood coating of the

coal tar.

19. How may the temperature of a pipe surface be

measured in low ambient temperature conditions?

Using magnetic surface temperature gauge.

Page 8 of 50
20. What icicles on enamel mean coated pipe?

Substantial lack of thickness and inclusions in the

coating i.e. pinholes etc., As the enamel is applied
use a rubber or canvas sling to spread and smooth
off the coating to prevent the formation of icicles
on the underside of the pie or fitting.

21. How much enamel is required between the inner

wrap and the pipe surface?

Under no circumstances shall the inner wrap be so

tensioned as to leave less than 1.mm of enamel
between it and the pipe surface.

22. List the eight types of coating / wrapping

materials.

a. Coal tar b. Bitumen c. Polyethylene d. Cold

applied tapes (self-adhesive)
e. Hot applied tapes f. Cold applied laminate tapes.
g. Grease based tapes
h. Brush / spray applied coatings. i. Mastic, fillers
and putties
j. Heat shrinkable plastics. k. Epoxy powder and
urethane tar.

23. What do you understand by terminology “bleed

through” in relation to enamel flood coatings?

The outer wrap should stay on the surface of the

enamel except for the bleed through which is
necessary to obtain an adequate bond and to
prevent lamination.

24. What is the total minimum thickness over the

plate and over the weld for enamel coatings?

Page 9 of 50
 The finished coating must have a general thickness
of 4.mm and be atleast 2.4mm thick over all welds.

3. ENAMEL / TAPES.

1. What is meant by the term holiday?

To detect any holes or lack of thickness in the wrap

or any inclusions. These defects are called holidays.
Poorly or missed coatings.

2. What is the abbreviation for C.T.E.?

Coal tar enamel.

3. Describe the operation for repairing pinholes on

coal tar coated pipes?

Minor abrasions and holidays may be made good by

carefully smoothing out the enamel with a suitable
hot implement and adding as necessary further hot
enamel to maintain the required minimum
thickness.

4. Describe the operation for repairing a damaged

area of 150mm x 150mm, on a 750mm diameter
pipe, coated with coal tar.

a. Remove the coating to cut edges of the repair

portion.
b. Wire brushing should be done to grade St 2.
c. Remove all dust from the cleaned surface with a
soft brush.
d. Apply primer to the clean dry metal surface.
e. Ensure that the metal surface is covered.
f. Cut to size the inner wrap.
g. Apply hot enamel over it, above to it with an outer
wrap a patch would be sufficient to overlap the
previous area.
Page 10 of 50
5. How soon after application can adhesion checks are
carried out on coal tar or bitumen coatings.

Bond test is carried out at a frequency specified by

the engineer and when the inspector has reason to
believe that adhesion is suffering.

6. What voltage is required for holiday detecting coal

tar coatings?

15 kV.

7. Describe how a bond test is carried out enamel

coating?

a. Measure the temperature of enamel wrap. If the

temperature of wrap is not between 5°c and 25°c
cool or warm the test area to bring the wrap
temperature within that range.
b. Using a knife, heated if necessary, make two
parallel cuts through the wrap to pipe surface
about 100mm long and 30mm apart.
c. With a stiff flat blade loosen the wrap the full width
between the two cuts and lift the wrap upward in a
direction at right angles to the pipe surface.
d. The bond shall be considered satisfactory if the
wrap does not peel clearly away from the primer or
the pipe surface but is removed with difficulty
causing cohesive failure of the wrap.

8. What precautions must be taken if using xylene as

a degreaser?

Concentrated vapors from this material are toxic

and if inhaled in an undiluted form will cause
severe dizziness and headache. It is therefore
desirable to use this material in open conditions or
if indoors in a well ventilated workspace. Smoking
or naked flames should not be permitted in the
immediate zone of use. Liquid solution is kept away
Page 11 of 50
 from the eyes and skin and the use of eye shields
and gloves is recommended.

9. What is meant by the flash point of a liquid /

solvent?

The flash point of a material is the lowest

temperature at which the vapor given off will ignite
when a flame or spark is passed over it. A highly
volatile material will have a lower flash point than
a material of low volatility.

10. How may coal tar enamel be removed from a

pipe?

Removal of coating should be by means of a knife,

scraper and or approved copper headed hammer as
applicable and in a manner which will not cause
damage to the metal surface.

11. Is it permissible to use turpentine or white spirit

as a degreaser?

No. It will leave oil residue.

12. Why are barrier cream and protective clothing

worn when handling coal tar enamels?

Coal tar, when heated can give off hazardous and

irritant fumes, therefore barrier creams, positive
pressure facemasks, and or goggles (to protect the
face and eyes) shall be used. At all times when
handling hot enamel, impervious protective gloves
and other appropriate protective clothing e.g.
Aprons & boots should be worn to prevent contact
of the skin with hot enamel.

13. How is primer applied?

Primer is applied with a soft brush.

Page 12 of 50
14. Primers must overlap existing coatings by how
much?

150mm. Minimum overlap.

15. What voltage is required for holiday detecting PE

cladding?

Holiday detection at 10Kv.

16. What precautions are taken to prevent solvent

loss from primer application containers?

Extremes of temperature during storage should be

avoided. Only the required amount to be
transferred to small containers. Primer cans should
not be left open.

17. What is the minimum thickness for polyethylene

cladding and the underlying mastic in accordance
with PSC / CW 4?

PE tape coated with a thin pressure sensitive

adhesive. The tape thickness may vary from
0.15mm to 0.5mm

18. How is damaged polyethylene cladding repaired

if damaged?

Repairs to PE clad pipe can be effected by spirally

wrapping after trimming off any loose material.

19. How are damaged polyethylene coatings

repaired?

Polyethylene coatings shall be repaired by

application of mastic over it a size of PE coat is
applied.

Page 13 of 50
20. What is the material specification for cold
applied self adhesive tapes and cold applied
laminate tapes?

For cold applied laminated tape BGC PS CW2

For self-adhesive tapes BGC PS CW5.

21. Name 2 British gases approved applied self

adhesive tapes.

Scotch wrap, all weather sellotape.

22. What are cold applied self-adhesive used for?

Tapes are compatible with most of the pipe

coatings. PE tapes mould to contours- they may be
used as an outer wrap over grease base tapes. Self-
adhesive cold applied tapes can be readily applied
to long pipe lengths by means of a hand-operated
machine.

23. What is the abbreviation for M.C.L?

Multi compound liquid.

24. Name three British gases approved cold applied

laminate tapes and their corresponding primers.

Maflo wrap - B400

Servi wrap - servi wrap
Plymcote - Plymcote
Densopal - Densopal primer
Scotch wrap vinyl mastic - scotch wrap
Royston greenline - Royston 747 primer

25. What is the voltage required for holiday

detecting cold applied laminate tapes ?

15 kV.
Except Royston green line _ 10Kv.

Page 14 of 50
 4. ENAMELS / TAPES.

1. Is Cold laminate tapes compatible with Coal tar

and Bitumen coatings ?

Yes – They are generally compatible with Coal tar,

Bitumen and PE

2. What precautions must be applied when back

filling over pipes wrapped with cold applied
laminate tapes ?

Imported fill to replace heavy clays, particularly

where depth of cover is excessive and backfill
consolidation is difficult, plastic laminate tapes are
susceptible to rock stone damage and may require
special backfill measure. Their use on thrust sling
should be limited. They are susceptible to sling
handling damage particularly in warm weather.

3. Are primers considered essential for cold applied

laminate tape system ?

Yes – Use of primers considered essential not with

standing manufacturers recommendations to the
contrary.

4. How much overlap is required for cold laminate

tapes on joint coatings ?

Welded joint wrapping must be applied in a spiral

fashion with 55% overlap to give a minimum of
two-tape thickness. Consideration may be given to
applying the thicker tapes with only 25mm overlap.

5. Which specification covers the application of cold

applied tapes ?

BGC PS CW2

Page 15 of 50
6. Why does British Gas not approve the use of hot
applied tape ?

Due to the health hazard involved in these

operation carcinogens is formed due to inhalation
of fumes due to coal tar and bitumen.

7. What materials make up a hot applied tape ?

Hot applied tapes usually consist of a synthetic

fabric bandage ex, woven nylon, coated with a
layer of plasticised coal tar or bitumen.

8. What is Densotape ?

Densotape is a greased-based tape.

9. What is a Flood box ?

For collecting excess powder.

10. What are Mastics and Putties used for ?

Mastics, filler and putties are used extensively for

rationalizing irregular shapes. Suitability for use on
components operating at elevated temperature or
in situations where soil stressing might occur will
be largely related to the base material of the
product.

11. Is it possible to holiday detecting grease-based

tapes ?

Holiday detection is not applicable for grease base

tapes, unless they are over wrapped in this case is
12 to 15 kV.

12. What are Metros 1341 and Matresol 1340 ?

Page 16 of 50
 Brush / spray applied coatings. It is a brushing
plastic Denso Metrosol 1341 – Mastic 1341. Its
primer is Metrosol 1340.

13. Describe the use of Heat shrinkable plastics.

Heat shrinkable plastics are commonly supplied as

a pre expanded sleeves, wraparounds or tapes
having a coating of heat sensitive mastic on the
surface which makes contact with the pipe. On
application of heat by blowtorch or other means,
applied to the central area working outwards,
shrinkage of the plastic takes place, the softened
mastic layer acts as a sealant/adhesive. Use of
primer is not normally recommended.

14. Can valves be coated with brushing mastics in

accordance with the current BG PSCW5 ?

Yes.

15. What is the expected thickness of a brush or

spray applied compound ?

500 microns.

16. What is typical voltage for a holiday detector

battery ?
6 volt battery.

17.Explain the use of a holiday detector on a tee

piece.

To detect lack of thickness or holes in the wrap.

Brush, which consists of many thin copper strands,
attached to the end of an insulated hand stick. The
brush is often used for joint wrapping around areas
where the coil will not travel e.g., tee piece. The
bleeper will sound when the circuit is complete i.e.
on a holiday.
Page 17 of 50
18. What happens to the kV dial when a holiday is
detected ?

When the coil comes into contact with a holiday the

kV dial will drop and the bleeper will sound.

19. Explain the operation of holiday detector on FBE

coated pipe.

Coil spring type –

a. Preset the voltage to 125v for 25minutes.
b. Pass this coil spring through the coated (fbe) pipe.
c. Where there is holiday it produces a spark, visual
warning and an audio signal beep will be heard.
d. Speed of running of the coil 1 ft/sec. Mark the
holiday area with waterproof markers. Repair that
area. Re inspect and retest.

20. Is it possible to holiday detect wet coated pipe ?

No.

21. What will happen if the voltage selected for

holiday detection is too high for the coating ?

This will cause holidays by an arc burning through

the coating.

22. What material would be used to repair damaged

brushing mastic coatings ?

The same mastics shall be reapplied for repairs.

23. What is the title for the BGC PS 10 ?

General pipelining specification – For ditching and

back filling.
Page 18 of 50
24. What is the specification which covers handling
and storage of steel pipe bends and Tees?

BGC PS L3. Handling, transport and storage of steel

pipes, bends and tees.

25. What is thermoplastic coating ?

A paint, which returns to a liquid state when heat is

applied, is known as thermoplastic.
Epoxy powder coating is done in this method.

5. ENAMELS / TAPES.

1. What are the duties of an inspector covering a

ditching operation ?

The inspector must make sure that there are no

stones, electrodes etc., present in the ditch, which
could cause damage to coating. He must also
ensure that the base of the ditch is evenly bedded.
When the pipes are lifted from, the skids before
lowering in the coating must be checked by holiday
detection to ensure freedom from skid damage.

2. Is it permissible to ditch coal tar coated pipe when

the ambient temperature is 25°c ?

No.

3. What happens to the base of a trench excavated in

rock before ditching ?

Page 19 of 50
 The rock area will have a rough hard surface. If the
trench is excavated in a rock a well rammed bed of
approved sand / gravel mixture, 150mm deep must
be applied to the base of the ditch.

4. Describe the back filling operation in accordance

with the BGC PS P10.

When back filling the best of the previously

excavated material is returned to, the trench
providing it is free from stones in 300mm layer.
Each layers being well compacted with hand
rammers or mechanical vibrators before the
deposition of the next layer.
Stone free layers are deposited until the backfill
material is atleast 300mm above the top of the
pipe then the remaining excavated material is
returned to the trench in 300mm layers and
compacted as above. Any stones present must pass
through a 200mm-ring gauge. The minimum depth
of cover between the top of the pipe and the
surface of the top of the soil is 1.1 Mts.

5. What is the minimum depth between the top of

the pipe and the surface of the topsoil, in
accordance with BGC PS P10?

1.1 Mts. is the minimum depth.

6. Describe a simple method to check for laminated

coal tar coatings.

Take a very small ball (about 3mm in dia) of the

unknown enamel and place onto a sheet of white
blotting or filter paper. Put two or three drops of
xylene or toluene solvent onto the ball. Th ring of
liquid running of the enamel and soaking into the
paper will show yellow for coal tar and brown for
bitumen.

Page 20 of 50
7. What is the safest method to handle pipes in
accordance with BGC PSL3 ?

Where practicable pipes shall be lifted using a

spreader beam with suitable slings (nylon tape) as
this is the safest method. Where a spreader beam
is not practicable two leg chain slings (brothers)
shall be used, there shall be fitted with properly
designed profiled hooks fitted with guide ropes,
and the inner edges of the hooks shall be coated in
nylon or soft alloy.

8. Is it necessary to pad cradles and baten carriers ?

Yes it is necessary to pad with atleast 12mm of

rubber at contact points.

9. Describe the method for handling bends or tees.

When handling bends or tees, a nylon sling shall

pass through the bores.

10. Describe the stringing operation on a pipeline ?

With the use of spreader beam with suitable nylons

the pipes shall be lifted and kept in line, one pipe
preceding the other with slight overlap.

11. Is it necessary to choke pipes when using cradles

during transportation ?

Yes.

12. Are holiday detector ac or dc ?

It is dc.

13. What do you understand by the terminology soft

standings in relation to the storage of
pipes ?

Page 21 of 50
 Soft standings consist of two parallel sand rows
separated by approximately ¾ of the
Pipe length .

14. How many bearers and pads (hard standings) are

required when stacking pipe of standard wall
thickness coated with polyethylene cladding ?

Hard standings which may only be used on a flat

firm ground, consists of bearer (skids) padded with
wood wool pads, number of which is dependent on
a table in BGC PSL3.

15. When stacking polyethylene clad pipe. How many

pads are required between tier ?

Two.

16. What is the maximum no. of tiers, if stacking coal

tar coated pipe 900mm diameter ?

Three tier.

17. What is the maximum no. of tiers required if

stacking FBE coated pipe 42” diameter.

Two

18. How many bearers and pads (hard standing ) are

required when stacking pipe of standard wall
thickness coated with epoxy powder ?

Stacks of three.

19. How could the joint be coated / wrapped if a pipe

coated with epoxy powder was welded to a pipe
clad with polyethylene ?

With M.C.L or shrink sleeve.

Page 22 of 50
20. Is it permissible in accordance with BGC PS CW5
to overlap onto polyethylene cladding with primer
for cold applied laminated tapes ?

Yes. Permitted.

21. What is meant by gunting ?

Application of concrete mix by mechanical means.

22. Describe a Pearson survey.

23. Is it possible to ditch a length of pipe into a

trench half full of water ?

No. it should be dewatered and then lowered.

24. Define the term brothers in relation to the

handling of the pipe.

Where a spreader beam is not practicable two leg

chains (brothers) shall be used, these shall be
fitted with properly designed profiled hooks fitted
with guide ropes, and the inner edge of the hooks
shall be coated in nylon or soft alloy.

25. List four safety precautions during dry abrasive

blasting.

a. Use of a dead-mans handle to stop the flow of

abrasive when the operator lets go of the nozzle.
b. Use hoses of the correct type i.e. reinforced.
c. Restrict the pressure to 100psi.
d. Use of carbon impregnated hose to reduce the
chance of static shock.

Page 23 of 50
e. Operators should wear protective clothing,
including an airfed helmet, boots, leather, apron
and gloves.
f. Keep the hoses as straight as possible to prevent
kinks which may lead to blowout.

6. POWDER COATINGS - APPLICATIONS

1. What do you understand by the term “Blueing of

steel”?

Rust formation. After blasting the surface, steel

exposed to environment will get oxidized.

2. Which British gas specification covers field

application of epoxy powders?

BGC PS CW5.

3. Can epoxy powder coatings be applied on butt

joints if the adjoining pipes are coated with
polyethylene cladding?

No. if it is epoxy you cannot coat.

4. How is degreasing operation carried out prior to

blasting for epoxy powder coatings?

Any grease or oil can be removed using a suitable

solvent e.g., xylene within a band of 500mm
centered on the weld.

5. What amplitude is required on blasted joints prior

to the application of epoxy powder coatings?

50 micrometer and 100 micrometer.

Page 24 of 50
6. What grade of preparation is required for epoxy
powder coatings?

BS 4232. 2nd Quality – Sa 2 ½.

7. By how much it is necessary to overlap on to the

FBE coating (factory) during blasting?

25% diameter of the pipe.

8. What is Sliver?

Sliver is surface lamination.

9. If there is any jagged or disbonded areas remaining

on the factory coating after blasting it is necessary
to feather the edges back, by how much?

The edges of the existing coating are feathered

back by 15 mm.

10. If a sliver is present on a blasted surface what

action must be taken?

If any are present they are ground using a grinder

and provide correct wall thickness remains the
ground areas are subjected to further blast
cleaning.

11. How are blasted joints heated prior to powder

application in the field?

This is done by induction (heating) heater which is

clamped around the joint to be coated.

12. What is a typical application temperature for

epoxy powder?

253°c. should not exceed 300°c

Page 25 of 50
13. What safety precautions are required during
heating?

Any source of ignition should be kept away from

the area where epoxy powder is being used. Masks
should be worn when working with epoxy powders
to prevent inhalation and to protect the eyes.

14. The temperature of steel during heating should

never exceed…. °C.

300°c.

15. How are the steel temperatures measured after

heating?

The metal temperature is measured by means of

tempil sticks or by a suitable thermocouple.

16. How soon after the heating must epoxy powder

be applied?

When the metal temperature falls down to the

application of temperature range e.g., 218 to
246°c.

17. What is the minimum and maximum coating

thickness for factory and field applied epoxy
powder coatings?
Minimum cured coating thickness 400 microns.
Maximum cured coating thickness 650 microns.

18. How is the coating thickness measured?

By the use of calibrated magnetic film thickness
gauge (banana gauge)

19. By how much should the field coating overlap the

factory coating?

30 mm.

Page 26 of 50
20. Is over spray reclaimed?

Yes.

21. What do you understand by over spray?

Application of non-uniform and certain areas where

coating thickness is more than required. Powder
application is more at those locations is over spray.

22. Is the epoxy powder melted prior to application

or when it hits the pipe?

When the powder comes into contact with the hot

metal surface, it melts to form paint like coating.

23. How is differential curing of epoxy powder

coating reduced?

To reduce the differential curing of epoxy resin the

required coating thickness is applied in as few
passes as practicable.

24. Why must the spray container be checked during

the powder application?

To ensure there is enough powder to complete an

application process.

25. Can reclaimed powder be reapplied.

Yes. It should be free from contamination and it

must not exceed 25% of the powder in the spray
container.

7. POWDER COATINGS – INSPECTION, FUSION BONDED

EPOXY

Page 27 of 50
1. How often are thickness checks required on field
applied epoxy powder coatings in accordance with
the relevant British Gas Specification?

All coated butt joints should be subjected to

thickness checks. After a coated joint has cooled
thickness checks are made at six positions spaced
equidistantly around the circumference.

2. What do you understand by WFT & DFT?

Wet Film Thickness – WFT

Dry Film Thickness – DFT

3. Where on epoxy coated joints are thickness checks

taken?

At six positions, spaced equidistantly around the

circumference.

4. Describe the calibration of banana gauge.

a. Choose a magnetically insulated shim of known

thickness close to the thickness of
the paint you expect to find. (Always use the
white shim)
b. Place the shim on the same substrate, surface
finish on which the paint to be
measured is attached e.g. if the paint is on a
blasted surface, calibrate the gauge on
an uncoated blasted surface.
c. Place the magnet onto the shim and press firmly
on the instrument, wind the scale
wheel forwards until the magnet is definitely
attached to the shim/ substrate.
d. Gradually wind the wheel backwards slowly until
the magnet detaches itself. At
this point, move the cursor on the instrument
to the thickness of the shim as

Page 28 of 50
 shown on the scale wheel with some
instruments, the scale itself must be moved
up to the line up with a fixed cursor. When
using the latter type of instrument,
rotate the wheel to zero to locate the position
of the scale adjustor.

The instrument is now calibrated and may be used

to measure the d.f.t of any
Non-magnetic paint films to within a claimed
accuracy of +/- 5% in some case.

5. What action is taken if any epoxy powder coated

joint has insufficient thickness?

If any areas are under thickness, the engineer may

require the butt to be reblasted and recoated or
repaired by approved means.

6. Is it permissible to store powder overnight in the

application container?

No. The powder should not be stored overnight in

the application container. Bad storage can affect
gel time.

7. When working with epoxy powder what safety

precautions should be taken?

Masks should be worn when working with epoxy

powder to prevent inhalation and to protect the
eyes. Any sources of ignition should be kept away
from the area where epoxy powder is being used.

8. How soon after coating with FBE can holiday

detection be carried out?

All coated butt joints are subjected to holiday

detection when they have reached ambient
temperature.

Page 29 of 50
9. How much voltage is required for the holiday
detection of FBE coatings?

The voltage used is 125 volts per 25 microns of

coating thickness e.g. 2 kV for 400 microns.

10. What is special about the springs used for the

holiday detection of FBE coatings?

The brushes used are carbon-impregnated

neoprene and can be of the curved type to suit the
contour of the pipe. If a spring is used it should be
‘D’ sectioned so there is maximum contact to the
pipe surface.

11. Is it permissible to store powder overnight in the

application container?

No. The powder should not be stored overnight in

the application container- bad storage can affect
gel time.

12. Are epoxy powder coatings thermosetting or

plastic?

Thermosetting.

13. What do you understand by thermosetting and

thermoplastic?

Thermosetting means, when heat is reapplied to a

cured coating it will not return to a liquid state. A
paint, which returns to a liquid state when heat is
applied, is known as thermoplastic.

14. How is epoxy coating cured?

By cross-linking.
15. How often are curing checks carried out on epoxy
powder coatings and how are they tested?

Page 30 of 50
 These are carried on the first ten joints coated and
then at a frequency agreed with British gas.
Samples of coating are taken from the weld and
parent plate at the six ‘o’ clock position and then
sent for a DSC scan.

16. Describe briefly how the curing tests are carried

out.

Samples of coating are taken from the weld and

parent plate at the six ‘o’ clock position and then
sent for a DSC scan.

17. Why are epoxy powder coatings developed?

Because they are solvent free.

18. Describe Polymerization and Cross-linking.

A polymer is a giant linear molecule i.e. a string or

structure of repeated units, these single units are
known as mers or monomers. Polymers, although
they are heavy molecules, are made up from atoms
and compounds composed of elements with a low
molecular weight, such as carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen and oxygen. The formation of polymers is
a chemical process known as polymerization.

19. Describe the adhesion test carried out on epoxy

powder coatings and how often are they needed to
do.

These are carried out on the first ten butts then at

a frequency agreed by British gas.
1. Using a Stanley knife make two 13 mm long
incisions through the coating to the
metal surface to form a ‘v’ with an angle of 30°
(approx.)
2. Force the coating from the pipe using the
Stanley knife starting at the tip of the ‘v’

Page 31 of 50
 The coating shall be deemed acceptable if it
refuses to peel.

20. Explain the repair procedure for pinholes in

epoxy powder coating.

Abrade area, then repair pinhole using a quick

setting epoxy repair kit i.e. interpon and retest the
area.

21. What is relative humidity?

Relative humidity is the amount of water vapour in

the air expressed as percentage compared to the
amount of water vapour that could be in the air at
the same temperature.

8. POWDER COATINGS – TWO PACK EPOXY

1. Describe the use of melt stick for the repair of

epoxy powder coatings.

Heat repair area using a propane or butane torch

and apply melt stick into flame and wipe stick in a
circular motion onto the heated surface to produce
a smooth patch of 600 microns approximate
thickness.

2. Describe the use of two pack epoxy repair

materials?

Components of the coating material e.g. Base and

curing agent are supplied in separate containers
(tubes or tins) and shall be thoroughly mixed in the
proportions specified by the manufacturer. The
components are usually supplied in different colour

Page 32 of 50
 is achieved without any streaking. No thinner shall
be used at any time.

3. Can thinner be applied to epoxy two-pack prior to

application.

No.

4. What do you understand by pot life and induction

period?

Pot-life: The length of time after induction that a

two-pack paint can be applied.

Induction Period: The length of time a two-pack

needs to stand after mixing and before application.

5. What D.F.T. is required for two-pack epoxy repairs?

600 microns thickness.

6. Can cold laminate tapes be used on epoxy powder

coatings in accordance with
British gas specification.

Yes.

7. What do you understand by the term gel time?

When the powder reaches it’s melting point

temperature before solidification.

8. Can heat shrinkable plastics be used for repairs on

epoxy powder coatings in
accordance with British gas specification.

No.
9. Urethane material should be in accordance with
which British gas specifications.

BGC PS CW6 PART 1.

Page 33 of 50
10. Is it permissible to coat a joint using a urethane
coating if the pipe is coated with
epoxy powder?

Yes.

11. Are Tie-in welds coated with epoxy powder?

No.

12. What is the instrument used for the

measurement of relative humidity and dew point?

Whirling hygrometer.

13. Is it permissible to British gas standards to apply

F.B.E. coatings during rain, snow or Mist?

Yes if protective canopies are used.

14. Is it permissible to British gas standards to apply

urethane coatings when the material temperature
is 12 c.

Yes. If it is less than 10 c – no.

15. What is Scotchkote 206N?

Fusion bonded epoxy powder made by 3M and

usually peppermint green.

16. What is a typical pot life for urethane tar two-

pack coating?

Pot life is the time lapse between mixing and the

time where the material is no longer
usable, it is stated by the manufacturer e.g. 15
minutes at 15 c.

Page 34 of 50
17. What is the maximum permissible relative
humidity for the application of a two pack Urethane
coating?

RH 80

18. What are the two materials that make up a

Urethane tar base?

Urethane tar coating consists of a base part A and

a curing agent part B.

19. How is it possible to shorten the cure time of a

Urethane two pack coating?

By preheating the prepared surface, with the

engineer’s approval.

20. What is the difference between Protogol 32-10

and Protogol 32-10L?

Protogol 32-10: Spray application.

Protogol 32-10L: Application by brush/trowel.
21. Can Protogol 32-10L be used on pipe to be thrust
bored?

No.

22. Is Protogol 32-10L compatible with Protogol 32-

10?

No.

23. Is Protogol 32-10L compatible with epoxy powder

coatings?

Yes.

24. Is Protogol 32-10L compatible with coal tar

coating?

Page 35 of 50
 No.

25. Describe the application of Protogol 32-10L.

Two components should be mixed by pouring the

total components of part B into part A. ensure that
the maximum amount of part B is added by
scraping residual material from the sides of the
container with the Spatula or knife. The mixing
ratio is 3:1 by ratio. Pot life is 10 minutes at 20  c.
1. When large areas to be coated, the contents of
one pack will be insufficient to coat the total area
to the required thickness. In this case coating
thickness is built up in layers to a total D.F.T. of
one mm.
2. Commencing at the underside of the pipe, apply
the compound with the scraper (75-mm blade)
spreading the material in a circumferential
manner and directing excess material into the
weld bead.
3. Allow to dry for one hour then apply a second
layer, this time working in the longitudinal
direction. Ensure a smooth final appearance.

9. POWDER COATINGS / MULTI COMPONENT LIQUIDS –

URETHANE

1. What is the minimum overlap required when using

two pack urethane on pipes
Coated with coal tar?

150 mm minimum.

2. What must be done at the interface if the two

coatings as per the above question?

The interface of the two coatings should be over

wrapped using a heavy duty cold
Page 36 of 50
 applied laminated tape.

3. When can a pipe be handled after coating with

urethane?

Coated pipes should not be handled until the

coating is fully cured (24 hrs)

4. Is it permissible to spray apply Protogol 32-10L, if

not how is it applied?

No. It is applied by brush / trowel.

5. Is it permissible to spray apply Protogol 32-10, if
not how is it applied?

Yes. Spray by application.

6. What is the difference between airless spray and

conventional spray?

In an airless spray the paint is atomized. There is

no air cap on the gun. The spray tips on the airless
spray guns or usually lined with tungsten carbide,
some have the advantage of being fully reversible
by turning a lever 180 to clear out any blockages
in the small orifice. Using airless spray equipment
can be very dangerous due to the high fluid
pressures.

Conventional spray: Type – Gravity, Suction and

Remote Cup.

More expensive than brush but cheaper than

airless. Four to five times quicker than
brush. Cannot apply coatings as quickly or as
thickly as airless. Takes time and lot
of solvent to wash equipment. Masking is required.
Lengthy time is required, low
pressure. Thin coating can only be applied.
Personnel safety is required.

Page 37 of 50
 Airless spray.

Very expensive, maintenance and parts also

expensive. Upto 30 times quicker than
brush. Only method for applying high volume and
high thickness of paints. High
build coatings. Dangerous if not used properly
(high pressure). Safety clothing,
Trigger locking and gun hoses to be kept in good
condition.

7. If spraying is used to apply urethane coating, it is

necessary to flush out the spray gun after use.
What precautions must be taken before the next
application of urethane? What would have
happened if this were not done properly?

Normal practice is to flush out the spray gun using

a solvent, this stops the coating –
gelling in the equipment. When work recommences
the coating spray must be
solvent free, otherwise blistering would occur.

8. What kV is used on the urethane tar coatings?

Voltage used is a 125 volts per 25 microns of

coating thickness e.g. 5 kV for 1 mm.

9. How often is hardness / cure test carried out on a

urethane tar coatings?

These are carried out on the first 10 butts on a

contract then at a frequency agreed by
Bgas.

10. Describe how an adhesion test is carried out on a

urethane coating.

Using a Stanley knife make two 13-mm

approximate long incisions through the coating to
Page 38 of 50
 the metal surface to form a ‘V’ with an angle of
approximately 30 . Force the coating from the pipe.
Use the Stanley knife starting at the tip of the ‘V’.
The coating shall be deemed acceptable if it
refuses to peel.

11. Describe briefly how epoxy powder is applied to

a pipe in a coating mill.

1. Surface preparation – Blast cleaning Sa 2 ½.

2. Heating by induction coil. Joint heated to 253  c.
3. Coating manual or semi automatic spray - Metal
temperature 218 - 246 c. Coating thickness is
applied in few passes to reduce differential
curing.

12. What is an approximate range for epoxy powder

particle size?

13. What is the minimum thickness for Protogol 32 –

10L in accordance with CW5?

1 mm.

14. How much overlap is required on to a F.B.E.

coated pipe using a urethane coating in accordance
with the requirement of CW5?

Overlap – 75 mm.

15. What precaution must be undertaken to prevent

damage on factory epoxy powder Coatings during
welding?

If welding is done, cover the near by area by use of

insulating material e.g. fire proof blanket.

Page 39 of 50
16. What precautions must be undertaken to prevent
damage on factory epoxy powder Coatings during
the handling of pipes using side booms?

Where practicable pipes shall be lifted using a

spreader beam with suitable slings (nylon type) as
this is the safest method. When a spreader beam is
not practicable, two leg chain slings (brothers)
shall be used. This shall be fitted with properly
designed, profiled hooks fitted with guide ropes,
and the inner edge of the hooks shall be coated in
nylon or soft alloy. Chains shall not be slung around
pipes even if padded.

17. What precautions must be undertaken to prevent

damage on factory epoxy powder Coatings during
bending of the pipes?

Rubber padding shall be lined in the bending

machines. Bending shall be carried out in ambient
temperature.

18. In accordance with BGC PSL3 is it permissible to

use steel hooks to lift pipes coated with epoxy
powder?

No.

19. To CW5, if the air temperature is 10 c is it

permissible to apply urethane coatings?

If it is less than 10 c not permitted. But at this

temperature can be done.

20. What is the problem with long term storage of

epoxy powder?

Supplied in paper sacks and should be kept dry at

all times, but should not be left in direct sunlight or
stored overnight in the application container,

Page 40 of 50
 otherwise the curing of the coating may be
adversely affected.
21. If it is required to remove an epoxy coating on a
joint, how would this be carried
out?

1. Blast clean to Sa 2 ½ abrading sound coating

atleast 10 mm back from exposed metal.
2. Remove dust etc., using a compressed air.
3. Repair using two – pack repair material.
4. Holiday detect.

22. Is it permissible to degrease a urethane coating

or an epoxy coating using white
spirit?

No. Not permitted. It will leave oil residue on

surface.

23. Is epoxy powder inflammable?

Yes.

24. List the four stages of transformation for epoxy

from powder to hard film.

1. Flow time powder to semi liquid.

2. Wetting time powder to liquid.
3. Gel time powder to the start of solidification.
4. Cure time powder to completion of cross-linking.

25. An F.B.E. coated pipe is welded to a urethane

coated fitting. How would the joint be coated?

When coating joints made on epoxy coated pipes

the joint coating overlap should be approximately
75 mm.
The interface of the two coatings should also be
over wrapped using a heavy-duty cold applied
laminated tape.
Page 41 of 50
10. POWDER COATINGS / MULTI COMPONENT LIQUIDS
– INSPECTION AND TESTING

1. How long would a brush / trowel applied urethane

coating required to fully cure at 20 c?

Eight hours.

2. When would be a brush / trowel applied urethane

coating be touch dry?

Touch dry – two hours at 20 c.

3. What precautions are necessary to prevent damage

to F.B.E coated pipe when profile cutting?

Mask up area.

4. Is it permissible to thrust bore a pipe coated with

F.B.E on a British gas pipeline
under construction?

No.

5. Is it permissible to Bgas specification to gunite a

pipe if the pipe is coated with
F.B.E?

No.

6. How would urethane coatings be removed if

required?

Abrade the area by blast cleaning.

Page 42 of 50
7. How wide is the band of epoxy powder coating
when applied in the field?

Joint area + 30 mm on to the existing coating either

side.

8. What do you understand by the terms Tg1 and Tg2

in relation to a DSC scan?

DSC – Differential-scanning calorimetry is a method

used to determine the thermal characteristics of
epoxy powder and coating, and the information
obtained from the test gives us the degree of cure.
DSC traces produced from the production coating
should show that Tg2 is within -2 c and +5 c of Tg1.

9. What is the acceptance tolerance related to Tg1

and Tg2?

Tg2 is -2 c and +5 c of Tg1.

10. What do you understand by the terminology

residual exothermal in relation to DSC?

DSC – Thermal characteristics of epoxy powder.

Exothermal – Heat released during the reaction.
The potential heat energy involved in the coating
for the degree of cure.

11. What do you understand by the terminology

endothermic reaction?

Heat absorbed during the reaction.

12. What are the following abbreviations MIBK &

DSC?

MIBK – Methyl iso butyl ketone.

DSC – Differential scanning calorimetry.

Page 43 of 50
13. Name an epoxy powder application company
approved by Bgas.

Raychem and canusa.

14. Is it possible to ditch F.B.E coated pipe during hot

weather?

No.

15. What are hygroscopic salts?

A salt which absorbs moisture from the

atmosphere.

16. What does BGC PS SCW4 relate to?

Polyethylene cladding on steel pipe.

17. What is Plasgard 410?

Multi compound liquid mixed (two-pack or three-
pack) to make one component. Has limited pot life
approximately 30 min.

18. What is Interpon quickset?

Two – pack repair kit, mixed in equal amounts so as

to blend to colours into one colour.

19. What is fluidized bed used for?

For coating purpose.

20. How far from the end of the pipe does the factory
epoxy powder coating terminate when applied in
accordance with BGC PS CW6 part 2?

500 mm.

Page 44 of 50
21. Sketch an epoxy powder coating set up used on
pipelines showing blasting, heating coating
operations.

22. Why is it not good practice to apply epoxy

powder coatings too thick?

To avoid differential curing, application is done by

layer passes.

23. The epoxy powder material used on the BGAS

pipelines shall be in accordance with which
specifications.
BGC PS CW6

24. What are potassium ferricyanide test papers

used for?

To determine the presence of any colourless ion

salts which may be present in the skin. This test is
carried out immediately after blast cleaning.

25. If it is required to overcoat epoxy powder

coatings e.g. with a paint system on an
A.G.I what preparation must be undertaken and
why?

Degrease, abrade and recoat

11. CATHODIC PROTECTION

1. Name two methods of applying cathodic protection.

Page 45 of 50
 1. Sacrificial anodes.
2. Impressed current.

2. Why does an uncoated steel pipe corrode?

1. Due to oxidation.
2. Metal iron reduction.
3. Variations in oxygen content on the material
surface.

3. Name the type of reference electrode used by Bgas

to measure pipe to earth potential.

Copper / copper sulphate half-cell reference

electrode is used.

4. Why should magnesium anodes be used rather than

zinc anodes with sacrificial C.P. system?

Where soil resistivity is high magnesium anodes

are usually used. Nobility of zinc is
less whereas magnesium is ignoble.

5. Is it possible to apply too much cathodic

protection? If so what effect does this have?

It is possible for the cathodic protection to be too

great i.e. the pipe can be over
negative. This can cause excessive amounts of
hydrogen gas to be given of from the
metal substrate resulting in coating disbondment
known as cathodic disbondment.
The more negative the pipe, the more hydrogen
gas evolved.

6. What effect on C.P. would a foreign structure have

if it comes into contact with the pipe?

Stray effects.

Page 46 of 50
7. What is the another name of sacrificial anode
system works?

Galvanic anodes.

8. Is it necessary to coat C.P. plates?

No.

9. Explain briefly how the sacrificial anode system

works.

Sacrificial anodes are ignoble with respect to the

pipeline i.e. if they are attached to a pipeline via a
cable, the anodes corrode first before corrosion of
the pipe occurs. Sacrificial anodes need to be
replaced after the useful life.

10. Explain briefly how the impressed current system

works.

This system is used to protect large area of

pipeline e.g. ten miles in length from one C.P.
installation. Voltage from an external power source
called transformer rectifier is impressed on the
circuit between the pipeline and buried earth
connections known as ground beds resulting in a
direct current being discharged. In discharging
current to earth the ground bed material is
subjected to corrosion. Voltage output is between
10 to 50 volts.

11. What is an electrolyte?

An electrolyte which provides an electrical pathway

from anode to cathode outside of the metal.

Page 47 of 50
12. What types of anodes are used on the impressed
current systems?

Silicon ion, magnetite or graphite anodes.

13. Name three promoters of corrosion.

1. Oxygen reduction in acid solution, neutral,

alkaline.
2. Metal ion reduction.
3. Hydrogen evolution.
4. Metal deposition.

14. Express 0.85V in mV, then explain the

significance of this figure in relation to
Cathodic protection.

850 mV. It is international figure in C.P. system.

15. What is ground bed?

Buried earth connections are known as ground

beds. Ground beds may consist of approximately
six silicon ion magnetite or graphite anodes buried
in a surround of carbonaceous backfill.

16. What work is carried out at the intersection were

foreign pipeline crosses a pipeline to which
cathodic protection is being applied and why?

Stray current effects, connect the interfering

structures to the protected structures
with an electrical resistor or resistance bond. Other
metal structure near to the ground
bed may cause cathodic protection to flow in an
unpredictable fashion possibly to
structures other than the structures being
protected.

17. Is corrosion eliminated with cathodic protection?

Page 48 of 50
 Yes.

18. Is it possible to use graphite anodes to protect a

buried steel pipeline?

Yes.

19. Is it a good practice to bury the pipeline to be

cathodically protected in a carbonaceous backfill?

Yes.

20. What is interference?

Stray current effects are known as interference.

Other metal structures near to the ground bed may
cause C.P. currents to flow in an unpredictable
fashion.

21. What is the cause of cathodic disbondment?

If the impressed current is greater than the

corrosion current then cathodic disbondment may
result. This can cause excessive amounts of
hydrogen gas to be given of from the metal
substrate resulting in cathodic disbondment. The
gas generated pushes the coating from the surface
and causes adhesion failure beneath the edges of
coating.

22. What is a transformer rectifier and its function?

Voltage from an external power source called a

transformer rectifier is impressed on the circuit
between the pipeline and buried earth connection
known as ground beds resulting in a direct current
being discharged.

23. What adverse conditions would cause the

amperage and voltage output to be adjusted on an
impressed current C.P. system?
Page 49 of 50
 Current used is dependent on the quality of
coating, typical amperage is 0.15 amps
but it may be much higher or lower. The greater the
soil resistivity greater is the driving voltage or
number of anodes required to achieve C.P.

24. What is an isolation (insulation) joint used for?

Isolation or insulating joints will be encountered on

cathodically protected pipelines; they are special
fittings implemented where it is necessary to
electrically isolate the underground pipe work from
pipe work etc., which adversely affects the cathodic
protection C.P. system.

25. Why is it not possible to cathodically protect an

A.G.I.? What is A.G.I.?

A.G.I – Above ground installation.

Isolation joints or flanged joints are particularly
necessary at below / above ground positions at
A.G.I.’s. This is because there is no electrolyte for
the current to flow above ground and also electrical
interference can occur from lightening etc., present
on A.G.I.

Page 50 of 50