For more information, please contact:

Education Section
Programme Division, UNICEF

Published by UNICEF
Division of Communication
3 United Nations Plaza
New York, NY 10017, USA

Website: www.unicef.org
Email: pubdoc@unicef.org

Water, Sanitation and

OTHER MODULES IN THIS CFS MANUAL
COMPANION SERIES:

Hygiene (WASH) in Schools

School Readiness and Transitions
Climate Change and Environmental Education
Child Social and Financial Education

CHILD FRIENDLY SCHOOLS

CHILD FRIENDLY SCHOOLS

A companion to the
Child Friendly Schools Manual

© United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)

July 2012
Contents
Acknowledgements................................................................... 1

Preface....................................................................................... 2

1. Purpose, Scope and Concept................................................... 3

2. WASH In Schools in Practice.................................................... 5

3. Location and Design............................................................... 12

4. Child Participation and Hygiene Education.......................... 23

5. Linkage with Community ...................................................... 29

6. Teachers, School Managers and Training.............................. 32

7. Evidence and Advocacy.......................................................... 34

8. Monitoring and Evaluation ................................................... 38

9. Scaling Up .............................................................................. 42

Links......................................................................................... 48

References............................................................................... 50
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This module was written by Annemarieke Mooijman.

Murat Sahin and Therese Dooley from the WASH Section at UNICEF, and Maida Pasic
and Changu Mannathoko from the UNICEF Education Section in New York provided
inputs and revisions throughout the drafting process and contributed to its overall
quality and completeness.

Peer reviewers included: Jane Bevan, Francois Brikké, Rania El Essawi, Donna Goodman,
Mark Henderson, Sophie Hickling, Peter van Maanen, Nicolas Osbert, BB Samanta,
Suchitra Sugar, Jesus Trelles and Carlos Vasquez.

Edited, produced and distributed by UNICEF’s Division of Communication. Graphic

design services provided by CREATRIX Design Group.

1
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 PREFACE
Over the past decade, the child-friendly schools (CFS) model has emerged as UNICEF’s
signature means to advocate for and promote quality education for every girl and boy.
Child-friendly schools enable all children to achieve their full potential. As a part of a
Global Capacity Development Programme on CFS, UNICEF has developed the Child
Friendly Schools Manual, a reference document and practical guidebook to help countries
implement CFS models appropriate to their specific circumstances.

The CFS approach to education guarantees all children the right to schools that are safe and
protective, that offer potable drinking water, hand-washing facilities and clean, safe toilets.
In child-friendly schools, children learn about hygiene and how to protect themselves and
their families from infectious diseases.

As a companion to the Child Friendly Schools Manual, this module provides an in-depth
guide to promoting WASH in Schools through curriculum and classroom practices. It is
intended as general guidance adaptable to particular context and settings.

2
Child Friendly Schools Manual
1
PURPOSE, SCOPE AND CONCEPT
Background
An estimated 1.9 billion school days could be
gained if the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) related to safe water supply and
sanitation are achieved and the incidence of
diarrhoeal illness is reduced.1
One way of achieving this is by providing
schools with safe drinking water, improved
sanitation facilities and hygiene education
that encourages the development of
healthy behaviours for life. This strategic
approach is known as Water, Sanitation
and Hygiene Education (WASH) in Schools.
The strategy helps fulfil children’s rights to
health, education and participation, and has
been widely recognized for its significant
contributions to achieving the MDGs –
particularly those related to providing
© UNICEF/NYHQ2011-2184/Esteve
access to primary education, reducing child
mortality, improving water and sanitation,
and promoting gender equality.
WASH in Schools not only promotes
hygiene and increases access to quality
education but also supports national and
local interventions to establish equitable,
sustainable access to safe water and basic
sanitation services in schools.
Poor sanitation, water scarcity, inferior water
quality and inappropriate hygiene behaviour
are disastrous for infants and young children
and are a major cause of mortality for
children under five. Those conditions are
also detrimental to the health of school-aged
children, who spend long hours in schools.
The physical environment and cleanliness of
a school facility can significantly affect the
health and well-being of children. Disease
spreads quickly in cramped spaces with
limited ventilation, where hand-washing
facilities or soap are not available, and where
toilets are in disrepair. Too often, schools are
places where children become ill.
Purpose and scope
WASH in Schools aims to improve the health
and learning performance of school-aged
children – and, by extension, that of their
families – by reducing the incidence of water-
and sanitation-related diseases. Every child-
friendly school requires appropriate WASH
initiatives that keep the school environment
clean and free of smells and inhibit the
transmission of harmful bacteria, viruses
and parasites.
3
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 WASH in Schools also focuses on
the development of life skills and
the mobilization and involvement of
parents, communities, governments and
institutions to work together to improve
hygiene, water and sanitation conditions.
While there are many approaches
based on differing cultural insights and
environmental and social realities, any
WASH in Schools intervention should
include:

¢¢ Sustainable, safe water supply points,

hand-washing stands and sanitation
facilities;

¢¢ Fully integrated life skills education,

focusing on key hygiene behaviours
for schoolchildren and using
participatory teaching techniques; © UNICEF/ITAL2010-0028/Longobardi

¢¢ Outreach to families and the wider
community.
An efficiently and effectively implemented
WASH in Schools programme will lead to
students who:
¢¢ Are healthier;
¢¢ Perform better in school;
¢¢ Positively influence hygiene practices
in their homes, among family members
and in the wider community;
¢¢ Learn to observe, communicate,
cooperate, listen and carry out decisions
about hygienic conditions and practices
for themselves, their friends and
younger siblings whose hygiene they
may care for (skills they may apply in
other aspects of life);
¢¢ Change their current hygiene behaviour
and continue better hygiene practices in
the future;
¢¢ Learn about menstrual hygiene and
physical and emotional changes during
puberty (learning to avoid menstrual
odour, discomfort and urinary or vaginal
infections will encourage girls to come to
school during menstruation);
¢¢ Practice gender-neutral division of
hygiene-related tasks such as cleaning
toilets, fetching and boiling water and
taking care of the sick.

4
Child Friendly Schools Manual
2
WASH IN SCHOOLS IN PRACTICE
The Child Friendly Schools (CFS) Manual
underscores the notion that to be truly
child-friendly a school must have accessible,
gender-appropriate toilets and hand-washing
facilities, access to potable drinking water
and solid waste management with proper
boundaries. The school must also teach
children appropriate hygiene practices.
This module explores various options
for effectively implementing a WASH
in Schools programme. A dynamic
engagement of CFS principles to evaluate
their feasibility and applicability in the
country context will determine appropriate
options for each school. Considering
available resources, physical conditions,
existing capacity and opportunities for
change will yield a variety of solutions.
In essence, WASH in Schools is a pathway
to healthier schools and healthier, better-
performing children. Key CFS principles and
desired features should be used as guides
for interventions, stimulating discussion
and creativity for the development of
sustainable WASH in Schools programmes.
These programmes must then be adapted
to the practical realities of the school and its
surrounding community.
Ensuring sustainability through
involvement of national authorities,
parents and communities
Any WASH in Schools intervention ultimately
aims for government policies, community
support and school action to sustain
the initiative. The keys to sustainability
are the development of political interest
and commitment, cooperation between
ministries, a national education policy on
WASH in Schools, national policies in related
sectors and the allocation of sufficient
financial and human resources. The policy
should aim to improve children’s education
and health by creating an environment
conducive to implementing, operating and
maintaining WASH in Schools programmes.
Sustainable WASH in Schools programmes
require the involvement and political
leadership of ministries of education as
well as related ministries such as health,
public works, finance, local governance and
water authorities. (For more information
on their roles, see Section 9.) Without
the political commitment evidenced
in policies, standards and budgets,
WASH in Schools remains externally
subsidized. Such small-scale interventions
cannot move beyond the pilot stage.
To become catalysts for building alliances
for WASH in Schools, UNICEF and other
partners must focus on gathering evidence,
creating all-stakeholders’ consultation
venues and facilitating a coordinated,
nationwide approach.
If faith-based and private schools do not fall
under national policies, mechanisms must
be found to promote WASH in those schools
as well. In the past, these were considered
schools for the privileged and did not
generally require development interventions.
However, the reality of the twenty-first
century is that 11 per cent of primary and
24 per cent of secondary schoolchildren
in developing countries attend non-state
schools, with wide variations per country.
In Bangladesh, for example, almost 40 per
5
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools

Examples of national
policies on WASH:
¢¢ In Angola, national plans include
WASH facilities in schools.
¢¢ In 2008, national school
standards in China, the
Gambia, Pakistan and Thailand
incorporated safe water supply
and gender-segregated toilets.
¢¢ In 2008, national education
curricula in China, the
Democratic Republic of the
Congo, Nicaragua and Sudan
incorporated hygiene education.
cent of primary and 96 per cent of secondary
school enrolments are in non-state schools.
Many of the buildings and facilities in those
schools suffer similar conditions as state-run
schools2 and would benefit from the same
WASH interventions.
Involving families and communities in
WASH in Schools interventions promotes
a sense of ownership, which is a necessary
prerequisite for sustainability. Involvement
can take the shape of school management
committees, parent-teacher associations or
committees specifically set up for WASH
in Schools. These groups are particularly
important if health and education
departments or local authorities are not
prepared to provide such services.
Community mobilization and motivation will
extend the impact of life skills development
beyond schools to the whole community.
If parents and the community understand
the importance of appropriate hygienic
behaviour, long-term effects will result.
6
Child Friendly Schools Manual
Guidelines based on CFS principles
As part of the CFS framework for quality
education, the implementation of WASH
in Schools is guided by three key CFS
principles: inclusion, democratic participation
and child-centredness. These principles are
translated into practice through engagement
at the national, district and local levels.
UNICEF and the World Health Organization
(WHO) developed guidelines on WASH
standards for schools in low-cost settings,
outlining key steps for successful
management and implementation of
WASH in Schools programmes at various
levels.3 These guidelines recommend that
each school design and construct child-
friendly, gender-sensitive, well-made
and sustainable facilities for sanitation,
hand washing, water supply, compound
fencing and solid waste collection.
Financial resources, physical condition,
socio-economic circumstances and other
national, district and local concerns impact
decisions on standard WASH designs. These
decisions may include elements such as
protected wells, rainwater harvesting, piped
water or pit latrines with slab, Ventilated
improved pit (VIP) latrines, flush toilets or
ecological sanitation.
There are also several design applications
for schools that go beyond technical
considerations. A child-friendly, gender-
sensitive approach to WASH in Schools aims
to design, construct and renovate facilities as
part of the learning environment. Therefore,
the guiding principle is that facilities should
stimulate and promote appropriate hygiene
practices among children.
Implementation guidelines for WASH
in Schools
a. Each school should work to develop
adequate knowledge, attitudes and skills
on hygiene through life skills-based
hygiene education and child participation.
Improving hygiene behaviour must go
along with toilet construction and the
provision of safe water and washing
facilities in schools. Life skills-based
hygiene education rests on the principle
that new knowledge does not, by
definition, translate into new practices.
Therefore, life skills-based education
seeks to instil hygiene practices into
the realities of children’s daily lives,
helping them acquire the knowledge
of appropriate hygiene behaviours and
the skills to use them. This approach
considers the learning differences of
various stages of child development
and addresses them in the programme
design, allowing children to effectively
transform knowledge into practice. (For
more information, see Section 4.)
© UNICEF/NYHQ2011-2143/Esteve
b. Schools should actively engage parents
and the community in WASH in Schools
interventions. They are key partners during
planning, implementation, operation
and maintenance of facilities, and have
important roles in monitoring the impact
of WASH in Schools interventions and
taking appropriate measures to improve
children’s health. Parents and communities
should also be engaged in emergency
preparedness and response plans, which
address the operation and use of WASH
facilities at schools during emergencies.
c. Engaging families and communities
ensures that children apply their
knowledge at home. Global experience
has shown that children are enthusiastic
promoters of their newly acquired
hygiene skills and can potentially be
effective agents of change within their
homes and communities. If messaging
and practices are consistent with
the cultural environment, children’s
advocacy can lead to better hygiene
practices in homes and communities.
(For more information, see Section 5.)
d. Governments and development partners
should establish a planning process and
management model to address important
issues such as long-term stability and
going to scale. At national, local and
school community levels and among
different stakeholders, partners should
design appropriate plans and define
roles for capacity building and human
resources, technologies and services
selection, financial aspects, operation
and maintenance and monitoring and
evaluation. (For more information, see
Section 6.)
e. Development partners should work to
create political ownership that engenders
a demand-responsive approach,
7
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 considers scaling up and results in
effective long-term interventions.
Any successful programme needs
a favourable policy environment in
which government partners support
and activate the initiative. (For more
information, see Section 9.)
democratic leaders are chosen, the
voices of the people and civil society
influence political decisions;
¢¢ Avoid the use of conflicting
messages from different
organizations;

¢¢ Prevent the duplication of efforts in

f. Joint efforts should include partnerships
with non-governmental actors who
deal with school health and hygiene.
These should include private sector
companies such as soap and toothpaste
producers that promote hygienic
behaviour among schoolchildren.4
These partnerships should:
¢¢ Jointly advocate for political and
social commitments from the
government and create a community
demand for the interventions. Where
the same region or the same school;
¢¢ Create interest in co-developing
initiatives for joint programme
methodologies and expanding
coverage of those methodologies;
¢¢ Create common agreements on
financing and cost recovery. Friction
can arise when one programme is
highly subsidized and contracted,
while another has preconditions
related to finances or parental input.

Implementation of WASH in Schools in various countries

Belize: A baseline study and private-public partnerships for

WASH in Schools
In 2007, UNICEF commissioned a water, sanitation and hygiene assessment of
primary schools in Toledo and Stann Creek, two districts of Belize where studies
revealed very low numbers of schools in compliance with acceptable standards
based on student–to-facility ratios.

In 2009, UNICEF, in partnership with the Ministry of Education, launched a national

assessment to gain an understanding of: (a) the physical state of WASH facilities in
schools in all of Belize; (b) the principal challenges in providing adequate facilities in
a sustainable manner; (c) the existing WASH practices within the community; (d) the
available capacities for delivering WASH education, as well as capacity needs; and
(e) a map of actors involved in the sector and their current and potential roles.

This assessment served as the basis for the development of WASH in Schools
standards and an action plan for sustainably addressing the challenge at the
national level. It was anticipated that the process would lay the foundation for
increased collaboration across actors.

8
Child Friendly Schools Manual
An integrated approach for WASH in Schools in Senegal

Access to Safe, reliable water is a right, which

has many benefits in a school

Running a school canteen
requires water for
preparing food, cooking
and washing dishes.
When traditional
community wells dry up,
the school well can provide
water to those who need it.
Growing vegetables for
feeding programmes and for
sale requires a plentiful and
reliable water supply located
close to the garden.

Promoting hand washing Thirsty children don’t

without a supply of soap make good pupils.
and water is like having a
bowl without food in it.

Spraying water
Clean, odour-free helps control dust
latrines need plenty of in classrooms and
water for cleaning. play areas.

The dignity of prayer Shady trees and bright

and respect for flowers make a school an
others requires water attractive place but they
for washing. require water nearby.

© UNICEF/NYHQ2008-1112/Nesbitt

Washing blackboards Managing the construction

requires water and maintenance of a water
throughout the day. supply develops skills that
can be carried over to other
school and community plans.

This diagram is from the Building for Life proposal prepared by UNICEF Senegal in 2004. While the
proposal focused mainly on water supply, the diagram provides a good overview of the range of issues
addressed by WASH in Schools interventions.

9
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 Schoolchildren in Nepal lead community sanitation drive
In a country where only 31 per cent of the population has access to a toilet, UNICEF
and the Government of Nepal launched the School Led Total Sanitation (SLTS) project
in 2005. Together they trained teachers and initially offered to provide a toilet pan,
a 10-foot pipe, and technical support for every household to construct a latrine.
Eventually, the community members started buying their own materials.

The SLTS programme also includes adults from the community, such as members
of the School Management Committee, the Parent-Teacher Association and the
Mothers’ Club, who make up part of the larger Cleanliness Committee. After the child
club members and other school students receive training from their teachers, they
campaign and educate their parents, who are often illiterate, and neighbours about
the benefits of constructing a latrine and keeping their community clean.

Besides advocating for latrine construction, the joint committee of students and adult
community members share responsibilities for trash collection, sweeping roads and
clearing the neighbourhood of animal waste. Baijalpur is a model village in Nepal,
with trash containers regularly spaced throughout and even strapped to tree trunks.

UNICEF reports that within a year of beginning the SLTS programme, the residents of
Baijalpur achieved the goal of constructing latrines in all 314 homes. The community
is an example in the region, and the school receives many visitors and teachers who
want to follow suit in their own schools.

10
Child Friendly Schools Manual
Action: Youth participation in WASH programme in Tajikistan
UNICEF organized highly successful Children’s
Water Forum programmes in Tajikistan, involving
more than 500 children and young people in
an effort to support youth participation in
WASH education.

All youth participation programmes are modelled

on a child-friendly, interdisciplinary curriculum that
focuses on life skills, community service activities
and peer-to-peer interaction. The Sanitation and
Hygiene Promotion through Schools project is a
hands-on approach to teaching and learning about
WASH. The project employs a package of seven Logo of the WASH in Schools
components, aligned with the days of the week: programme in Tajikistan

Monday: safe handling of drinking water

Tuesday: safe disposal of wastewater
Wednesday: safe disposal of human excreta
Thursday: disposal of solid waste
Friday: household sanitation and food hygiene
Saturday: personal hygiene
Sunday: community sanitation through the Global Education Project

School meets six days per week; the Sunday community clean-up activity is a popular
component among students, who take pride in civic responsibility.

Youth advocacy and outreach to promote safe water, sanitation and hygiene can make
a significant impact on the overall health and development of a growing nation. There
is no shortage of energy or ideas. For instance, student journalists, after publishing
a widely-read newsletter, have requested support to produce a weekly state-wide
television broadcast on the seven components. Youth participation is inherently linked
to individual and collective capabilities, opportunities and access to information. Such
an empowered society can develop itself and depend less on outside assistance.

11
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 3
LOCATION AND DESIGN
The two priorities when planning and
constructing water points, toilets, urinals,
school compound fencing and hand-
washing areas are that (1) children can
learn in a safe and healthy environment
and (2) have the opportunity to practice the
appropriate hygiene habits being taught
in school. Financial resources, physical
condition and socioeconomic circumstances
affect the technical design choices for
WASH facilities to meet UNICEF and WHO
Joint Monitoring Programme standards for
protected wells, rainwater harvesting, piped
water or pit latrines with slab, VIP latrines,
flush toilets and ecological sanitation.5
WASH facilities should encourage hygienic
behaviour. Hygienic behaviour, such as
using a toilet, washing hands and collecting
water, comprises several small steps and
necessary preparations. If the activity is
difficult, complex or time-consuming,
children will skip some necessary actions,
creating potential health risks. Therefore,
facilities must be close to the schools, have
sufficient capacity, with enough toilets and
sinks for the number of students, be sized
appropriately and simple to use, and have
water and soap available at all times for
hand washing as well as anal cleansing.
Facilities should stimulate children’s
learning and development and be age
appropriate. Younger children do not
possess the same ability to learn complex
concepts as older children. Acknowledging
these different learning styles is not only
important for the development of hygiene
education materials, but also for the
design of facilities. Interactive learning and
playful engagement encourages children
to put their new habits into practice.
12
Child Friendly Schools Manual
WASH facilities are potential extensions
of the learning environment, providing an
opportunity for interaction and serving as
powerful tools for hygiene education.
Children can be stimulated by their
surroundings in various ways. The
categories of development are:
a. Environmental: Children receive
information by seeing, smelling,
hearing and touching, and they
process this information based on
their developmental stage. Spaces
they encounter, including water,
sanitation and hand-washing facilities,
can provide a range of positive and
negative experiences related to
colours, smells, shapes and sounds.
b. Social: The way that spaces are laid out
and used can either offer seclusion or
encourage contact with others. Toilets,
for example, require both privacy and
sharing space.
c. Creative: The opportunity to make
spaces their own and adapt them to
suit their needs can inspire children’s
creativity. Children can decorate walls or
solve functional problems, encouraging
creative thinking.
d. Physiological: The use of facilities
can help to develop necessary motor
skills in young children, such as fine-
tuning physical movements. Using the
facilities requires large motor skills
(climbing stairs, using a pump) as well
as fine motor skills (opening taps, using
doorknobs and locks).
Guidelines for the design of facilities based on age6

Early primary school: 5–7 years

Facilities should be clean, use light colours and have sufficient natural light and
ventilation. Hygiene promotion materials can be used to decorate in order to
strengthen the link between education and practice. Facilities should be designed
so that a teacher or older student can stand next to the child to teach proper toilet
use or hand washing. However, most children can complete simple actions or tasks
on their own or with minor assistance. There is no direct need for privacy inside the
toilet block; children like to observe others and imitate their behaviours.

Middle and late primary school: 8–11 years

Schools should provide a clear and practical set-up of facilities with an
understandable relationship between hygiene theory and practice. Facilities must
offer integrated solutions for drinking water provision, hand washing, anal cleansing
and waste disposal. They should offer privacy, including for children of the same sex.

Late primary and secondary school: 12–18 years

Schools must ensure sufficient privacy for boys and girls, including inside facilities.
Facilities for girls must have provisions for menstrual hygiene.

WASH facilities should prevent harm and
promote care of the environment. Children
are best sensitized to environmental
issues in the school setting, where they
are learning about issues related to daily
living. As much as possible, schools should
avoid negative environmental effects or
degradation, while still addressing public
health concerns. Plans and maintenance
must manage toilets that may contaminate
soil and groundwater, for example, or
pumps and water taps that produce
wastewater flows.
Environmental sustainability should be an
integral part of the design, implementation,
operation and maintenance of facilities
and the accompanying hygiene education
programme. The challenge is to promote
awareness of environmental issues while
providing incentives and tools to address
them. Discussions should include impact
on climate change and conservation of
natural resources.
WASH facilities must feature appropriate
dimensions and adjustments for children.
Design adaptations can make facilities
accessible and comfortable for children.
Children are smaller and have less physical
strength than adults. Facility designs
should reflect these differences. For the

13
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 youngest children, facilities should be
adapted to allow for adults to supervise and
help when children use the toilets, hand-
washing facilities or water points.
In larger schools, separate toilet facilities
should be built for younger children
and older children; for girls and boys,
particularly adolescents; and for female
and male teachers. In small schools, where
different age groups use the same facilities,
special provisions can be made for smaller
children, such as a step in front of a pump
or toilet seat, or an additional seat cover
with a smaller hole. Facilities must also
provide ways for adolescent girls to dispose
of sanitary pads without interruption from
young children or boys. It is impossible to
set international standards for dimensions
of facilities because the height and size of
children may vary per region. A participatory
mathematics exercise, in which children
measure their height and size while
standing, squatting or sitting, provides good
information for determining dimensions.
Toilets and water supplies must be
appropriately situated within the school
grounds. Even a well-designed facility may
not be used if it is located in a way that fails
to take into account practical, environmental
or cultural considerations. This can become
especially difficult when there are conflicting
solutions or different preferences among
user groups. Determining location demands
a process of setting priorities and ensuring
participatory decision-making.
The following criteria should be considered
when choosing a location for school toilets
and water supply:
¢¢ Children need to feel secure when
visiting WASH facilities. They should
not be at risk of harassment by people
14
Child Friendly Schools Manual
or attacks by animals such as snakes,
scorpions or spiders. Access routes
must be open and clear and the facilities
in audible and visible proximity to the
community, in the event that immediate
assistance is needed.
¢¢ Toilet facilities and urinals should
guarantee privacy, particularly for people
over the age of eight. In some cultures,
it is important not to be seen entering
or leaving the toilet. Access routes may
be better situated away from the busy
part of the community, while at the same
time open and clear for security reasons.
¢¢ It must be possible to reach the facilities
during all weather conditions, including
after heavy rains or flooding. Sufficient
lighting is needed for children who use
facilities at night (in boarding schools).
¢¢ Facilities only contribute to health and
hygiene improvements if properly used.
For younger children, adult supervision
of behaviour and skills is essential.
Some locations will ease supervision.
Locating a hand-washing facility near
the classroom of younger children, for
instance, allows for better monitoring
than placing it near the toilet exit.
¢¢ The location of the facilities should
allow for security to reduce the risk of
vandalism, particularly when communal
WASH facilities are being installed. An
individual or group of supervisors can be
assigned this task.
¢¢ Toilets and urinals are frequently located
close to other producers of odours
and flies, such as garbage dumps,
cattle or animal pens. Such placement
discourages people from using them.
Facilities should be situated elsewhere or
solutions designed to minimize nuisance
and environmental degradation.
 Girl’s Urinal: Provision of door & location of hardware fittings

Urinal design used for girls in India7

15
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 ¢¢ Toilets with leach-pits need to be located
downstream from a spring and at least
20-30 metres from wells and water
sources to avoid pollution of water
sources. The further the horizontal
distance the pathogen must travel
from the point of entry into the water
table, the more likely the pathogen will
die. Pits should not be as deep as the
groundwater table.
WASH facilities must provide sufficient
capacity and minimal waiting time. For
water use in schools, WHO and UNICEF8
apply a ratio of 5 litres per student per day
for drinking and hand washing. When there
are not enough toilets, taps and waste bins
for the number of schoolchildren, they
inevitably urinate and defecate elsewhere,
‘forget’ to wash their hands, throw garbage
on the ground or drink water from unsafe
sources. Ensuring the right capacity in
facilities is usually not a matter of applying
a simple ratio. Different literature and
country standards use a ratio of 1 toilet for
20-40 children. Beyond the total number
of schoolchildren, factors that determine
required capacity may include the times
when children are allowed to go to the toilet,
drink water or wash hands, and the number
of classes and future growth of the school
population. Arguments that applying this
ratio is too costly can be partly countered
by the construction of less costly urinals
instead of latrines for both girls and boys.
WASH facilities must consider the
specific needs of girls and women.9 When
adolescent girls attend school during
menstruation, they need toilets appropriate
for girls, a water supply to wash in privacy
16
Child Friendly Schools Manual
and covered containers inside the toilet area
to dispose of sanitary pads.10 If such facilities
are not available, adolescent girls may be
unable to remain comfortably in class.
The special needs of children with
disabilities must also be taken into account
in facility design plans. There are over a
billion people in the world living with some
form of disability. Estimates of the number
of children with disabilities vary widely,
depending on how disability is defined and
measured. These wide variations indicate
that children with disabilities are too often
not identified and therefore do not receive
the services they need.11
These children are often excluded from basic
facilities, resulting in isolation, poor health
and poverty. The lack of accessible school
toilets can deter children with disabilities
from attending school. If incorporated into
the original design, adaptations can be
made at little or no additional expense.
Adaptations in WASH facilities should be
made for at least the following categories of
persons with disabilities:
¢¢ Children with poor vision: special grips,
guiding systems and proper lighting
are needed.
¢¢ Children in wheelchairs or with crutches:
facilities should include ramps, wider
doors, extra room inside stalls for a
wheelchair or assistant and special grips
or foldable seats.
¢¢ People with missing or paralyzed limbs:
lids, taps and knobs must be light and
manoeuvrable with one hand or with feet.
Designed with involvement of all
All phases of the design process require
the active involvement of users. In most
countries, standardized designs are used
for WASH in Schools to reduce costs and
control quality.12 This can be a good solution,
but applying a standard design too rigidly
can lead to the neglect of specific local
preconditions and needs. In general, when
properly coached and guided, teachers and
children are perfectly able to assess their
existing practices and find solutions for their
own needs. Their involvement during the
design phase of WASH facilities will lead to
better solutions and increased acceptance of
these solutions.
If a safe water point is provided to a
school, it is also important that the entire
community has access to safe water. If they
do not have an adequate supply, it will be

Child- and disabled-friendly WASH in Schools facilities in Sri

Lanka
This project is implemented as a part of the child-friendly school concept of UNICEF
Sri Lanka. It reaches beyond construction of physical water and sanitation facilities
to promote positive attitudes and behavioural change among children, creating
ownership and a sense of responsibility through:

a. Planning facilities for each school with the participation of children,

teachers and parents;
b. Actively involving children in decisions about the type, number and
combination of facilities, followed by a mapping exercise to locate them in
the school premises;
c. Paying attention to children’s feedback in the technical designs. As a result,
some existing features were modified and new features were added;
d. Adding a disabled-friendly latrine to the package, making sensitive
changes in attitudes and encouraging disabled children to go to school;
e. Designing units of each facility (latrine, urinal, etc.) and developing
combined blocks of those units as determined by children during the
planning;
f. Reactivating school health clubs and strengthening their responsibilities
for maintaining the new facilities;
g. Conducting lessons that promote hygiene and good habits with children.

Malteser International, a non-governmental organization (NGO), facilitated the

participatory planning and hygiene promotion, while the United Nations Office for
Project Services handled the construction.13 The entire process has been endorsed and
monitored by the Department of Education and fully implemented in 24 schools in the
Southern Province of Sri Lanka.

17
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 difficult to stop them from fetching their
household water from the school supply.
When simultaneous water provision to the
community is impossible, a system can
be put in place to manage the water point
judiciously, selling water at an affordable
price to households in need. Funds collected
can underwrite monitoring and evaluation
and school hygiene and sanitation needs,
such as soap. Such a system requires formal
arrangements between communities and
schools. Communities that want to share
water may do so, as long as they do not
affect the water provision to the school.
Remaining challenges
A successful WASH facility strikes the right
balance between cost and quality; low-cost
solutions must not compromise quality.
The best facilities are affordable, durable
and easy to use, maintain and clean. For
example, there must be proper drains for
excess water at wells and surfaces that
come into contact with faeces or urine
must be impermeable and easy to clean.
Despite higher initial investment costs, these
facilities will have longer life spans, require
less maintenance, and promote better
health, saving money in the long term.
A well-designed facility also requires
an operation and maintenance plan
so that it does not swiftly deteriorate.
A good operation and maintenance
plan will identify who is responsible for
cleaning and maintaining the facility
and what costs are involved. The plan
should be developed and agreed upon
before the facilities are completed.
An operation and maintenance plan will:
¢¢ Invite children, teachers, parents and
the local committee to contribute to the
18
Child Friendly Schools Manual
continuous process of monitoring and
improving hygiene practices at school.
¢¢ Protect the best interest of all children
at all times. Child participation should
never be child labour. Girls and boys
should participate equally in cleaning
and maintenance. Cleaning should not be
used as a punishment for poor learning
achievement or bad behaviour.
¢¢ Link to other school improvement efforts,
such as classroom construction.
¢¢ Provide for annual or biannual training
on operation and maintenance skills.
¢¢ Include arrangements for cost sharing
by local authorities, the school and,
potentially, parents or the community.
For example, authorities may finance
spare parts, while the school and parents
provide labour and cleaning materials.
Partners must have financial means to
keep WASH facilities clean, hygienic and
well maintained. For the development of
long-term, sustainable and large-scale
programmes, financial planning and
management is crucial. In recent years,
many WASH in Schools programmes have
moved beyond their small-scale, fully
subsidized beginnings, entering a phase
in which they must become financially
sustainable. Programmes sometimes
have difficulty making this transition
due to capacity problems and a lack of
financial planning and management.
Addressing financial sustainability during
the planning and start-up phase will
circumvent this difficulty. Clear financial
policies can help underpin a more
efficient, equitable and sustainable use of
resources through the promotion of cost
recovery and financing by institutions
in private and faith-based schools or by
government partners in public schools.
Standards for WASH in Schools14
1. Water quality: Water for drinking, cooking, personal hygiene, cleaning and laundry
is safe for the purpose intended.

Indicators
a. Microbiological quality of drinking water: Escherichia coli or
thermotolerant coliform bacteria are not detectable in any 100-ml sample.
b. Treatment of drinking water: Drinking water from unprotected sources is
treated to ensure microbiological safety.
c. Chemical and radiological quality of drinking water. Water meets WHO
Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality or national standards and acceptance
levels concerning chemical and radiological parameters.
d. Acceptability of drinking water: There are no tastes, odours or colours that
would discourage consumption of the water.
e. Water for other purposes: Water that is not of drinking water quality is used
only for cleaning, laundry and sanitation.

2. Water Quantity: Sufficient water is available at all times for drinking and personal
hygiene, and for food preparation, cleaning and laundry when applicable.

Indicators
a. Basic quantities required
Day schools 5 litres per person per day for all schoolchildren
and staff
Boarding schools15 20 litres per person per day for all residential
schoolchildren and staff

b. Additional quantities required (The following should be added to the basic

quantities as necessary. Figures given are for day schools. They should be
doubled for boarding schools.)

Flushing toilets 10–20 litres per person per day for conventional
flushing toilets/1.5–3 litres per person per day
for pour-flush toilets
Anal washing/cleansing16 1–2 litres per person per day

19
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 continued...

2. Water facilities and access to water: Sufficient water-collection points and water-
use facilities are available in the school, allowing convenient access to, and use
of, water for drinking and personal hygiene, and for food preparation, cleaning
and laundry.

Indicators
a. A reliable water point, with soap or a suitable alternative, is available at all
the critical points within the school, particularly toilets and kitchens.
b. A reliable drinking water point is accessible for staff and schoolchildren at
all times.

4. Hygiene promotion: Correct use and maintenance of water and sanitation facilities
is ensured through sustained hygiene promotion. Water and sanitation facilities
are used as resources for hygiene education.

Indicators
a. Hygiene education is included in the school curriculum.
b. Positive hygiene behaviours, including correct use and maintenance of
facilities, are systematically promoted among staff and schoolchildren.
c. Facilities and resources enable staff and schoolchildren to practice
behaviours that control disease transmission in an easy and timely way.

5. Toilets: Sufficient, accessible, private, secure, clean and culturally-appropriate

toilets are provided for schoolchildren and staff.

Indicators
a. There are sufficient toilets available – 1 per 25 girls or female staff, and
1 toilet plus 1 urinal (or 50 centimetres of urinal wall) per 50 boys or
male staff.
b. Toilets are easily accessible – no more than 30 metres from all users.
c. Toilets provide privacy and security.
d. Toilets are child-friendly and appropriate to local cultural, social and
environmental conditions.
e. Toilets are hygienic to use and easy to clean.
f. Toilets have convenient hand-washing facilities close by.
g. There is a cleaning and maintenance routine in operation that ensures
clean and functioning toilets are available at all times.

20
Child Friendly Schools Manual
continued...

6. Control of vector-borne disease: Schoolchildren, staff and visitors are protected

from disease vectors.17

Indicators
a. The density of vectors in the school is minimized.
b. Schoolchildren and staff are protected from potentially disease-
transmitting vectors.
c. Vectors are prevented from contact with schoolchildren and staff or
substances infected with related vector-borne diseases.

7. Cleaning and waste disposal: The school environment is kept clean and safe.

Indicators
a. Classrooms and other teaching areas are regularly cleaned to minimize
dust and moulds.
b. Outside and inside areas are free of sharp objects and other physical hazards.
c. Solid waste is collected from classrooms and offices daily and disposed
of safely.
d. Wastewater is disposed of quickly and safely.

8. Food storage and preparation, if applicable: Food for schoolchildren and staff is
stored and prepared so as to minimize the risk of disease transmission.

Indicators
a. Food handling and preparation are done with utmost cleanliness (hands
are washed before preparing food).
b. Contact between raw foodstuffs and cooked food is avoided.
c. Food is cooked thoroughly.
d. Food is kept at safe temperatures.
e. Safe water and raw ingredients are used.

21
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 More information on WASH in Schools facilities can be found in:

¢¢ Adams, J. et al, Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Standards for Schools in

Low-cost Settings, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2009.
¢¢ Government of India and United Nations Children’s Fund New Delhi, An
Inclusive Approach for School Sanitation & Hygiene Education: Strategy,
norms & designs, Government of India and UNICEF New Delhi, New Delhi,
India, 2008.
¢¢ Zomerplaag, Jaap and Annemarieke Mooijman, ’Child-friendly Hygiene
and Sanitation Facilities in Schools: Indispensable to effective hygiene
education’, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre and UNICEF, the
Netherlands and New York, 2005.

22
Child Friendly Schools Manual
4
CHILD PARTICIPATION AND HYGIENE
EDUCATION
Ensuring children are healthy and able to
learn is an essential part of child-friendly
schools. This section focuses on teaching
children how to prevent diarrhoeal diseases
and other waterborne and sanitation-
related illnesses. The widespread adoption
of safe hygiene practices through an
interactive, child-centred, participatory
approach builds life skills and empowers
schoolchildren to make good choices.
It begins with, and is built upon, what
local people know, want and do.
Good education about hygiene is as
important as good sanitary facilities. Life
skills-based hygiene education allows
children to learn about water and sanitation-
related behaviours and the reasons why
these lead to good health or bad health. The
idea is that when children understand and
think together about their situations and
practices, they can plan and act to prevent
diseases, now and in the future.
© UNICEF/NYHQ2010-2955/Lopez
This section focuses on:
a. Life skills-based hygiene education;
b. Hygiene practices that give the greatest
health benefits;
c. The two most commonly used ways
to teach about hygiene, practiced
simultaneously in most settings for
greatest impact:
¢¢ Participatory education through
teachers in school;
¢¢ Children’s involvement in youth
hygiene clubs within and outside
the school.
Life skills-based hygiene education
Effective hygiene education for children is
not just teaching facts about health risks
and bad hygiene practices. The life skills
approach focuses on changing children’s
hygiene behaviour and the hygiene
behaviour of their families and wider
community with a view to improving their
quality of life.18 To ensure that all aspects
of appropriate hygiene behaviours are
addressed, hygiene education focuses
on the development of:
a. Knowledge and understanding of
practical and theoretical information on
hygiene. For example, all children know
that illnesses like diarrhoea and worm
infections result from poor hygiene
practices such as not washing hands
with soap after visiting a toilet.
23
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 b. Attitudes and personal opinions about
hygiene that influence actions and
responses to unhygienic situations. For
example, children want to be clean and
healthy. Older children feel responsible
and confident to help others, particularly
younger children, practice good hygiene.
c. Practical skills to carry out specific
hygiene behaviours. For example,
children wash hands to prevent illness
and infection. They avoid contamination
with solid waste and help bury or burn it.
F-Diagram
24
Child Friendly Schools Manual
Key hygiene behaviours
Teaching hygiene behaviour is most
successful when it focuses on a limited
number of behaviours with the biggest
overall health impact. Changing a single
behaviour can make an enormous difference.
An example of promoting hygiene
behaviour that stresses a particular
action and its effects is the sanitation-
and hygiene-related F-diagram.19 The
F-diagram shows the path by which germs
can spread from person to person.
Based on the F-diagram and through scientific research and field testing, the following key
hygiene behaviours have been identified as having the most impact on school-age children.
They are the easiest to change at the lowest costs, although they may vary slightly in
different settings.

Key hygiene behaviours for schoolchildren

Learning goals for life skills to be developed

Knowledge Attitudes Practices

Safe use of toilets and Exposed excreta are Children recognize the Children practice the
urinals: Diarrhoea and the leading cause of importance of safe use safe use of toilets and
worm infections are two spreading diseases and of toilets and urinals, urinals, including the safe
main health concerns making people sick. including the safe disposal of faeces and
that affect people on disposal of faeces and hygienic anal cleansing
a large scale and can Behaviours can lead to hygienic anal cleansing followed by washing
be improved through worm infections. followed by washing hands with soap.
appropriate toilet and hands with soap.
urinal use. Depending on age,
children maintain and
operate school toilets and
urinals.

Personal hygiene: Many Personal hygiene impacts Children understand
diseases can be attributed diseases. appropriate personal
to poor personal hygiene. hygiene: washing hands
with soap (see separate
point), wearing shoes or
slippers, cutting nails,
brushing teeth, combing
hair and the regular
washing of body and hair.
At all times, children wash
hands with soap, wear
shoes or slippers, cut
nails, brush teeth, comb
hair and regularly wash
the body and hair.

Hand washing with soap: Hand washing with Children understand Hands are washed with
Hand washing at critical soap drastically reduces the importance of hand soap after toilet use,
moments reduces the risk diarrhoeal diseases washing with soap after before and after eating,
of diarrhoeal diseases and acute respiratory toilet use, before and after before preparing food and
by 42-48 per cent and diseases. eating, before preparing after cleaning babies.
significantly reduces food and after cleaning
the incidence of acute babies.
respiratory diseases.

Female and male hygiene Menstrual blood is not
(for adolescents): Genital dirty, unhygienic or
and menstrual hygiene is unclean. It is simply blood
important for the health and tissue sloughed
condition of women and from the lining of the
reproductive health in uterus. The odour during
general. menstruation is caused
by bad hygiene of the
genitals.
Both men and women
see the importance of
washing the genitals daily
with mild soap and water.
During menstruation,
women use sterile
pads and wipe genitals
from front to back after
defecation.
Both men and women
wash the genitals daily
with mild soap and water.
During menstruation,
women use sterile
pads and wipe genitals
from front to back after
defecation.

The symptoms of bladder

and kidney infections
must be recognized and
treated.

25
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 continued...
Waste management
and water drainage:
Appropriate handling of
solid waste and stagnant
water helps in pest control
and limits breeding
mosquitoes and flies.
Knowledge
There are health risks in
the non-collection of solid
waste and in standing
water.
Attitudes Practices
Children link collection Solid waste is collected
and treatment of solid and treated; standing
waste with overall health water is drained.
risks. They understand
the relationship between
standing water and insect
breeding.

Water treatment,
handling and storage:
Through testing and
treatment, water can be
made safe from faecal or
chemical contamination.
Where possible,
communities should
collect water from a safe
source and store it safely.
If the source is not safe,
water must be treated
through boiling, filtering,
solar or chemical
disinfection.
Communities understand
the necessity of treating
unsafe water through
boiling, filtering, solar or
chemical disinfection
If the source is not safe,
children always treat the
water through boiling,
filtering, solar or chemical
disinfection. Boiling is too
dangerous for younger
children.

Food hygiene: Eating
healthy food is essential
for the well-being
and survival of each
human being. Eating
‘contaminated’ food
(also known as ‘food
poisoning’) can be a
significant source of
diarrhoeal diseases.
Food hygiene and Children know how to Raw fruits and vegetables
diseases are linked. store food appropriately and raw meat, poultry or
and recognize common fish are treated and stored
Food should be stored signs of spoiled food. appropriately.
appropriately.
There are recognizable
signs when food is
spoiled.

Sometimes hygiene education that focuses on WASH-related issues will be part of the wider context of health education
or environmental education. In that case, issues such as malaria, HIV and AIDS, nutrition, reproductive health,
environmental protection, disaster risk reduction and climate change will also be addressed.

Child participation Developing appropriate hygiene behaviour

Child participation is a precondition for
the success of any WASH in Schools
intervention. Generally teachers in primary
and secondary school have been trained in
traditional classroom teaching approaches,
in which there is little room for active
participation by the students. While class
instruction has its place, children greatly
enjoy and benefit from more participatory
learning methods. These methods actively
involve children in the learning process and
allow them to learn from their actions and
their classmates.
is greatly enhanced by allowing children to
fully participate. In this way, children:
¢¢ Learn and adopt new concepts and
skills quicker.
¢¢ Acquire useful knowledge from
participating in environmental activities.
¢¢ Are a source of creativity, energy,
initiative, dynamism and social renewal.
¢¢ Contribute meaningfully to environmental
restoration and protection in their
communities.

26
Child Friendly Schools Manual
¢¢ Are forceful advocates who carry
healthy lifestyle messages home and
to their community.
In this context, child participation can be
achieved in two ways:
to practice. Use of small groups gives
every student a chance to fully participate
and encourages their contributions and
exchanges of opinion. At the same time,
the group work helps children to develop
cooperation and teamwork skills.

¢¢ Through participatory teaching methods Youth hygiene clubs get schoolchildren

used by teachers or through special
hygiene teachers in school, during school
hours as part of the regular curriculum
(generally a more sustainable approach);
¢¢ Through special youth hygiene clubs
within and outside the school. Not
part of the official curriculum, these
clubs depend more on the motivation
and enthusiasm of individuals
and are thus less sustainable.
actively involved as advocates for a healthy
and hygienic school and community.
In the clubs, they learn appropriate
hygiene behaviour and can train as peer
educators and as overseers of hygienic
conditions in the school and schoolyard.
Clubs also allow teachers to experiment
without the constraints of a classroom.
They can take the children into the
community and work in smaller groups.

Participatory teaching methods can be Successful models for setting up youth

used with the whole group or with several
smaller groups. Working with a whole class
is best when introducing a method in which
students give each other positive feedback.
Working in small groups is only possible if
classes are not too big or when more than
one teacher or support-teacher is available.
Small group activities are recommended
when every student needs to participate
more than once or if a method requires a
longer time frame to allow each individual
hygiene clubs include:
¢¢ In-school health clubs run in conjunction
with other school clubs and teacher-
led groups.
¢¢ After-school health clubs operated in the
school after class with external input,
such as from community health workers
or NGO staff.

What is participatory teaching and what is not?20

It is:
¢¢ Encouraging children to think and be creative.
¢¢ Helping children to make their own decisions and to make hygiene actions
interesting and fun.

It is not:
¢¢ Deciding on behalf of the children what action to take.
¢¢ Deciding on behalf of the children who will be involved.
¢¢ Dull and boring.

27
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 ¢¢ Community health clubs set up and
organized by community workers in
cooperation with the children. Available
for schoolchildren and children who do
not go to school, but run as a separate
structure in the same way as other
organizations, such as Scouts groups.
The children act as peer educators.
¢¢ Peer group health clubs established
and organized by adults, with
programming run by peer educators
who lead group activities.
While participatory education and youth
hygiene clubs are mainly set up for hygiene
education, programme experiences have
identified other ways to encourage child
participation, including:
¢¢ Involving children during the design
and rehabilitation process of school
facilities. Children have different
views of the world than adults and
therefore experience the use of facilities
differently. They can be frightened in
situations that adults consider safe.
Eliciting children’s views and asking
them to jointly examine appropriate and
acceptable solutions will increase the
success of the programme.
¢¢ Allowing members of youth hygiene
clubs or adolescent schoolchildren
to participate actively in meetings,
workshops and assessments to monitor
and evaluate the programme.
¢¢ Inviting adolescent children to make
drawings for new training materials
adapted to their local conditions.
28
Child Friendly Schools Manual
More examples of life skills
development and lesson plans for
participatory education on WASH can
be found in:
¢¢ Child-to-Child Trust, Children for
Health: Children as partners in
health promotion, Macmillan
Caribbean, Oxford, UK, 2005.
¢¢ Khamal, S., et al.,’ The Joy
of Learning: Participatory
lessons plans on hygiene,
sanitation, water, health and the
environment’, IRC International
Water and Sanitation Centre,
Delft, the Netherlands, 2005.
¢¢ Postma, Leonie, Renate Getkate,
and Christine van Wijk, ‘Life
Skills-Based Hygiene Education:
A guidance document on
concepts, developments and
experiences with life skills-
based hygiene education in
school sanitation and hygiene,
education programmes’,
IRC International Water and
Sanitation Centre, Delft, the
Netherlands, in cooperation
with UNICEF, 2004.
¢¢ World Health Organization,
‘Skills for Health: Skills-based
health education including
life skills – An important
component of a Child-Friendly/
Health-Promoting School’,
WHO’s Information Series on
School Health, Document 9,
WHO, Geneva, 2003.
5
LINKAGE WITH COMMUNITY
Involving parents and community
Parents and community members can have
important roles in keeping the school clean,
safe and healthy, and encouraging children
to adopt improved hygienic behaviour.
Roles for local committees, parents and
communities include:
a. Key partners during planning and
implementation. Parents and community
members often provide unskilled
labour and local construction materials
to build school facilities. Involving
them in planning can lead to a sense
of ownership among the parents and
community members. The community
can make decisions and arrangements,
for example, on community use of the
school water tank or toilets if facilities
are not available at the household
level. To obtain commitment and
consensus from the entire community,
the local committee should report
their findings and decisions to the
community as a whole. The committee
should equally represent men and
women, ethnic groups and social
classes to ensure a balanced view.
b. Financial controllers and fund holders.
If parental contribution is required
for maintenance, cleaning staff, and
supplies of soap and cleaning material,
the parents can oversee the funds
through the parent-teacher association
to overcome any distrust when they
must give payments to the school.
Contributions may be provided as
goods, such as one bar of soap or bottle
of cleaning liquid brought annually by
each child to the school.
c. Overseers of operation and
maintenance. In most communities,
boards are responsible for the operation
and management of water systems
and sometimes of communal toilets.
Involving them from the start can
help them incorporate the school
facilities into their overall work. The
schoolchildren or special staff can be
assigned to clean the toilets.
d. Community-based monitors. The
community and the school have many
advantages in monitoring the facilities.
They will quickly know and report
needed repairs and can motivate facility
users by sharing the positive impact of
interventions as measured by objective
criteria. Information can be shared at all
levels, including: the communities and
schools and their specific groups, such
as girls and women; local education and
health authorities; programme staff and
management; and programme advisers.
e. Coordinators of facility use during
emergencies. In many parts of the world,
school buildings are used as temporary
shelters for affected community
members during emergencies.
Adequate, well-maintained WASH
facilities in schools allow for appropriate
hygiene practices in times of emergency
and can drastically reduce the risk
and spread of infectious diseases.
These efforts must be coordinated
with the school, community or water
board as part of the overall vision of
emergency preparedness. The primary
aim is to have schools open and
functioning during emergencies.
29
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 f. Target groups for educational activities.
Parental and community involvement
ensures that what is learned in school
is applied at home, particularly for
younger children who are not in a
position to change hygienic behaviour
in their homes without their parents’
commitment. Therefore, it is imperative
to educate all family members on the
adoption of appropriate hygiene skills
and get the surrounding community
involved in programmes for hygiene,
sanitation and water in schools. To
avoid confusion, the initiative should
involve parents in the content of the
hygiene education for their young
children and urge them to reinforce
the learned behaviours at home.
This is especially important so the
content matches the community
ethos and avoids cultural taboos.

Community hygiene promotion

Depending on the characteristics of
the intended community (urban-rural,
ethnic groups, social classes, etc.) and
the available budget, several options for
hygiene promotion activities exist. The main
hygiene promotion options for parents
and community are: hygiene education,
mass media campaigns such as Global
Handwashing Day, child-led education
of their families and peers, participatory
hygiene promotion such as Participatory
Hygiene and Sanitation Transformation
(PHAST) or Community-led Total Sanitation
and social marketing.

Global Handwashing Day: in schools and communities

Initiated in 2008 by the Global Public-Private Partnership for Handwashing with

Soap, Global Handwashing Day on the 15th of October is endorsed by a wide array
of governments, international institutions, civil society organizations, NGOs, private
companies and individuals.

The objectives of this day are to:

a. Foster and support a global and local culture of hand washing with soap;
b. Spotlight the state of hand washing in each country;
c. Raise awareness about the benefits of hand washing with soap.

Resources, such as a planning matrix, hand-washing videos and events guides,

are available at the official Global Handwashing Day website:
http://www.globalhandwashingday.org/.

30
Child Friendly Schools Manual

How can children pass on their
hygiene knowledge to peers, family
and community?
a. Spread the knowledge they have
learned in school by talking with
friends and parents about their
hygiene lessons.
b. Teach by example, washing their
hands with soap at critical times.
c. Work together to spread ideas and
take action in the community, for
example organizing clean-up days.
Water and sanitation provision in the
community
If a safe water point or toilets are provided
in schools, the community must also
have access to safe water or toilets. If the
community is allowed to use the water
source provided for schools, formal
arrangements between the community and
school should govern its usage. A system
can be established for managing the water
point and selling water to the community at
an affordable price. The income can support
maintenance and operation and other
school hygiene needs such as soaps and
cleaning materials.

PHAST in communities
It is difficult to change behaviour. Change best occurs through the use of participatory
methods. Such methods enhance self-discovery and ownership in planning for
improvements. They have been proven successful when traditional teaching strategies
have failed. They are based on human behavioural science, adult education and field-
testing.

Field experience has shown that participatory methods can lead to far more rewarding
experiences for the hygiene educator or health worker. Case studies have illustrated
that once participatory methods are tried, they are found to be worthwhile and
teachers and students do not want to return to earlier methods.

Developed by WHO in the early 1990s, PHAST is an approach that promotes hygiene,
sanitation and community management of water and sanitation facilities. It is an
adaptation of the Self-esteem, Associative strength, Resourcefulness, Action planning
and Responsibility (SARAR) methodology of participatory learning, which builds on
people’s innate ability to address and resolve their own problems. It aims to empower
communities to manage their water and to control sanitation-related diseases, and it
does so by promoting health awareness and understanding, which in turn, leads to
environmental and behavioural improvements.

PHAST uses methods and materials that encourage the participation of women, men
and children in the development process. It relies heavily on the training of extension
workers and the development of graphic arts materials (in sets that are called
‘tools kits’), which are adapted to reflect the cultural and physical characteristics of
communities in a particular area. The production of PHAST materials requires trained
artists and trained extension workers.

31
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 6
TEACHERS, SCHOOL MANAGERS AND
TRAINING
Motivating teachers and school Hence, it is important for WASH to become
managers a subject in teacher training colleges and in
school curricula.
For WASH in Schools programmes to be
sustainable and successful requires the
involvement and buy-in of teachers and Training teachers
school managers. Most schools have
some type of health or hygiene education In many countries, national engagement of
as part of their regular curriculum and WASH in Schools has led to specific hygiene
teachers have been trained in those education subjects in national teacher
programmes. Developments should training institutes. As WASH in Schools
build upon the knowledge that exists. becomes integral in national curricula,
An important focus of teacher training large-scale, in-service teacher training will
should be attitude change towards be required. Teacher education and training
WASH in Schools. This can be done by: must focus on both the content and the
method for presenting WASH in Schools.
a. Explaining that this programme is
not another subject in school but a
life skill used by children at school,
at home and in the community to
improve their overall health and
hygienic living conditions.

b. Understanding that children do not only

receive information but also actively
promote good health and hygiene.

Currently, most WASH in Schools

interventions are established as a
programme approach, with teachers trained
by NGOs or agencies, often in coordination
with ministries of education. Teaching
materials are made available by the
programme. Some larger-scale initiatives
use a training-of-trainers approach, training
one or two teachers per school who are
expected to pass this information to their
colleagues. This approach may not be
sustainable, however, as trained teachers
can leave the school or simply not have
time or motivation to train other teachers.
© UNICEF/NYHQ2008-1117/Nesbitt

32
Child Friendly Schools Manual
Teaching methods that can be used for hygiene education:21
Methods suitable for children
aged 6–8 years
Listening to, reading and telling
stories;
Reciting poems and singing songs;
Performing drama/short role plays;
Watching and participating in
various types of puppet plays;
Simple sorting games;
Language and number games and
assignments;
Walks, simple observations;
Skills demonstrations with peer
observation and analysis;
Movement games, competitions;
Conversations and discussions;
Drawing, painting, colouring,
playing with clay;
Doing simple hygiene tasks;
Presentation to parents and family
members.
Methods suitable for children
aged 8–11 years
Listening to, reading and analyzing,
and telling stories;
Quizzes;
Conversations and discussions;
Singing and dancing;
Drawing and painting;
Making various types of models;
Compositions and creative writing;
Brainstorming;
Excursions;
Performing dramas, role playing,
pantomime, skills demonstrations;
Peer observations and analysis;
Language and maths games, such as
crosswords;
Competitions.
Methods suitable for children
aged 12–15 years
Listening to, reading and telling
stories;
Analyzing and writing stories;
Group and class discussions;
Singing and dancing;
Drawing and painting;
Brainstorming;
Performing dramas, role playing,
pantomime, skills demonstrations;
Peer and family members’
observations and analysis of
behaviour;
School/community observation and
mapping or excursions;
Language and maths games, quizzes
and puzzles;
Competitions;
Doing hygiene tasks with an
educational purpose such as helping
younger children visit toilets and
wash hands.

Further key points for teaching methodology
include the need to:
a. Integrate hygiene education into
the curriculum;
b. Practice multi-purpose learning by
combining hygiene education with basic
education skills such as reading, writing,
arithmetic and geography;
c. Adapt methodology to the local culture
and socioeconomic circumstances and
focus on gender equity;
e. Ensure there is enough reasonably
priced teaching material for all teachers
and students;
f. Monitor and evaluate conditions,
practices and progress;
g. Practice learning in school and base
education on real hygiene needs and
priorities of the communities in which
the children live;
h. Adjust education to the child-
development phase and age group.

d. Reach out to homes and communities;

33
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 7
EVIDENCE AND ADVOCACY
The relevance and importance of WASH
in Schools is based on solid research. This
section highlights studies related to: 1) the
impact of WASH in Schools on health and
learning, 2) household tasks related to
WASH, 3) needs of adolescent girls and 4)
long-term impact. The studies can provide
information needed by policy- and decision-
makers to make informed decisions when
allocating resources for WASH in Schools.
They can also encourage local academia
to build on these studies and gain further
knowledge about the importance of WASH
in Schools programming.
Impact on health and learning
Learning, hygiene and health are
interlinked. Schools are where children
spend most of their time. In bad hygienic
conditions, children are exposed to
diseases and risk infection. There is
a direct link between diarrhoea and
hygiene in schools. Children can carry
infectious agents from childcare settings
and schools into the home, causing other
household members to become infected.
WASH in Schools focuses generally on
diarrhoeal and worm infections. These are
the two main diseases that affect school-
aged children and can be drastically
reduced through improved water, sanitation
and hygiene in schools.22
The causes of diarrhoea include a wide
array of viruses, bacteria and parasites.
Diarrhoeal disease affects far more
individuals than any other illness. Eighty-
eight per cent of diarrhoeal disease is
caused by unsafe water supply, inadequate
sanitation and hygiene.23
34
Child Friendly Schools Manual
Diarrhoea is a significant reason why
children are absent from school. A recent
campaign promoting hand washing
with soap in 30 primary schools in Egypt
reduced diarrhoea-related absenteeism
by 30 per cent.24 Similar results have
been found in China and Colombia.25
Each of these studies also demonstrated
a significant reduction in absenteeism
related to respiratory-illness as a result of
improved hand hygiene.
Diarrhoea is also behind chronic
undernutrition and growth retardation.26
Diarrhoeal episodes exacerbate the
relationship between malnutrition and
infection, as children tend to eat less
and can absorb fewer nutrients. Each
episode contributes to malnutrition,
reduced resistance to infections and,
when prolonged, to impaired growth and
development.27
A study in Brazil followed 73 Brazilian
children to assess their school
performance.28 This study showed
a relationship between the effects
of early childhood diarrhoea on
later school readiness and school
performance, revealing the potential
long-term human and economic
costs of early childhood diarrhoea.
Intestinal worm infections including
hookworm, whipworm, roundworm
and schistosomiasis affect roughly
one in four people around the world.
Worm infections are spread through
unhygienic environments in soil or water
and unhygienic behaviour via food or
hands. School-aged children have the
highest infection prevalence of any
group; an estimated 47 per cent of children
ages 5–9 in the developing world suffer
from a worm infection.29 Such diseases
are thought to be entirely attributable to
inadequate sanitation and hygiene.30

Worms are easily spread among groups

of children because they play together,
touch each other, visit the toilet and
often do not wash hands with soap
afterwards. Worms are one of the
most important causes of physical and
intellectual growth retardation.31

The impact of worm reduction programmes

in schools has been remarkable. In
Kenya, for example, treatment reduced
absenteeism by one quarter, with the largest
gains for the youngest children who suffered
the most ill health.32
Improving sanitation facilities has also
been associated with a reduction in
gastrointestinal illness. Research found a
reduction of 34 per cent across 12 studies
in developing countries.33 Washing hands
with soap is another important barrier to
transmission and has been cited as one
of the most cost-effective public health
interventions.34 Hand washing with soap can
reduce the incidence of diarrhoeal disease
by 42 to 48 per cent.35 Interventions to
improve water quality at the source, along
with treatment and safe storage systems at
the point of use, reduce diarrhoea incidence
by as much as 17 per cent.36
The above statistics demonstrate the
importance of promoting hand washing with
soap among children and their caregivers,
balancing technical solutions on water
and sanitation provision, and promoting
appropriate hygiene behaviour.
© UNICEF/NYHQ2010-1544/Asselin
Household tasks related to WASH
Many children arrive late to school because
they must walk long distances in order to
fetch water. The responsibility of fetching
water often falls to girls. When teachers send
children for water, girls are often selected
for the task, depending on the country and
cultural setting. When family members
become sick, often due to water- and
sanitation-related diseases, girls are more
likely to be kept from school to help.
A study in Ghana shows a significant
relationship between water-hauling time
and girls’ school attendance.37 A 15-minute
reduction in collection time increases the
proportion of girls attending school by 8
to 12 per cent. The impact of hauling time
on school attendance is stronger above a
30-minute round trip.
School-based studies have demonstrated
potential for influencing hand-washing
behaviour through membership in
safe water clubs, peer-to-peer teaching,

35
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 Lack of hand washing in primary schools
¢¢ In Kenya, an evaluation of WASH in Schools reports that only 5 out of 100
schools had soap available for children. Less than 2 per cent of children
(only 21 out of 951) were observed to wash their hands with soap.38
¢¢ An evaluation conducted in India shows that hand washing before eating
in school was far more frequent in districts with UNICEF-supported WASH
in School programmes than in control districts. However, soap was seldom
used when washing hands (2 per cent or less of the children), which
seriously compromised the effectiveness of hand washing.39
¢¢ A six-country evaluation of WASH in Schools pilot programmes in
Burkina Faso, Colombia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Vietnam and Zambia found
the availability of soap to be a major problem in most schools. “This
jeopardizes the educational effort promoting the use of soap and results
in a low proportion of students washing hands with soap. Soap is not
available for various reasons such as for fear of it getting stolen or because
it is too expensive for the school to buy.”40

classroom sessions with focused training sanitary pads.45 Without appropriate

materials and role-playing or songs.41 These
studies demonstrate that while teachers can
successfully transfer knowledge to students,
educated students can also influence family
members by sharing this information, which
may in turn affect behaviour change at the
community level.42 Three community studies
also found that students played a major role
in hand-washing education.43
Needs of adolescent girls
Increasingly, evidence has shown that the
absence of toilets or separate toilets in
schools for girls is a major reason parents
keep their daughters from attending
school.44 Adolescent girls attending
school during menstruation require girl-
appropriate toilets, water supply for
washing and receptacles for discarded
facilities, adolescent girls may be unable
to remain comfortably in class.
Although scientific evidence on the subject
is limited, girls often mention the lack of
sanitary protection during menstruation
as a barrier to their regular attendance
in school. Staying at home might also be
motivated by religious and cultural beliefs
and habits. Many girls and young women
prefer to stay home, where they do not
need to worry as much about sanitary
protection or adequately concealing clothing.
Absence from school several days a month,
amounting to 10–20 per cent of all school
days, can be detrimental to a girl’s learning
and academic performance. Eventually
this absenteeism can lead her to drop
out completely.

36
Child Friendly Schools Manual

© UNICEF/NYHQ2008-1078/Nesbitt
Girls’ absence from school also has an
economic impact. Research shows that for
every 10 per cent increase in female literacy,
a country’s economy grows by 0.3 per cent.46
Educated women are more likely to raise
healthy, well-nourished, educated children,
protect themselves from exploitation and
AIDS and develop skills to contribute to
their societies.
Another unmet need is that school
curricula typically do not cover the topic
of menstruation and puberty in a girl-
friendly way. The treatment of the subject
fails to help girls understand the changes
in their maturing bodies. Many biology
textbooks, for instance, contain sexless
figures and make no reference to feminine
and menstrual hygiene, male hygiene,
body awareness, the maturation process or
changes during puberty. Girls and boys are
left ignorant of their bodies.
Long-term impacts
A study on the long-term effect of
community hygiene education programmes
for both adults and children found that new
behaviours do not fade as years go by.47
People do not revert to earlier, less hygienic
practices. On the contrary, data indicate that
hygiene behaviours are sustained beyond
the end of an intervention. For five countries,
25 comparisons were made between
hygiene behaviour and the end date of the
programme. The results showed that even
where the programme had ended seven or
nine years before the survey, about four out
of five or 80 per cent of the women were still
consistently using their latrines.
Researchers presume that hand washing,
like tooth brushing, occurs as part of daily
routines and that these routines are often
established in childhood.48 Therefore, schools
are ideal settings for hygiene education,
where children can learn and sustain lifelong
adequate hygiene practices.
37
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 8
MONITORING AND EVALUATION
Why monitor and evaluate maximize effectiveness in meeting
specific WASH in Schools goals
When properly designed and used, (Programme Design).
a monitoring and evaluation system
allows people to determine whether ¢¢ To permit managers of specific
the implementation of a programme is programmes to track the efficiency
facilitating achievement of its goals; when it and effectiveness of the programme
is necessary to redirect the implementation and assess whether its administration
approach; how the country environment has proceeded according to what
is affecting operational outcomes and was planned – not evaluating
outputs; and what other aspects may support whether the underlying programme
decision-making and project management. design was valid or effective
(Programme Management).
Monitoring should be an ongoing activity
¢¢ To allow for a periodic, objective
in WASH in Schools programmes. Far
look at overall programme or project
more than collecting information to ´see
progress and results, analyze the
how things are going’, properly designed
reasons for success and failure and
monitoring and evaluation systems can serve
make recommendations for future
the multiple purposes of:
development (Programme Evaluation).
¢¢ Advocating, influencing or persuading
a decision-making or funding body
to increase attention and resources
to WASH in Schools, change a
policy or law or agree to strengthen
the overall WASH sector.

¢¢ Strategic planning and financial

resource allocation to diagnose and
direct interventions. Monitoring can
help decision-makers and planners
in government, donor organizations
and civil society decide how best
to focus investments, technical
assistance and other interventions
within WASH in Schools.

¢¢ Programming to design, manage and

evaluate interventions:

¢¢ To guide choices on approaches,

technologies and methodologies to
© UNICEF/NYHQ2010-1298/Ramoneda

38
Child Friendly Schools Manual
¢¢ Ensuring external accountability to Many countries have established EMIS
schools, teachers, children, decision- systems, often with technical and
makers and donors; monitoring how financial support from international
resources are spent and benefits donors and development banks.
distributed; conducting quality control
on programmes; evaluating cost- Although many EMIS have recently
effectiveness of investments; tracking included WASH, there is still little statistical
ecological and financial sustainability; information available on WASH in Schools
and assessing overall aid effectiveness. facilities. In 2008, in the 60 countries
where UNICEF had a priority for WASH
¢¢ Learning to move forward, to capture interventions, only 46 per cent of schools
and share the considerable experience had access to adequate water facilities
and contributions of all stakeholders in and 37 per cent to sanitation facilities.
WASH in Schools over wide geography These statistics are based on government
and extended time periods. standards, often lower than desired
standards from a hygienic point of view.
Education management information
systems (EMIS) and national statistics
How to monitor and evaluate WASH
on WASH in Schools
in Schools interventions
The availability and functionality of WASH
Monitoring and evaluation systems in
facilities and hygienic practices among
general consist of three components,
schoolchildren should be part of an
preferably implemented at national, local
education management information system
and school/community levels: 1) a baseline
(EMIS), rather than a component of the
study before programme implementation;
monitoring and evaluation system. Including
2) monitoring during implementation;
WASH in Schools in the EMIS gives clearer
3) evaluation after implementation.
insight into the existing educational
problems and challenges such as the
WASH monitoring is no different. A
possible link between WASH and school
baseline study, undertaken before the
attendance and retention.
programme is implemented, forms the
basis of the programme’s monitoring
Housed within a ministry of education,
and evaluation system. The monitoring
EMIS is designed to systematically collect,
and evaluation system then collects
process, analyze and publish information
information and compares it with the
related to educational development.
baseline to assess progress and implement
Data analyzed at EMIS can provide
necessary adjustments in WASH in School
information and evidence for planning,
activities. Monitoring and evaluation
implementation and decision-making. It is
systems for WASH in Schools should
also an important resource for measuring
clearly delineate indicators (measurable
the performance of an education system
against actual situation, planned facilities
and identifying weaknesses and strengths
compared with existing ones, monitoring
of staffing, students, schools and facilities.
progress, monitoring maintenance)

39
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 and measuring methodology (defining
roles and responsibilities). In addition to
monitoring WASH in Schools through EMIS
and national surveys, regular monitoring
through schools should be encouraged.
b. Regular review meetings at local,
municipal, district and regional level.
c. Visits from health and education
departments for quality inspection
and review.

Monitoring through EMIS d. Implementation of a progress reporting

Several questions can be added to the EMIS
to facilitate the collection of relevant data
and monitoring which then can be used by
decision-makers to make informed decisions
on WASH in Schools programming. The
questions can be grouped as follows: school
information, water, sanitation, hygiene,
waste disposal, operation and maintenance.
(For sample questions, see page 41.)
National survey
system.
e. Production of impact surveys by an
independent evaluator.
f. Documentation of case studies and
success stories.
The initiative also recommends
school-based participatory monitoring
activities involving children and
teachers through the use of monitoring
charts, mapping, WASH walks, etc.

For a national survey, a more

comprehensive set of questions,
observations and focus group discussion
guidelines should be used. Subnational and
thematic surveys should be encouraged.49

School-based monitoring
Some examples of monitoring exercises
from a UNICEF and Government of India
initiative include:50

a. Regular visits to schools by community

committees, officials from health and
education departments, and members of
parent-teacher associations and school
management committees.
© UNICEF/NYHQ2010-2829/Sautereau

40
Child Friendly Schools Manual
Box Example of EMIS Questionnaire*
Part 1: Water
Indicator (core questions): A functional water point is available at or near the school.
Indicator (core plus expanded questions): A functional water point is available at or
near the school that provides a sufficient quantity of water for the needs of school, is
safe for drinking, and is accessible to children with disabilities.

Core Questions
Question 1: What is the school’s main water source? (check one)
(These definitions should be modified and simplified in each country.)
Piped water into school building
Piped water to school yard/plot
Public tap/standpipe
Tubewell/borehole
Protected dug well
Unprotected dug well
Protected spring
Unprotected spring
Rainwater collection
Bottled water
Cart with small tank/drum
Tanker-truck
Surface water (river, dam, lake, pond, stream, canal, irrigation channels)
No water available in or near school
Other

Question 2: Is it functional now? (check one)

Yes No

Expanded Questions
Question 3: Is there enough water for the school? (Check one)
Yes No

Question 4: Is water treated before drinking? (Check one)

Yes No

Question 5: Are water facilities accessible to children with disabilities? (Check one)
Yes No

* For more indicators on WASH in Schools please refer to UNICEF East Asia Pacific Regional Office’s
WASH in Schools Monitoring Package.

41
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 9
SCALING UP
Financial sustainability, the development
of political interest, cooperation among
ministries, a national policy on WASH in
Schools in the overall strategy for quality
education, and national policies and
standards in related sectors are necessary to
scale up WASH in Schools. The ultimate goal
of any WASH in Schools intervention is its
long-term sustainability and mainstreaming
into the system.
To achieve scale-up, an accountable
institution, preferably the ministry of
education, must take the lead on WASH
in Schools and ensure the involvement
of all related ministries, such as health,
public works, finance, local governance
and water authorities. Political commitment
to children’s education and health creates
an environment that is conducive to
the implementation, operation and
maintenance of WASH in Schools
programmes and enables small-scale
pilot projects to scale up effectively.
Without political commitment and
the resulting favourable policies and
budgets, WASH in Schools programmes
remain externally-subsidized, small-
scale interventions, which never grow
beyond the pilot phase. In low-income
countries, UNICEF, donor agencies, NGOs
or others may provide investment costs,
but the government and community
should always cover operation,
maintenance and replacement costs of
educational materials and facilities.
42
Child Friendly Schools Manual
Financial sustainability
From their inception, WASH in Schools
programmes need a financial policy that
ensures long-term sustainability. Clear
national financial policies can help underpin
a more efficient, equitable and sustainable
use of resources through the promotion of
cost recovery and government partners’
financing. If a national cost-recovery policy
exists for the water and sanitation sector, it
must address cost recovery for projects in
school settings as well.
With input from the ministry of health and
other WASH-related ministries, the ministry
of education will need to set specific
financial policies for WASH in Schools.
The ministry of education will also need
to define the cost-sharing arrangements,
if any, among national authorities, local
authorities, communities, schools, children,
teachers and parents.
In addition, local authorities must help
develop mechanisms for financing
replacement costs and variable costs.
such as soap, other supplies, operation
and maintenance. In many cases, schools,
parents, the community or local enterprises
will cover those costs, but local authorities
must make sure they are accounted for. So
far, many programmes have had difficulties
making the transition from the pilot phase
because of capacity problems and the lack
of financial planning and management.
The lack of reliable data on WASH in Schools is one barrier to securing the rights of
children. No global database exists on the availability and status of basic facilities
for school water supply and sanitation. UNICEF is attempting to collect available
information from countries where it supports school sanitation interventions. It is
therefore only possible to prepare rough estimates of WASH in School needs, based
largely on the following assumptions:

1. There are approximately 600 million children of primary school age in the
developing world.51

2. In many developing countries, only about half of all primary schools have water
supply and only one third have sanitation.52

3. Experiences in various countries show an average cost for school sanitation and
hygiene education of about USD$20 per student.53

4. Of this, $10 would be for water supply, $8 for sanitation and $2 for hygiene
education, with the cost of capacity building, monitoring, advocacy, social
mobilization, etc., included in these ‘per student’ costs.54

The estimate of global needs based on these figures are:

School water supply 300 million children @ $10 $3.0 billion

School sanitation 400 million children @ $8 $3.2 billion

Hygiene education 600 million children @ $2 $1.2 billion

Total estimated cost: $7.4 billion

43
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 An effective financial policy is built upon six
basic design principles:55
1. The total projected cost for WASH
in Schools must include hardware
investment costs as well as software
costs. The calculation should be based
on the most current information and
updated regularly to keep abreast of
actual costs, taking into account project
sustainability and costs that are being
recovered from users.
Calculations should include:
Initial capital costs
i. Constructing, rehabilitating or
improving facilities
ii. Developing methodologies and
materials for hygiene education
iii. Training teachers
iv. Management training for education
administrators
v. Developing and producing teaching
materials
vi. Additional costs for structures such
as rainwater harvesting or school
gardens.
Recurring costs
i. Fixed costs
• Loan repayments
• Wages for specialized operational
and maintenance staff
44
Child Friendly Schools Manual
ii. Variable costs
• Soap for hand washing and
cleaning of facilities, material
for anal cleansing and drying of
hands after washing
• Chemicals or fuel for water
treatment and/or boiling of water
Replacement costs
i. Spare parts and/or replacement parts
that may be needed, depending on
the technology being used.
2. Software costs must be considered,
including expenditures for teacher
training, educational programmes,
environmental management training
and project supervision, follow-up and
support. These should be thought of as
part of an overall school improvement
programme. It is recommended that
costs for sanitary, hand-washing and
water facilities are the responsibility
of the government, as administered
through the ministry of education.
3. Local contributions to investment costs
should be in proportion to the level
of service offered at the facility. The
school community may pay more, for
example, when the selected solution
is more expensive. This policy will
enable the school community to make
a meaningful choice between service
level options. Experience has shown
that subsidizing all service levels can
lead to opting for inappropriately
expensive facilities, which creates
unmanageable expectations that cannot
 be replicated or scaled up (unless
state or government provisions allow
for operation and maintenance).
4. To ensure sustainability of water supply
and sanitation facilities, construction,
operation and maintenance costs
should be charged through the
education budget, since school water
supply and sanitation are essential
elements of basic education. Possible
sources of funding could include
donations, school maintenance
budgets, contributions from parents
or teachers, village or school
management committee contributions
or income-generating activities.56
5. A common financing strategy for
the sector will prevent projects
and programmes of different
agencies and organizations from
undermining each other.
6. Financial management and cost-
sharing plans should be put in place
at the school level. Plans to ensure
operation and maintenance of WASH in
Schools facilities should be developed
before the project is implemented and
should include, at minimum, recurring
and replacement costs. Cost-recovery
mechanisms should be established if
resource allocation from school budgets
is insufficient. These can include: user
fees paid by parents or students;
payment-in-kind through the provision of
soap, cleaning materials or labour; and
income-generating activities such as the
sale of surplus water or school garden
produce. These mechanisms must not
create barriers for poor families to send
their children to school.
Enabling policy environment
When setting priorities, national and local
governments tend to focus first on large
programmes in which their direct interests
are at stake. They might be less likely to
devote attention to small-scale interventions
such as WASH in Schools initiatives, which
focus on changing hygiene behaviour,
require low-cost investments and fall within
the jurisdiction of several stakeholders and
service providers.
To create an enabling policy environment
for WASH in Schools, advocacy should
demonstrate the links between hygiene,
education, and water and sanitation
services; outline ways in which WASH
interventions benefit students, school staff,
families, communities and countries; and be
grounded in solid evidence.
Potential roles and responsibilities of
policymakers
When advocacy activities are successful
and policymakers, including politicians and
senior civil servants, understand the issues
and agree to get involved, their special roles
and responsibilities should be delineated.
These include:57
a. Political support and commitment.
Politicians and policymakers play a
crucial role in advocating for WASH
in Schools as an essential part of an
education programme. Acceptance of
this perspective requires local decision-
making that allows communities and
school staff to choose facilities the
community can afford to maintain.
The success of WASH in Schools will
45
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 be assured by sustaining the facilities,
using them as intended and developing
healthy behaviours. The national and
local government, the WASH sector,
education personnel and the general
public must accept this point. wish to have all the construction done
b. Coordination and commitment.
Coordination under the leadership of
one accountable ministry – for example,
when the ministry of education leads
the ministries of WASH, health and
finance – can help ensure synchronized
approaches and commitment
among different departments and
specializations. Implementation,
identification of needed WASH facilities,
construction, training and community
involvement must be coordinated.
Policymakers can require implementers
to follow guidelines.
or model cannot be relevant in all
situations. The design and the decisions
about who constructs facilities depend
on the situation. For example, small
schools in active communities may
locally. Schools should have a role in
identifying their own designs, taking
into account their financial contribution
and the overall costs of construction.
The least costly solution might be free
for a school, for example, while a more
advanced technology would require a
contribution from the school, parents
or community.
The following table summarizes the steps
needed to manage and scale up a WASH in
Schools programme.58

c. Removing obstacles. Numerous

stakeholders, including policymakers
and managers, can eliminate hurdles.
For example, when financing comes
from different sources and becomes
complex, policymakers can ease
bureaucratic requirements that may
hinder or slow down the process.

d. Establishing minimum objectives,

coverage and standards. Several
stakeholders, including policymakers,
help set the minimum objectives,
coverage and standards. (For more
information on standards, see Section
3.) Standards must consider local
conditions and cultural demands; one
uniform, standard construction plan
© UNICEF/NYHQ2009-2060/Estey

46
Child Friendly Schools Manual
Essential steps in managing water, sanitation and hygiene standards
in schools at The national, district and local level59
Step National level
1 Review existing national
policies and ensure a national
policy framework supportive of
improved conditions in schools.
2 Ensure that appropriate national
bodies exist for setting and
monitoring standards.
3 Review national standards
and add to them if needed.
Establish an effective regulatory
framework that encourages and
supports compliance.
4 Provide expertise and resources
for assessment and planning at
the national level.
5 Provide locally-appropriate plans
6 Promote, provide and/or
facilitate funding for national
programmes.
7 Monitor developments at the
national level and promote
consistent application of
standards in all districts.
8 Ensure that water, sanitation
and hygiene components
are adequately reflected in
the education management
information system (EMIS) at the
national level.
9 Provide training and information
materials appropriate to a range
of school settings.
Ensure appropriate curriculum
for teacher training.
District level
Raise awareness of water,
sanitation and hygiene in schools
among key stakeholders at the
district level.
Ensure that an appropriate body
or service exists at the district
level for overseeing compliance
with standards. Try to incorporate
all entities and organizations
working in the district on WASH
in Schools.
Ensure that district-level
guidance and support for
compliance reflects the national
regulatory framework. Use
appropriate guidelines where
standards do not exist.
Provide expertise and resources
for assessment and planning at
the district level.
and specialist input for new
structures and improvements to
existing structures.
Advocate for the allocation
of funding for planned
improvements and new
developments.
Ensure oversight of
improvements and new
developments to confirm
the consistent application of
appropriate standards in all
schools.
Monitor ongoing conditions in all
schools and promote remedial
action where required.
Provide appropriate training and
information to teachers, school
directors and extension agents.
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
Local levels
(school and community)
Mobilize support from teachers,
schoolchildren, families and other
local stakeholders to achieve and
sustain a healthy school environment.
Create an appropriate body to
oversee the implementation of
standards in the school.
Define a set of targets, policies and
procedures for implementing national
standards and/or guidelines in a way
that reflects local conditions. Define
how targets, policies and procedures
will be applied.
Assess existing conditions; consult
local stakeholders including
staff and local community; and
plan improvements and new
developments.
Plan improvements or new
developments required, with
specialist technical input if necessary.
Guarantee funding for planned
improvements and new
developments.
Oversee implementation of
planned improvements and new
developments.
Monitor ongoing conditions and
ensure remedial action where
required.
Provide advice and training to staff,
schoolchildren and parents.
47
 LINKS
a. UNICEF’s WASH in Schools site supports
the global effort towards creating a
world where all children go to school
and all schools provide a safe, healthy
and comfortable environment where
children grow, learn and thrive. It
provides up-to-date information on
events, resources and news about
water, sanitation and hygiene education
in schools and features video interviews
with WASH in Schools experts from
UNICEF and its partners.
<www.unicef.org/wash/schools/>
b. WASH in Schools – This website has
been jointly developed by the IRC
International Water and Sanitation
Centre and UNICEF. It serves as a
discussion forum and an information-
exchange platform for sector
professionals working in the field of
WASH in Schools. The website is also
the home of the WASH in Schools
Thematic Group and is linked to the
Focusing Resources on Effective
School Health (FRESH) initiative,
a framework developed through a
partnership between the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO), UNICEF, the
World Health Organization (WHO), and
the World Bank.
<www.washinschools.info/>
c. The Water Sanitation Programme
Toolkit on hygiene, sanitation and water
in schools plugs into sector-specific
knowledge of practices and approaches
that are likely to yield positive results
as they coordinate multi-sector efforts
to improve sanitation and hygiene in
48
Child Friendly Schools Manual
schools. The toolkit was launched at the
World Education Forum in April 2000.
<http://www.wsp.org/schoolsanitation>
d. The IRC International Water and
Sanitation Centre in Delft, the
Netherlands, includes news and
information on WASH in Schools, as
well as advice, research and training on
low-cost water supply and sanitation in
developing countries.
<www.irc.nl>
e. Schools and Health provides
information on school health, nutrition,
education and HIV as it relates to
improved learning for school-aged
children. Established in 2002 and
hosted by the Partnership for Child
Development, the site has been
endorsed by WHO, Child to Child,
UNICEF, UNESCO, the World Bank, the
United States Agency for International
Development, the Pan American
Health Organization, the World Food
Programme and Save the Children.
<www.schoolsandhealth.org>
f. The FRESH School Health site
encourages those who plan school-
based health programmes to use the
FRESH approach and to provide those
who implement such programmes, in
particular teachers and educators, with
a set of practical tools for achieving the
best results.
<http://portal.unesco.org/education/
admin/ev.php?URL_ID=34993&URL_
DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION+201>.
g. WHO’s Global school health initiative
seeks to mobilize and strengthen health
promotion and educational activities at
the local, national, regional and global
levels. The initiative is designed to
improve the health of students, school
personnel, families and other members
of the community through schools.
<www.who.int/school_youth_health/
gshi/en>
h. Partnership for Child Development is
an international collaboration based in
London to improve the health, nutrition
and education of school-aged children.
The site contains a document and
publication list, articles and links to
relevant sites.
<www.child-development.org>
k. The Water, Engineering and Development
Centre of Loughborough University
in the United Kingdom has conducted
research on water supply and sanitation
for disabled people and other vulnerable
groups.
<http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/research/project.
html?p=12>
l. The WASH in Schools Mapping site
captures ongoing WASH in Schools
experiences in different countries and
provides WASH in Schools professionals
with a repository including the latest
documents, policies, “how to” guides
from the field and more.
<www.washinschoolsmapping.com/
index.html>

i. The Global Public-Private Partnership

for Handwashing is a coalition of
international stakeholders whose focus
is hand washing and child health. The
partnership explicitly focuses on hand
washing with soap in the recognition that
hygiene, sanitation and water are pillars
of development.
<www.globalhandwashing.org>

j. The World Bank provides a compilation

of resources related to Gender and
Development in the Water Supply and
Sanitation sector, including briefing
notes, checklists, indicators and terms
of reference.
<http://go.worldbank.org/M9JO8F0XT0>

49
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 References
1 Hutton, Guy and Laurence Haller, Evaluation of
the Costs and Benefits of Water and Sanitation
Improvements at the Global Level, World Health
Organization, Geneva, 2004.
2 Aga Khan Foundation Team, Non-State Providers
and Public-Private Community Partnerships in
Education, Aga Khan Foundation, 2007, <http://
unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001555/155538e.
pdf>, accessed 28 January 2012.
3 Health Organization, Geneva, 2009.
Adams, John, et al., Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
Standards for Schools in Low-cost Settings, World
Health Organization, Geneva, 2009.
4 Schools in Low-cost Settings.
See the example of the Global Public-Private
Partnership for Handwashing with Soap initiative
at <www.globalhandwashing.org>, accessed
31 May 2012.
5 See the World Health Organization/United Nations
Children’s Fund Joint Monitoring Programme
for Water Supply and Sanitation at <www.wssinfo.
org>, accessed 28 January 2012.
6 These are average age ranges, which will differ
somewhat for each individual.
7 CCF-UNICEF, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 2006.
Government of India and United Nations
Children’s Fund New Delhi, An Inclusive Approach
for School Sanitation & Hygiene Education:
Strategy, norms & designs, Government of India
and UNICEF New Delhi, New Delhi, India, 2008.
8 Adams, John, et al., Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
Standards for Schools in Low-cost Settings, World
Health Organization, Geneva, 2009.
9 This text has been adapted from Kirk, Jackie
and Marni Sommer, ‘Menstruation and Body
Awareness: Linking girls’ health with girls’
education’, in Gender and Health Special, Royal
Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, 2006.
10 Ibid.
11 World Health Organization, World Report on
Disability, WHO, Geneva, 2011, <www.who.int/
disabilities/world_report/2011/report/en>, accessed
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12 See examples in Government of India and
United Nations Children’s Fund New Delhi,
‘An Inclusive Approach for School Sanitation &
Hygiene Education: Strategy, norms & designs’,
Government of India and UNICEF New Delhi,
New Delhi, India, 2008.
50
Child Friendly Schools Manual
13 Rehfuss, Katrin, ‘Child Friendly Schools: How
children in Sri Lanka learn the importance of safe
drinking water’, Malteser International, Malta,
2011, <http://www.malteser-international.org/
fileadmin/dam/oeffentlich/malteser-international.
de/asien/Sri_Lanka/Sri_Lanka_Childfriendly_
schools.pdf>, accessed 28 January 2012.
14 Adams, John, et al., Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
Standards for Schools in Low-cost Settings, World
15 More indicators for boarding schools are given
in Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Standards for
16 Only where people wet clean after toilet use.
17 A disease vector is a special type of intermediate
host for parasites. A vector is not only required
as part of the parasite’s development, but it also
delivers the parasite directly to subsequent
hosts. Examples of vectors include fleas,
mosquitoes or ticks.
18 Mooijman, Annemarieke, ‘Manual on Hygiene
Education in Schools:Teachers Guidebook’,
19 This diagram is known as the F-diagram because
all germ paths of faecal and oral contamination
start with the letter F.
20 Adapted from Child-to-Child Trust, Children for
Health: Children as partners in health promotion,
Macmillan Caribbean, Oxford, UK, 2005.
21 Adapted from Postma, Leonie, Renata Getkate and
C. van Wijk, ‘Life Skills-Based Hygiene Education;
A guidance document on concepts, developments
and experiences with life skills-based hygiene
education in school sanitation and hygiene
education programmes’, IRC International Water
and Sanitation Centre, Delft, the Netherlands, in
cooperation with UNICEF, 2004.
22 Hutton, Guy and Laurence Haller, Evaluation of
the Costs and Benefits of Water and Sanitation
Improvements at the Global Level, World Health
Organization, Geneva, 2004.
23 Prüss-Üstün, Annette, et al., Safer Water, Better
Health: Costs, benefits and sustainability of
interventions to protect and promote health,
World Health Organization, Geneva, 2008.
24 Talaat, Maha, ‘Effects of Hand Hygiene Campaigns
on Incidence of Laboratory-confirmed Influenza
and Absenteeism in Schoolchildren, Cairo, Egypt’,
Emerging Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease
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article.htm>, accessed 28 January 2012.
25 Bowen, Anna, et al., ‘A Cluster-randomized
Controlled Trial Evaluating the Effect of a Hand-
Washing-Promotion Programme in Chinese
Primary Schools’, The American Journal of
Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, vol. 76, no. 6,
2007, pp. 1166–1173; Lopez-Quintero, Catalina,
Paul Freeman and Yehuda Neumark, ‘Hand-
washing Among School Children in Bogota,
Colombia’, American Journal of Public Health,
vol. 99, no. 1, January 2009, pp. 94–101.
26 Dillingham, Rebecca and Richard L. Guerrant,
‘Childhood Stunting: Measuring and stemming
the staggering costs of inadequate water and
sanitation,’ The Lancet, no. 9403, 10 January 2004,
pp. 94–95.
27 Ejemot, Regina I., et al., ‘Hand-washing for
Preventing Diarrhoea’, Cochrane Database of
Systematic Reviews 2008, Issue 1, 2008.
28 Lorntz, Breyette, et al., ‘Early Childhood Diarrhea
Predicts Impaired School Performance’, The
Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, vol. 25, no. 6,
June 2006, pp. 513–520.
29 Baird, Sarah, et al., ‘Worms at Work: Long-run
impacts of child health gains’, October 2011,
<www.povertyactionlab.org/publication/worms-
work-long-run-impacts-child-health-gains>,
accessed 31 May 2012.
30 Prüss-Üstün, Annette, et al., Safer Water, Better
Health: Costs, benefits and sustainability of
interventions to protect and promote health,
World Health Organization, Geneva, 2008.
31 Bethony, Jeffrey, Simon Booker, and Marco
Albonico, ‘Soil-transmitted Helminth Infections:
Ascariasis, trichuriasis, and hookworm’, The
Lancet, vol. 367, no. 9521, 2006, pp. 1521–1532,
<www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/
PIIS0140-6736(06)68653-4/fulltext#>, accessed
28 January 2012.
32 Miguel, Edward, and Michael Kremer, ‘Worms:
Identifying impacts on education and health in the
presence of treatment externalities’, Econometrica,
vol. 72, no. 1, January 2004, pp. 159–217. Abstract
available at <http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/
doi/10.1111/j.1468-0262.2004.00481.x/abstract>,
accessed 28 January 2012.
33 Waddington, Hugh, et al., ‘Water, Sanitation and
Hygiene Interventions to Combat Childhood
Diarrhoea in Developing Countries’, International
Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3IE), Synthetic
Review, vol. 001, 2009.
34 Jamison, Dean T., et al., eds., Disease Control
Priorities in Developing Countries, 2nd ed.,
London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine,
London, 2008, <www.dcp2.org/pubs/DCP>,
accessed 28 January 2012.
35 Waddington, Hugh, et al., ‘Water, Sanitation and
Hygiene Interventions to Combat Childhood
Diarrhoea in Developing Countries’, International
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Review, vol. 001, 2009.
36 Ibid.
37 Nauges, Céline, and Jon Strand, Water Hauling
and Girls’ School Attendance: Some new evidence
from Ghana, Toulouse School of Economics and
DECEE, World Bank, Toulouse, France, Washington,
D.Cc, 2011.
38 Njunguna, Vincent, et al., ‘The Sustainability and
Impact of School Sanitation, Water and Hygiene
Education in Kenya’, United Nations Children’s
Fund and IRC International Water and Sanitation
Centre, New York and the Netherlands, 2008,
<www.irc.nl/content/download/143166/453192/
file/SummaryoverviewA4s.doc>, accessed
31 May 2012.
39 Kochurani, Mathew, et al., ‘The Sustainability
and Impact of School Sanitation, Water and
Hygiene Education in Kerala, Southern India’,
United Nations Children’s Fund and IRC
International Water and Sanitation Centre, New
York and the Netherlands, 2008, <www.irc.nl/
content/download/143167/453195/file/kerala.doc>,
accessed 31 May 2012.
40 IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre,
‘Towards Effective Programming for WASH in
Schools: A manual on scaling up programmes
for water, sanitation and hygiene in schools’, TP
Series, no. 48, IRC, Delft, the Netherlands, 2007.
41 O’Reilly, C.E., et al., ‘The Impact of a School-
based Safe Water and Hygiene Programme on
Knowledge and Practices of Students and Their
Parents: Nyanza Province, western Kenya, 2006’,
Epidemiology and Infection, vol. 136, no. 1,
January 2008, pp. 80–91; Bowen, Anna, et al., ‘A
Cluster-randomized Controlled Trial Evaluating the
Effect of a Handwashing-Promotion Programme
in Chinese Primary School’; American Journal of
Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, vol. 76,
51
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools
 no. 6, 2007, pp. 1166–1173; Onyango-Ouma, W., J.
Aagaard-Hansen, and B.B. Jensen ‘The Potential
of Schoolchildren as Health Change Agents in
Rural Western Kenya’, Social Science & Medicine,
vol. 61, no. 8, October 2005, pp. 1711–1722.
42 Ibid.
43 Curtis, Valerie, et al., ‘Evidence of Behaviour
Change Following a Hygiene Promotion
Programme in Burkina Faso’, Bulletin of the
World Health Organization, vol. 79, no. 6, 2001,
pp. 518–527; Dongre, Amol R., et al., ‘An Approach
to Hygiene Education Among Rural Indian
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and Allied Sciences, vol. 6, no. 4, 2008; Pinfold,
J. V. ‘Faecal Contamination of Water and Fingertip-
rinses as a Method for Evaluating the Effect of
Low-cost Water Supply and Sanitation Activities
on Faeco-oral Disease Transmission. I. A case
study in rural north-east Thailand’, Epidemiology
and Infection, vol. 105, no. 2, October 1990,
pp. 363–375.
44 LaFraniere, S., ‘Another School Barrier for African
Girls: No toilet’, New York Times, 23 December
2005; ‘Lack of Sanitaries Force Girls Out of
School’, New Vision, Kampala, 6 January 2004,
<http://allafrica.com/stories/200401060305.html>,
accessed 28 January 2012 ; ‘Not only girls’ toilets,
but clean and safe girls’ toilets’, Notes and News,
no. 3, 2001, <www.irc.nl>, accessed 28 January
2012; MacIsaac, M.K., ‘Afghanistan: Girls’ school
attendance doubles in two years’, World Vision,
17 May 2006; Benson, C., Girls, Educational
Equity and Mother Tongue-based Teaching, United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization, Bangkok, 2005.
45 This text has been adapted from Kirk, Jackie
and Marni Sommer, ‘Menstruation and Body
Awareness: linking girls’ health with girls’
education’.
46 Brocklehurst, Clarissa, The Case for Water and
Sanitation, World Bank, Water and Sanitation
Programme, Africa, 2004.
47 Bolt, E. and Cairncross, S., Sustainability of
Hygiene Behaviour and the Effectiveness
of Change Interventions: Lessons learned
on research methodologies and research
implementation from a multi-country research
study, IRC International Water and Sanitation
Centre, Delft, the Netherlands, 2004.
48 Curtis, Valerie A., Lisa O. Danquah and Robert
V. Aunger, ‘Planned, Motivated and Habitual
Hygiene Behaviour: An eleven country review’,
Health Education Research, vol. 24, 2009,
pp. 655–673.
52
Child Friendly Schools Manual
49 Sample questions can be found in UNICEF East
Asia and the Pacific, WASH in Schools Monitoring
Package at <www.unicef.org/wash/schools/files/
wash_in_schools_monitoringpackage_.pdf >.
50 Government of India and United Nations
Children’s Fund New Delhi, ‘An Inclusive Approach
for School Sanitation & Hygiene Education:
Strategy, norms & designs’, Government of India
and UNICEF New Delhi, New Delhi, India, 2008.
51 United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization, Education for All Global
Monitoring Report, UNESCO, Paris, 2011,
<www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/
leading-the-international-agenda/efareport>,
accessed 28 January 2012.
52 Analysis of 2008 UNICEF country office annual
reports.
53 Information estimated in 2005 and updated in
2009 by Henk van Norden, UNICEF Regional
Adviser on Sanitation and Hygiene.
54 Ibid.
55 Mooijman, Annemarieke, et al., ‘Strengthening
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene in Schools: A
WASH guidance manual with a focus on South
Asia’, UNICEF Regional Office for South Asia, IRC
and Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative
Council TP Series number 53, 2010, <www.irc.nl/
page/52816>, accessed 28 January 2012.
56 Department of Water Supply and Sewerage and
UNICEF Nepal, ‘School Sanitation and Hygiene
Education. Programme Guideline’, 5th ed.,
Nepal, 2006.
57 Ibid.
58 More information on scaling up WASH in
Schools can be found in IRC International
Water and Sanitation Centre, ‘Towards Effective
Programming for WASH in Schools: A manual
on scaling up programmes for water, sanitation
and hygiene in schools’, TP Series: no. 48, IRC
International Water and Sanitation Centre and
United Nations Children’s Fund, the Netherlands
and New York, 2007.
59 Adams, John, et al., Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
Standards for Schools in Low-cost Settings, World
Health Organization, Geneva, 2009.
For more information, please contact:
Education Section
Programme Division, UNICEF

Published by UNICEF
Division of Communication
3 United Nations Plaza
New York, NY 10017, USA

Website: www.unicef.org
Email: pubdoc@unicef.org

Water, Sanitation and

OTHER MODULES IN THIS CFS MANUAL
COMPANION SERIES:

Hygiene (WASH) in Schools

School Readiness and Transitions
Climate Change and Environmental Education
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CHILD FRIENDLY SCHOOLS

CHILD FRIENDLY SCHOOLS

A companion to the
Child Friendly Schools Manual

© United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)

July 2012