THESE NOTES ARE SUBJECT

TO CHANGE WITHOUT NOTICE.

REPORT ERRORS AND OMISSIONS

CE470 (September 2010) to: M.M. Hrabok at CE470 website.

I-1

CHAPTER 1

Introduction
_________________________________________________

1. Objectives in Structural Design

(a) Safety and Functional Requirements:

The building must be of shape, size, proportions, appearance and layout to safely and
functionally satisfy the requirements of its intended uses during its “service life”.
“Service life” of the structure is a mandatory part of the “design criteria”.
Safety is non-negotiable and is dictated by Codes which are “the law of the land” and
must be followed. The National Building Code of Canada (NBCC) is a model code
adopted wholly or in part by provinces and/or municipalities. Building codes are
comprehensive documents for the building industry and are intended to protect the
public. The Canadian current Code is NBCC-2010.
Materials of construction and means of constructability need to be economical.
The client’s “wish list” and budget often dictate the functional layout.
Of these three requirements, safety is by far the most important and shall never be
compromised.

(b) Analysis and Design:

Once the geometry, conceptual layout and preliminary design of a structure have been
established, the structural elements, framing and construction must be selected to
support the anticipated loadings. For the most part, loadings will be determined from
Division B, Article 4 of NBCC-2010 and from experience and knowledge of the
intended use of the new facility/ structure. The client may also have specific
additional loading and serviceability criteria which need to be met.
The analyses required to determine forces and displacements in individual members
and the overall structure are based on prior knowledge from “Strength/Mechanics of
Materials” and “Structural Analysis” theories and are not within the contents of this
course. Supplemental analytical concepts will be discussed where necessary.
Second-order analysis will be required where deformed shapes of the structure and/or
member may have a significant effect on the equilibrium force field of the member.
 THESE NOTES ARE SUBJECT
TO CHANGE WITHOUT NOTICE.
REPORT ERRORS AND OMISSIONS

CE470 (September 2010) to: M.M. Hrabok at CE470 website.

I-2

The detailed design of individual structural members and their connections to other
members will constitute the major portion of this course. Once the behaviour of a
structural element subjected to loading has been determined from analysis, the
problem is then to select suitable member sizes and connections based on presently
accepted design practices. Both limit states: (i) “strength”, and (ii) “serviceability”,
must be addressed in the design of each member and of the overall structure.
Clause 6 “Design Requirements” of the “Steel Standard” CSA S16 discusses “limit
states” and the requirements under “specified” or “non-factored” loads and for
“factored loads”. This Standard is mandatory by NBCC and is discussed in detail in
the Class Notes which follow. Note also that dynamic effects, fatigue, corrosion and
fire protection are mandatory design considerations according to this Standard.
Design is a “trial and error” procedure. This is where “design” departs from the
“academic closed-form” solutions which students have become accustomed to from
their formative years of training. In design, a trial member size is chosen using certain
guidelines and reliance on past experience. The trial selection is then checked and
compared to ensure it is suitable and adequate according to Code and Standards.
Connections must be designed and are more important than member selection.
(c) Requirements of Economics:
The variables affecting the cost of a structure include:
- Layout of the structure: Economy (budget) may have to be compromised in
order to meet functional requirements.
- Types of Materials: Steel, concrete, wood, masonry, FRPs or various
combinations thereof may be used for a structural system and its components
to achieve the best economy. In addition to the cost of the various materials,
the cost of construction, the length of time required for construction before
the structure is serviceable and the required life expectancy of the structure
are to be considered.
- Grade of Material: On a “unit weight” basis, a higher-strength steel may be
more expensive compared to ordinary structural steels and economies appear
tempting if smaller member sizes can be chosen and weights reduced.
However, market conditions often dictate the availability or delivery time of
non-common steel grades and their use is limited. Also, problems with
increased deflections and reduced stiffness may result with smaller sizes.
For all structural steel, the modulus of elasticity (E) plays a major role in
deflections of a member and is relatively constant at approximately 200,000
MPa or 200 GPa for all steel grades. This value is specified in S16.
 THESE NOTES ARE SUBJECT
TO CHANGE WITHOUT NOTICE.
REPORT ERRORS AND OMISSIONS

CE470 (September 2010) to: M.M. Hrabok at CE470 website.

I-3

- Market Conditions, Labour and Schedules: In an economy, which in recent

years, has been driven by high labour costs, critical manpower shortages,
accelerated delivery times and pre-determined shop practice, it is often
advantageous to use "standardized" and/or “modular” construction which
require more material but less time and labour. This virtually precludes
innovative non-conventional layouts and a wide variety of connection details.

2. Handbooks, Codes, Standards and Specifications

Codes and standards for steel design summarize the present knowledge available for
most commonly encountered design problems. It must be emphasized that codes,
standards and specifications provide minimum requirements for safety, strength and
stability, and serviceability. They draw on a wealth of information in the form of
theoretical analysis and experimental investigation. Knowledge of the background,
limitations and intent of the requirements of a Code or Standard are essential before
safe effective designs can be achieved. Almost any regulatory document can become
ambiguous and misleading if not interpreted in its proper context. The intent of the
code or standard governs if the wording appears to be unclear or susceptible to
differing interpretations. The intent is always in the interest of safety.
Codes, standards and specifications give permissible member capacities based on
theoretical analysis as much as possible, confirmed by research testing and empirical
formulations. Confirmation by testing is necessary to ensure that theoretical or
empirically-determined member capacities represent structural behaviour realistically.
Due to continuing research into structural behaviour, and field performance of
executed designs, the codes are continually updated to incorporate the latest findings
and more accurately reflect actual behaviour of structures.
The 2010 National Building Code of Canada (Div. B, Article 4) contains
recommended design values and information on: dead load, live loads due to use and
occupancy (including cranes, equipment and machinery), environmental loads due to
snow, rain, ice, wind, and earthquakes. NBCC-2010 is the most recent Code and has
load combinations based on “principal” and “companion” load format.
The Canadian Standards Association publishes several standards. For a complete
listing, refer to the CSA publications catalogue ( www.csa.ca ). CAN/CSA-S16-09, is
the standard entitled "Limit States Design of Steel Structures" and it governs
currently active design and construction of steel buildings and several types of steel
structures in Canada. Previously commenced designs might still be designed
according to S16-01.
 THESE NOTES ARE SUBJECT
TO CHANGE WITHOUT NOTICE.
REPORT ERRORS AND OMISSIONS

CE470 (September 2010) to: M.M. Hrabok at CE470 website.

I-4

The testimonial of success or failure is the performance record of structures designed

by these codes and standards.

3. Factors of Safety
Factors-of-safety (in working stress design methods) or a beta-factor (in limit states
design) are required to safely overcome uncertainties associated with realistic strength
of materials, design assumptions (not errors), and construction practices to ensure
adequate safety and service performance of a structure and its members and
connections under all limit states.
More specifically, some considerations in determining adequate safety include:
a). Analysis assumptions and modeling
b). Quality of workmanship
c). Residual Stresses and Stress Concentrations
d). Under-run in material
e). Under-run in cross-section dimensions and straightness of member
f). Changes to original design criteria during the service life of the structure.

a) Approximations and Uncertainties in Methods of Analysis:

Theoretical and empirical methods of analysis are usually based on so called "ideal"
situations which may be far from realized in practice. For example, the theoretical
"axially loaded" pinned column with no bending effects can rarely, if ever, be
achieved in actual construction. Concentric loading seldom exists.
Empirical methods of analysis are based on experimental tests which may be
somewhat different from the design problem to which they are extrapolated.
The design of most connections is based on simplifying assumptions and correlated
methods while true behaviour is considerably more complicated and less predictable.
b) Quality of Workmanship:
Though building regulations enforce exacting requirements for steel fabricators and
erectors, there is always the “human element” where such things as a poor welds,
missing bolts or nuts, lack-of-fit or forced-fit of a connected member, partially-
connected or omitted brace, etc…. may go undetected by the inspector. Factors-of-
safety are not intended to cover these types of blunders and omissions.
c) Presence of Residual Stresses and Stress Concentrations:
Due to the molten nature of manufacture of standard steel sections, residual stresses
occur when hot-rolled sections are produced at the steel mills. These stresses are
caused due to differential cooling and shrinking of the steel section after it is rolled or
formed. Residual stresses caused by fabrication, welding and flame cutting also need
to be considered. Cold working can also cause residual stresses.
 THESE NOTES ARE SUBJECT
TO CHANGE WITHOUT NOTICE.
REPORT ERRORS AND OMISSIONS

CE470 (September 2010) to: M.M. Hrabok at CE470 website.

I-5

High stress concentrations exist at holes and abrupt changes in cross section. Though
allowance is made for these in design, the true strength for these conditions is difficult
to predict analytically but, because of steel’s ductility and plastic flow capability, the
peak stresses are redistributed to plastic or lesser values. Ductility decreases as the
steel temperature gets colder (Charpy V-notch and brittle fracture).
d) Under-run in Physical Properties of a Material:
There is a probability that some of the steel from the mill is not quite as strong as
specified on the design drawings and documents. Fasteners and weld filler materials
might also be less than nominal values.
e) Under-run in Cross-Sectional Dimensions of Members:
Some leeway is allowed in manufacturing tolerances with the result that steel sections
are still acceptable if the thickness is slightly less than nominally specified.
Tolerances on some imported steels are more lenient than Canadian sections. This
reduction in cross-section is not intended to be covered by our factor-of-safety.
f) Changes to Original Design Criteria:
Predicting the loadings which a structure will be subjected to during its expected
service life is a guessing game at best and is the most uncertain of variables associated
with design. As an example, the maximum snow load a structure will have to sustain
during its service life is quite unpredictable. Codes have progressively been increasing
maximum snow loads because of climate changes and roof collapses due to snow.
Return periods for environmental loads are now typically set at 1/50 years to match
the service life of structures in non-aggressive environments.
However, note that a structure originally designed for a lighter live load but later
reassigned to heavier loading by “use and occupancy” is not to be covered by
encroaching upon the factor-of-safety. Therefore, it is mandatory that engineered
(stamped) drawings clearly specify DESIGN CRITERIA which gives numeric values
of loads used in the original design.
A factor-of-safety is not intended to compensate for: errors (mathematical or
analytical), or omissions made in design, or for a lack of comprehension of structural
behaviour by the designer. Nor is it meant to cover blunders and unauthorized
shortcomings of fabrication or erection or re-assigned overload use by the occupant.
In summary, the public expects and is entitled to a certain level or margin-of-safety.
The consequences of structural failures are more life-threatening than those of other
engineering disciplines because they pose a danger to “life and limb”. The levels of
safety set by Codes and Standards shall not be compromised under any circumstances.
Clause 4 “Structural Documents” of S16 deals with “due diligence” in preparation
of documents/drawings to ensure that safety requirements are not compromised.
 THESE NOTES ARE SUBJECT
TO CHANGE WITHOUT NOTICE.
REPORT ERRORS AND OMISSIONS

CE470 (September 2010) to: M.M. Hrabok at CE470 website.

I-6

4. Mechanical Properties of Steel

Tensile Strength & Ductility of Steel

STRESS

STRAIN
One of the most important mechanical properties of ordinary structural steels which
helps guarantee the satisfactory performance of a steel structure is its ductility. Unlike
some brittle building materials, structural steel has a built-in safety feature which
allows “running time” because of its ability to deform or yield plastically without
rupture immediately after “first yielding” has occurred. This material property allows
stresses to “redistribute” and makes acceptable many of the simplifying assumptions
used in steel design. As an illustration, stress concentrations at holes in statically-
loaded members and connections are not specifically analysed and designed for unless
cyclic loading, fatigue or shock loading are a concern.
For buckling failures, ductility of structural steel may give warning that failure is
progressing, as large deflections develop and “load paths” become re-oriented.
Ductility of steel also makes feasible “plastic design methods” for indeterminate
structures. These methods are based on full yielding or plastic collapse of a structure
through the formation of “hinge mechanisms”. In this design philosophy, “plastic
hinges” in members of the frame develop and rotate thereby allowing “load
redistribution” and other members which have not hinged to become more highly
stressed and share some of the additional superimposed loading.
 THESE NOTES ARE SUBJECT
TO CHANGE WITHOUT NOTICE.
REPORT ERRORS AND OMISSIONS

CE470 (September 2010) to: M.M. Hrabok at CE470 website.

I-7

5. Design Methods
In general, three different design philosophies are recognized in steel design:
a) Working Stress Design (WSD, ASD)
This is the traditional method which is known under various names such as: working
stress design (WSD), allowable stress design (ASD), elastic design, service loads
design. It sets the maximum allowable stresses below some limiting stresses based on
the yield stress, buckling stress or ultimate breaking stress by the incorporation of a
factor-of-safety. A common value for non-stability related components is to limit the
allowable stress to 60% of Fy which results in a factor-of-safety of 1/0.6= 1.67, This
was the design philosophy used until 1974 in Canada by CSA Standard S16.

Fy Ceiling
0.6 Fy

b) Plastic Design
The other traditional method of design is the plastic design method. In this method the
applied or service loads are multiplied by appropriate plastic load factors and the
structure is designed to fail at these factored loads.
Failure is defined by formation of a complete “plastic-hinge collapse mechanism” of
the structure or any “hinged” portion of the structure. The material must be ductile and
the members must be capable of withstanding large plastic rotations and deformations
in order to develop the full plastic collapse load. This design approach, although
extensively promoted in the past, has never gained widespread acceptance and usage
by structural designers because of complicated analyses and design of connections.
Recently, there has been renewed interest for applications in seismic design.

c) Limit States Design (LSD)

LSD is the current design method which was introduced in CSA S16.1-1974.
It is based on the design principles of the two traditional design concepts described
above and satisfies the requirements of ultimate limit states, as well as those related to
serviceability limit states. LSD is a statistical probabilistic approach to safety factors.
Its intended purpose is described in “Background” page 2-3 of the CISC 10th Edition
Handbook (S16-09). CE470 is based on “limit states design”.
 THESE NOTES ARE SUBJECT
TO CHANGE WITHOUT NOTICE.
REPORT ERRORS AND OMISSIONS

CE470 (September 2010) to: M.M. Hrabok at CE470 website.

I-8

Flexural Strength: Concept of Plastic Hinge and Plastic Moment (MP)

Specified (Actual) Load (P); Factored Load (Pf)
’
Moment Produced by Factored Loads (Mf); Factored Moment Resistance (Mr) or (Mr )

P1 < Pyield

P1= Elastic Load

c
Neutral Axis

[no yielding anywhere]

M<My Flexural Stress

M.c
= < Fy
Ix

Elastic Bending Moment Diagram

__________________________________________________________

P2= Pfirst yield

Fy
Yielding P2= First-Yield Load

c
Neutral Axis

[Yielding at Extreme Fibres] Fy

Flexural Stress
My M.c = F
= y
Ix

Midspan Bending Moment=Yield Moment [My]

 THESE NOTES ARE SUBJECT
TO CHANGE WITHOUT NOTICE.
REPORT ERRORS AND OMISSIONS

CE470 (September 2010) to: M.M. Hrabok at CE470 website.

I-9

Yielding:

Fy

Bi-linear Stress: Elasto-Plastic Strain Behaviour (Strain Hardening neglected)

P3= Ppartial plastification P3 Load exceeds Yield Load

Fy
-yielding extends towards web

c Neutral Axis

F
y
M > My

Maximum Bending Moment > Yield Moment [ My ]

__________________________________________________________
P4= Pfull-yield
-yielding extends to
Neutral Axis Plastic Load F
[[Mp
Plastic Hinge] y
c Neutral Axis

F
M = Mp y

Maximum Bending Moment = Plastic Moment [ Mp ]

 THESE NOTES ARE SUBJECT
TO CHANGE WITHOUT NOTICE.
REPORT ERRORS AND OMISSIONS

CE470 (September 2010) to: M.M. Hrabok at CE470 website.

I - 10

6. Handbook of Steel Construction [10th Edition]

The 10th edition of the CISC Handbook is based on the 7th “Limit States” edition of
CSA-S16 (published in 2009) and reprinted as Part One of the Handbook.
This Handbook summarizes the essentials of steel building design and construction in
Canada. Since its use is essential in steel design, this handbook is permitted for
examination purposes and a thorough understanding of its contents is advisable. The
Handbook is made up of 8 parts. Parts One and Two are described briefly below. The
remaining parts are design aids and information for the designer and will be used
throughout the course.

Part One : CAN/CSA-S16-09 "Limit States Design of Steel Structures".

This is the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) S16 standard for the design and
construction of steel structures in Canada. Most of the work in this course will be
direct application of clauses in this standard. In particular, Clause 13 will be the
primary focus of the first seven chapters of these Class Notes.

Part Two : CISC Commentary on CAN/CSA-S16-09

The Commentary explains some of the requirements listed in Part One in more detail
and gives insight into the Standard’s history and requirements.
This commentary, as well as “prior knowledge” by the student, text book information
and supplemental material presented in class, constitute the "theory" portion of this
course.
In general, few new theoretical relationships will be developed from first principles.
Most theoretical relationships required have already been developed in Strength/
Mechanics of Materials classes while the remainder will be stated and used at face
value once their scope and limitations have been explained.
Reading of the supplemental information in Part Two of the Steel Handbook for each
clause being studied in Part One will greatly benefit comprehension of the S16
Standards.

Parts Three to Seven inclusive: are based on Part One and consist of design aids
necessary to expedite and make less laborious the design of members and connections
according to S16-09. These will be examined in detail as the course progresses.

Part Eight: General Index

Information on the CISC Handbook and other publications is available at:

www.cisc-icca.ca
 THESE NOTES ARE SUBJECT
TO CHANGE WITHOUT NOTICE.
REPORT ERRORS AND OMISSIONS

CE470 (September 2010) to: M.M. Hrabok at CE470 website.

I - 11
 THESE NOTES ARE SUBJECT
TO CHANGE WITHOUT NOTICE.
REPORT ERRORS AND OMISSIONS

CE470 (September 2010) to: M.M. Hrabok at CE470 website.

I - 12

7. Design Requirements of S16-09 [CISC Handbook 10th edition, Part One]

Clause 6 “Design requirements”, and

Clause 7 “Factored loads and safety criterion”:
describe the “Limit States” which must be designed for, and the loads, and the service
and environmental conditions to be considered.

Clause 6 lists the following “limit states” which must be considered in structural steel
design:
1) Ultimate Limit States
strength
stability
overturning
sliding
brittle fracture
2) Fatigue Limit State
crack propagation
3) Serviceability Limit States
deflections and camber
dynamic effects (impact loads, operating vibrations and resonance)
cyclic loading and fatigue
permanent deformation
4) Durability and Other Serviceability Limit States
expansion and contraction
differential settlement
corrosion
fire

In Clause 7, the basic design requirement for factored-load design is:

Clause 7.2.1 ……….. φ R Σαi Si
where, φR phi-factored resistance of Member,
and, Σαi Si factored Load Combinations.

This course deals exclusively with the …….. φ R side of this equation.
 THESE NOTES ARE SUBJECT
TO CHANGE WITHOUT NOTICE.
REPORT ERRORS AND OMISSIONS

CE470 (September 2010) to: M.M. Hrabok at CE470 website.

I - 13

8. Terminology for Steel Shapes [CISC Handbook 10th edition, page vii]

[end of Chapter I “Introduction to S16”]