“THERMODYNAMI

C CYCLES”

1
________________________________________________________________

A Project Report

On

“THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES”

Submitted By

Acharya Sampada (01)

Datwani Devesh (02)
Gopalkar Sammed (03)
Chauhan Yogesh (04)

A report submitted in the partial fulfilment of the requirements of

University of Mumbai in
Business & Communication Ethics

________________________________________________________________

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

A. P. SHAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY THANE

October, 2016

2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are pleased to acknowledge the Principle of APSIT, Dr. U. D. Kolekar and

Prof. Dilip V. Kunte HOD of Mechanical Dept. for providing us facilities and
guidance for the project work on Thermodynamics Cycles.

We extend our sincere thanks to Prof. Swapnil Kondawar who dedicatedly

taught us subject Thermodynamics, without his guidance the project on
Thermodynamics would have been an uphill task.

Last but not least we would like to thank Prof. Udaykumar Nikam who has
taught & guided us the Project Report writing.

October 2016
Acharya Sampada (01)
Datwani Devesh()
Gopalkar Sameed ()
Chauhan Yogesh ()

3
ABSTRACT

Today, I.C. Engines are widely used in automobile industries. The working of
I.C. Engines can be related to the thermodynamic cycle which is developed in
the 19th century. These concepts form the core principles of modern I.C.
engines. Thermodynamic cycles were hypothesized to convert heat energy into
mechanical work; four types of cycles are explained in the project report.

4
_______________________________________________________________

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the following students of Third Year Mechanical

Engineering have successfully submitted a project report entitled
Thermodynamic Cycles in the partial fulfilment of the requirements
requi of
University of Mumbai for the subject Business Communication & Ethics during
the Academic Year 2016--2017.

Acharya Sampadaa (01) Datwani Devesh

Gopalkar Sammed
ed Chauhan Yogesh

Prof. U. A. Nikam Prof. D. V. Kunte

Subject In-charge
charge Head of Department

5
CONTENTS
________________________________________________________
Title Page........................................................................................................... 2
Acknowledgement..............................................................................................3
Abstract...............................................................................................................4
Certificate............................................................................................................5

1. Carnot Cycle..................................................................................................7
1.1 Introduction
1.2 History
1.3 Assumptions
1.4 Working
1.5 Limitations

2. The Otto Cycle.............................................................................................12

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Assumptions
2.3 Working
2.4 Actual Cycle
2.5 Significance and Limitations

3. The Diesel.....................................................................................................17
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Working
3.3 Actual Diesel Cycle
3.4 Advantages of Engines Working on Diesel Cycle
3.5 Disadvantages of Diesel Engines
3.6 Applications

4. The Dual Cycle........................................................................................... 21

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Working
4.3 Applications
Conclusion......................................................................................................

Bibliography....................................................................................................
References....................................................................................................... 23
Glossary.......................................................................................................... 24

6
1. THE CARNOT CYCLE

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Every single thermodynamic system exists in a particular state. When a

system is taken through a series of different states and finally returned to its
initial state, a thermodynamic cycle is said to have occurred. In the process
of going through this cycle, the system may perform work on its
surroundings, thereby acting as a heat engine. A system undergoing a Carnot
cycle is called a Carnot heat engine, although such a "perfect" engine is only
a theoretical construct and cannot be built in practice.

1.2 HISTORY

The Carnot cycle is a theoretical thermodynamic cycle proposed by Nicolas

Léonard Sadi Carnot in 1824 and expanded upon by others in the 1830s and
1840s. It provides an upper limit on the efficiency that any classical
thermodynamic engine can achieve during the conversion of heat into work,
or conversely, the efficiency of a refrigeration system in creating a
temperature difference (e.g. refrigeration) by the application of work to the
system. It is not an actual thermodynamic cycle but is a theoretical construct.

1.3 ASSUMPTIONS
The working of the engine is idealized with the following assumptions:
a) The working substance for the Carnot engine is a perfect gas.
b) The piston movement in the cylinder is frictionless.
c) The walls of the cylinder and the piston are considered perfectly
insulated.
d) The cylinder head is so arranged that it is partially a very good conductor
of heat and partially a perfect insulator.
e) The heat supply and the heat rejection are at constant temperatures.

7
1.4 WORKING

Figure 1.4.1

The Carnot cycle when acting as a heat engine consists of the following steps:

1. Reversible isothermal expansion of the gas at the "hot"

temperature, T1 (isothermal heat addition or absorption). During this step
(1 to 2 on Figure 1.4.1, A to B in Figure 1.4.2) the gas is allowed to
expand and it does work on the surroundings. The temperature of the gas
does not change during the process, and thus the expansion is isothermal.
The gas expansion is propelled by absorption of heat energy Q1 from the
high temperature reservoir and results in an increase of entropy of the gas
in the amount ∆ = / .
2. Isentropic (reversible adiabatic) expansion of the gas (isentropic work
output). For this step (2 to 3 on Figure 1.4.1, B to C in Figure 1.4.2) the
8
 mechanisms of the engine are assumed to be thermally insulated, thus
they neither gain nor lose heat (an adiabatic process). The gas continues
to expand, doing work on the surroundings, and losing an amount of
internal energy equal to the work that leaves the system. The gas
expansion causes it to cool to the "cold" temperature, T2. The entropy
remains unchanged.
3. Reversible isothermal compression of the gas at the "cold"
temperature, T2. (isothermal heat rejection) (3 to 4 on Figure 1.4.1, C to
D on Figure 1.4.2) Now the surroundings do work on the gas, causing an
amount of heat energy Q2 to leave the system to the low temperature
reservoir and the entropy of the system decreases in the amount ∆ =
/ . (This is the same amount of entropy absorbed in step 1, as can be
seen from the Clausius inequality.)
4. Isentropic compression of the gas (isentropic work input). (4 to 1 on
Figure 1.4.1, D to A on Figure 1.4.2) Once again the mechanisms of the
engine are assumed to be thermally insulated, and frictionless, hence
reversible. During this step, the surroundings do work on the gas,
increasing its internal energy and compressing it, causing the temperature
to rise to T1 due solely to the work added to the system, but the entropy
remains unchanged. At this point the gas is in the same state as at the
start of step 1.

In this case ∆ =
The behaviour of a Carnot engine or refrigerator is best understood by using
a temperature-entropy diagram (TS diagram), in which the thermodynamic state
is specified by a point on a graph with entropy (S) as the horizontal axis and
temperature (T) as the vertical axis. For a simple closed system (control mass
analysis), any point on the graph will represent a particular state of the system.
A thermodynamic process will consist of a curve connecting an initial state (A)
and a final state (B). The area under the curve will be =

9
Figure 1.4.2

Figure 1.4.3

10
 Figure 1.4.4

1.5 LIMITATIONS

• To have heat addition and heat rejection at constant temperature, the

piston has to move as slowly as possible and during adiabatic expansion,
it has to move as fast as possible.

• In actual practice, friction is always present.

• Perfectly adiabatic wall is a hypothesis

• Heat transfer isn’t actually reversible

11
2. THE OTTO CYCLE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Otto cycle is a gas power cycle that is used in spark-ignition internal

combustion engines (modern petrol engines). This cycle was introduced by
Dr.Nikolaus August Otto, a German Engineer. This cycle is based on constant
volume heat addition.

2.2 ASSUMPTIONS
Just like the Carnot cycle, the working of the engine is idealized with the
following assumptions:
a) The working substance for the Carnot engine is a perfect gas.
b) The piston movement in the cylinder is frictionless.
c) The walls of the cylinder and the piston are considered perfectly
insulated.
d) The cylinder head is so arranged that it is partially a very good conductor
of heat and partially a perfect insulator.
e) The heat supply and the heat rejection are at constant temperatures

2.3 WORKING

Figure 2.3.1

12
An Otto cycle consists of four processes:

1. Two isentropic (reversible adiabatic) processes

2. Two isochoric (constant volume) processes

These processes can be easily understood if we understand p-V (Figure 2.3.2)

and T-s (Figure 2.3.3) diagrams of Otto cycle.This processes can also be
understood by the Figure 2.3.1 which shows the schematics of a cylinder piston
movement.

 Process 1-2: Isentropic compression

In this process, the piston moves from bottom dead centre (BDC) to top dead
centre (TDC) position. Air undergoes reversible adiabatic (isentropic)
compression. We know that compression is a process in which volume
decreases and pressure increases. Hence, in this process, volume of air
decreases from V1 to V2 and pressure increases from p1 to p2. Temperature
increases from T1 to T2. As this an isentropic process, entropy remains constant
(i.e., s1=s2). Refer p-V and T-s diagrams for better understanding. (Figure 2.3.2
and Figure 2.3.3)

 Process 2-3: Constant Volume Heat Addition:

Process 2-3 is isochoric (constant volume) heat addition process. Here, piston
remains at top dead centre for a moment. Heat is added at constant volume (V2
= V3) from an external heat source. Temperature increases from T2 to T3,
pressure increases from p2 to p3 and entropy increases from s2 to s3.

In this process,

Heat Supplied = mCv(T3 – T2)

where,

m → Mass

Cv → Specific heat at constant volume

 Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion

In this process, air undergoes isentropic (reversible adiabatic) expansion. The

piston is pushed from top dead centre (TDC) to bottom dead centre (BDC)

13
position. Here, pressure decreases from p3 to p4, volume rises from v3 to v4,
temperature falls from T3 to T4 and entropy remains constant (s3=s4). (Refer P-v
and T-s Diagrams in Figure 2.3.2 and Figure 2.3.3).

 Process 4-1: Constant Volume Heat Rejection

The piston rests at BDC for a moment and heat is rejected at constant volume
(V4=V1). In this process, pressure falls from p4 to p1, temperature decreases
from T4 to T1 and entropy falls from s4 to s1.

Figure 2.3.2

14
 Figure 2.3.3

The quantity V1/V2 is called the compression ratio (r) . In terms of compression
ratio, the efficiency of an ideal Otto cycle is:

2.4 Actual Cycle

The actual cycle is depicted by the help of a P-v diagram shown by Figure 2.4.1.
These deviations are accounted by the following

• Time loss due to progressive combustion.

• Dissociation of exhaust gases.
15
 • Exhaust blowdown.
• Rubbing friction.
• Heat losses to coolant.

Figure 2.4.1

2.5 Significance and Limitations

• Constant-Volume heat addition forms the working principle of modern

petrol engines.
• Gasoline/petrol is a cleaner fuel than Diesel.
• Lighter in construction.
• Lower average temperature and pressure than external combustion
engines.

16
 • High efficiency and can be controlled by changing compression ratio.
• 100 % efficiency cannot be achieved as it would violate 2nd principle of
thermodynamics.
• Otto cycle by itself has no real world use as it is theorized on ideal
conditions.
• Quasi-Static process do
• Source of heat reservoir is not defined.

3. THE DIESL CYCLE

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The Diesel Cycle was invented by Rudolf Diesel in 1892. It is a constant

pressure heat addition type of cycle. It converts heat into work. During the
bottom isentropic processes, energy is transferred into the system in the form of
work, but by definition (isentropic) no energy is transferred into or out of the
system in the form of heat. During the constant pressure process, energy enters
the system as heat .

P qin T
2 3
qin
3

P=const
Isentro
pic 2

4
4

Isentropi qout
c qout 1
v=const

v s
(a) P-v 17
(b) T-s
 Figure 3.1.1

3.2 WORKING

Diesel cycle has four processes. They are:

1. Process 1-2: Isentropic Compression

In this process, the piston moves from Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) to Top Dead
Centre (TDC) position. Air is compressed isentropicalLy inside the cylinder.
Pressure of air increases from p1 to p2, temperature increases from T1 to T2, and
volume decreases from V1 to V2. Entropy remains constant (i.e., s1 = s2). Work
is done on the system in this process (denoted by Win in the Figure 3.1.1(a-b))

2. Process 2-3: Constant Pressure Heat Addition

In this process, heat is added at constant pressure from an external heat source.
Volume increases from V2 to V3, temperature increases from T2 to T3 and
entropy increases from s2 to s3.
Heat added in process 2-3 is given by
Qin = mCp(T3 − T2) kJ ………… (i)
where,
m → Mass of air in kg
Cp → Specific heat at constant pressure in kJ/kgK
T2 → Temperature at point 2 in K
T3 → Temperature at point 3 in K

3. Process 3-4: Isentropic Expansion

Here the compressed and heated air is expanded isentropically inside the
cylinder. The piston is forced from TDC to BDC in the cylinder. Pressure of air
decreases from p3 to p4, temperature decreases from T3 to T4, and volume
increases from V3 to V4. Entropy remains constant (i.e., s3 = s4). Work is done
by the system in this process (denoted by Wout in the p-V and T-s diagrams
above).

18
4. Process 4-1: Constant Volume Heat Rejection
In this process, heat is rejected at constant volume (V4 = V1). Pressure decreases
from P4 to P1, temperature decreases from T4 to T1 and entropy decreases from
s4 to s1.
Heat rejected in process 4-1 is given by
Qout = mCv(T4 − T1) kJ ………… (ii)
where,
m → Mass of air in kg
Cv → Specific heat at constant volume in kJ/kgK
T2 → Temperature at point 2 in K
T3 → Temperature at point 3 in K
For a good understanding of every process, refer the p-V and T-s diagrams in
Figure 3.1.1
Air-standard Efficiency of Diesel Cycle:
Air-standard efficiency (or thermal efficiency) of diesel cycle is given by:
ΗTh=ηDiesel=HeatAdded–HeatRejected / HeatAdded×100%
Diesel=Qin−Qout/ Qin×100%
From equations (i) and (ii)
ηDiesel=mCp(T3–T2)–mCV(T4–T1)mCp(T3–T2)×100%
ηDiesel=(1−mCV(T4−T1)mCp(T3−T2))×100%
ηDiesel=(1−CV(T4−T1)Cp(T3−T2))×100%
ηDiesel=(1−1γ(T4−T1)(T3−T2))×100%(Since,CpCV=γ⇒CVCp=1γ)

3.3 ACTUAL CYCLE

The actual cycle is showing in Figure 3.3.1. This deviation is scene for similar
reasons stated in part 2.4 in Otto Cycles.

19
 Figure 3.3.1

3.4 ADVANTAGES OF ENGINES WORKING ON DIESEL CYCLE

The main advantage of diesel engine is the inexpensive fuel. Then the cost
difference between diesel fuel and petrol reaches the 20% level even the owners
of expensive cars start to save. The fuel efficiency of diesel engines is 36% and
higher. The efficiency of petrol-powered engine is only 25% that means that the
diesel engine wastes less fuel than the petrol-powered engine.

3.5 DISADVANTAGES OF DIESEL ENGINES

Tough diesel engines are more efficient, the pollution produced by diesel
engines are 8-9 times more than that of petrol engines. This makes the diesel
engines counterproductive.
3.6 APPLICATIONS

Because of their heavy construction, diesel engines are widely used in

Trucks, ships, submarines etc.

20
4 THE DUAL CYCLE

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The dual combustion cycle (also known as the limited pressure or mixed cycle,
Trinkler cycle, Seiliger cycle or Sabathe cycle) is a thermal cycle that is a
combination of the Otto cycle and the Diesel cycle, first introduced by Russian-
German engineer Gustav Trinkler. Heat is added partly at constant volume and
partly at constant pressure, the advantage of which is that more time is available
for the fuel to completely combust. Because of lagging characteristics of fuel
this cycle is invariably used for diesel and hot spot ignition engines. It consists
of two adiabatic and two constant volumes and one constant pressure process.
Efficiency lies between Otto and diesel cycle The P-V diagram is given below
(Figure 4.1.1)

The dual cycle consists of following operations:

1. 1-2 Adiabatic compression

2. 2-3 Addition of heat at constant volume.
3. 3-4 Addition of heat at constant pressure.
4. 4-5 Adiabatic expansion.
5. 5-1 Rejection of heat at constant volume.

21
 Figure 4.1.1

4.2 WORKING

 The Thermal efficiency of the cycle is given by the fomula:





 where:
 r = compression ratio V1/V2
 r = ratio of the burning period volumes V4/V3 (= T4/T3)
 g = adiabatic index of compression/expansion (1.4 for air)


4.3 APPLICATIONS

Dual cycles have very little applications as they cannot be used in real world
situations. However, some modern engines do use the principle of dual
cycles.

22
REFERENCES
________________________________________________________
Wikipedia.org/

Introduction to Thermodynamics” by P.K. Nag,

23
GLOSSARY
_______________________________________________________________
ADIABATIC:
Relating to or denoting a process or condition in which heat does not enter or leave the
system concerned.

HEAT:
The quality of being hot; high temperature.

ISENTROPIC:
Having equal entropy.

ISOCHORIC PROCESS:
An isochoric process, also called a constant-volume process, is volumetric process, or an
isometric process, is a thermodynamic process during which the volume of the closed system
undergoing such a process remains constant.

PRESSURE:
Continuous physical force exerted on or against an object by something in contact with it.

PROCESS:
A natural series of changes.

REVERSIBLE:
Capable of being reversed so that the previous state is restored.

THERMODYNAMICS:
The branch of physical science that deals with the relations between heat and other forms of
energy (such as mechanical, electrical, or chemical energy), and, by extension, of the
relationships between all forms of energy.

VOLUME:
The amount of space that a substance or object occupies, or that is enclosed within a
container.

24