PART 7

DIODES and APPLICATIONS

I. DIODES

1. VACUUM TUBE DIODE

 Also known as Fleming Valve
 Components that conduct current in one direction only
 Developed by J.A Fleming

2. SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
 An electronic device that results from the fusion of P-type material and an N-
type material

Cathode Band Depletion region

++ +
Cathode + + Anode

Formation of the Depletion Region

a. Diffusion
 Movement of electrons from a region of high concentration to lower
concentration
b. At the junction, the electrons from then n-type and holes from the p- type attract
each other, combine and cancel their net charges
c. Due to the cancellation of electrons and holes at the junction, the junction will
have no more carriers so it is called a depleted region or depletion region

Ideal diode is a nonlinear device with a current versus voltage

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7-2 Diodes and Applications

Biasing the PN Junction

a. Forward Biased
 P-type is more positive than the N-type
 A condition that allows current to flow through the pn junction
 The pn junction narrows

cathode Anode

current

b. Reverse Biased
 P-type is more negative than the N-type
 A condition that prevents current to flow through the pn junction
 The pn junction widens

pn junction widens

cathode Anode

Diode Parameters
a. Bulk Resistance (Rb)

Vf  Vb
Rb = Rp + Rn =
Id

Where: Vf – forward voltage drop

Vb – barrier potential

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Diodes and Applications 7- 3

b. Junction Resistance (Rj)

26mV
Rj  ;
Id
Id– forward dc current

c. Dynamic or AC Resistance (Rac)

Rac = Rj + Rb

d. Forward Voltage Drop

Forward Voltage Drop = Power dissipated / forward DC current

e. Forward current
 The magnitude of the current the diode can handle without being destroyed
under forward biased condition

f. Reverse Saturation Current

 It is the magnitude of the current that will leak when the iode is reverse biased
 Leakage current

g. Reverse Breakdown Voltage

 Peak –inverse voltage(PIV)
 Maximum reverse voltage hat can be applied before current surges
 Voltage across the inductor when the diode is open

h. Reverse DC Resistance (Rr)

Rr = Reverse voltage/ reverse current

i. Linear Power Derating Factor

 The reduction of power handling capability of diode due to the increase in
ambient temperature from the room temperature

Review Question:
A silicon diode has a forward voltage drop of 1.2V for a forward DC current of
100 mA. It has a reverse current of 1 uA for a reverse voltage of 10 V. Calculate the:
a. bulk resistance
Vf  Vb 1.2  0.7
Rb = = = 5 ohms
Id 100mA
b. reverse resistance
Vr 10 V
Rr = = = 10 Mega ohms
Ir 1uA

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7-4 Diodes and Applications

c. AC resistance at forward DC current of 2.5 mA

Rac = Rj + Rb
26mV
But Rj = = 10.4 ohms
2.5mA
So Rac = 10.4 + 5 = 15.4 ohms

II. SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

1. ZENER DIODE
 Diode designed to operate in the reverse breakdown region
a. Zener Breakdown
 When the breakdown voltage is below 5 volts
b. Avalanche Breakdown
 When the breakdown voltage is above 5 volts

 Typical breakdown voltages of 1.8 Volts to 200 Volts with specified tolerances
from 1 % to 20%
 With very stable voltage drop
 Useful as voltage regulator
Symbol :

2. POINT CONTACT DIODE

 Semiconductor diode having fine wire whose point is permanent contact with
the surface of a wafer of a semiconductor material such as Silicon, Germanium
or Gallium Arsenide
 The fine wire is called cat-whisker
 For signal mixing and detection

3. SCHOTTKY DIODE
 Also known as Surface Barrier Diode
 Also known as hot-carrier diodes
 This type of diode has no depletion layer which eliminates the stored charges
in the junction
 A rectifying metal semiconductor junction such as gold, silver and platinum.
 Typical forward voltage drop is typically around 0.25 V to 0.3 V
 Switch off faster than an ordinary diode
 Can rectify frequencies up to 300 MHz
 ESBAR(Epitaxial Schottky Barrier)

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Diodes and Applications 7- 5

Metal silicon junction

cathode Anode
Construction of Schottky
Diode
Symbol:

4. VARACTOR (varicap)
 Voltage-variable capacitor
 When this diode is reversed bias, the width of the depletion layer increases
with the reverse voltage
 The key idea is that the capacitances is controlled by voltage
 Used foe electronic tuning, harmonic generator and parametric amplifier
Symbol:

0.159
Figure of Merit =
fRsCt

where: f–frequency(Hz); Rs – Series resistance

Ct – total diode capacitance(F)

5. TUNNEL DIODE
 Also known as Esaki diode
 Type of diode that exhibit the phenomenon known as negative resistance
 Negative resistance implies that an increase in forward voltage produces a
decrease in forward current for a certain part.
 Utilizes a heavily doped material and therefore have so many electrons.
 Has a very thin depletion region
 The extremely narrow depletion region emits electrons to “tunnel” through the
pn junction at very low forward bias voltage
 Used for oscillators and amplifiers
Symbol:

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7-6 Diodes and Applications

If

Negative
Resistance
region

Tuneling
Current
Vf
0

Tunnel Diode Charactristics Curve

6. BACK DIODE
 Conducts better in the reverse (-0.1 V) than in the forward (+0.7 V) direction
 Designed such that its high current flow takes place when the junction is
reversed bias
Symbol:

7. PIN Diode
 Positive –Intrinsic-Negative Diode
 The intrinsic material between the P and N layer offers impedance at
microwave frequencies being controlled by low frequency signals
 Used in microwave switches

8. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

 In a forward biased LED, free electrons cross the junction and fall into holes.
As these electrons fall from higher to a lower energy level, they radiate energy
goes off in the form of heat. But in a LED, the energy is being radiated as a
light
 Commonly used Gallium Arsenide, Gallium Arsenide Phosphide and Gallium
Phosphide
 GaAs LEDs emit infrared (IR) radiation which is non invisible, GaAsP produces
either red or yellow visible light and GaP emits red or green visible light.
 Red is the most common color of LEDs
 Electroluminescense is the process involved when large surface area on one
layer of one semiconductive material permits the photons to be emitted as
visible light

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Diodes and Applications 7- 7

 Irradiance is the power per unit area at a given distance from a LED source
expressed in mW/ cm2.
Symbol:

 Typical voltage Drop:

1.5 V to 2.5 V for currents between 10 mA and 50 mA
Nominal Voltage Drop: 2V
Reverse breakdown: 3V – 10V

9. LASER DIODE
 Term laser stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
 Laser light is monochromatic meaning it consists of a single color and not a
mixture of colors
 Laser light is also a coherent light meaning single wavelength
 Laser diode pn junction is formed by two layers of doped gallium arsenide
 It is forward biased
 Laser diodes and photodiodes are used in the pick-up system of compact disk
(CD) layers. Audio information is digitally recorded in stereo on the surface of a
compact disk in the microscopic “pits and flats”.

10. PHOTODIODE
 Operated in reverse bias condition
 Is one that is optimized for its sensitivity to light
 A window let light to pass through the package of the junction. The incoming
light produces free electrons and holes producing larger reverse current
 Dark current is the reverse current flowing through the photodiode when there
is no incident light
Symbol:

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7-8 Diodes and Applications

III. APPLICATIONS

1. DIODE RECTIFIER
 Type of diode circuit that converts alternating current into unidirectional
current(DC)
 Typically seen in power supplies

AC regulator
Rectifier filter

Power Supply

Half –Wave Rectifier

 A rectifier circuit with a single diode that conduct current during positive or
negative half cycles of input AC signal at a rate determined by the input
frequency.

INPUT

OUTPUT

Conversion Factor = 40.6 %

Freqoutput = Freqinput

Full Wave Rectifier

 A rectifier circuit that conducts current during positive and negative half cycles
of input AC signal.

INPUT

OUTPUT

Center-Tapped

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Diodes and Applications 7- 9

INPUT

RL
OUTPUT

Bridge Type
Conversion factor = 81.2 %
Freqoutput = 2 x Freqinput

Comparison of Rectifiers
Half-wave Center-Tapped Bridge-Type

Vpk Vpk Vpk

Vrms
2 2 2
Vpk 2 Vpk 2 Vpk
Vave
  
Ipk Ipk Ipk
Irms
2 2 2
Ipk 2Ipk 2Ipk
Iave
  
PIV Vpk 2Vpk Vpk

2. CLIPPERS
 Electronic circuits that have the ability to clip-off a portion of the input signal
with out distorting the remaining part of the alternating waveform
 Other names, limiters, amplitude selectors and slicers

Examples of Clipper Circuits

INPUT

OUTPUT

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7-10 Diodes and Applications

DC Signal
INPUT

10sinwt 5V OUTPUT

3. CLAMPERS
 Circuits that shift the waveform of the input signal either all above or below the
reference voltage
 Add or restore a DC level to an electrical signal
 Also known as DC restorer
 Clamping circuit is often used in television receivers as a dc restorer. Incoming
composite video signal is normally processed through capacitively coupled
amplifiers that eliminate the dc component losing the reference levels which
must be restored using clamping circuits before applying to the picture tube.

Example of a Clamper Circuit:

Vpk
INPUT

2Vpk

OUTPUT

Positive Clamper

4. VOLTAGE MULTIPLIER
 Circuit which produces a greater DC output voltage than AC input voltage to
the rectifiers
 Ss clamping action to increase peak rectified voltages without the necessity of
increasing the input’s transformers voltage rating
 Used in high-voltage, low current applications such as TV receivers

Voltage Doubler
 A voltage multiplier with a multiplication factor of 2

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Diodes and Applications 7- 11

Example:
C1 D2

Vp C2 Vo
D1

At the first negative half cycle: At the first positive half cycle:
D1 = Forward Bias D1 = Reverse Bias
D2 = Reverse Bias D2 = Forward Bias
VC1= Vp VC1= Vp
VC2= 2Vp Vo = VC2 = 2Vp

Voltage Tripler
 Addition of another diode-capacitor section to the half wave voltage doubler
creates voltage tripler.
 The PIV of each diode is 2Vp
Example
+ -
3Vp
C1 C3

Vp
D1 D2 D3

C2

Voltage Quadrupler
 The addition of still another diode-capacitor section in a voltage tripler circuit
 The PIV of each diode is 2Vp
Example:

C1 C3

Vp
D1 D2 D3 D4

C2 C4
4Vp
+ -

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7-12 Diodes and Applications

5. VOLTAGE REGULATION
 Means maintaining the output voltage at any load
 The type of diode used for regulation is Zener diode

Zener Regulation

Rs

Is Vz
Vs Iz RL
IL

Vs(min)  Vz Vs max Vz
Rs = =
IL max Iz min IL min Iz max

Power Rating (Pz) = Vz Izmax

Take Note: as a rule of thumb, Izmin = 0.1Izmax

Vno _ load  Vfull _ load

Load regulation = x100
Vfull _ load

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Diodes and Applications 7- 13

TEST YOURSELF 7
Review Questions

1. The vacuum tube diode was developed by J. Fleming and is also known as ________.
a. Fleming diode
b. Fleming valve
c. audion
d. dione

Answer b. Fleming valve

2. In case a PN junction is forward biased

a. Holes and electrons seized to move
b. Electrons and holes moves away the junction
c. Electrons and holes move toward the junction
d. depletion region decreases

Answer d. depletion region decreases

3. The bulk resistance of a diode is_____

a. the resistance of N-material only
b. the resistance of P material only
c. the resistance of the junction only
d. the resistance of the P and the N material

Answer d. the resistance of the P and the N material

4. The depletion layer of the PN junction diode has

a. only free mobile electrons
b. only free mobile holes
c. both free mobile holes and mobile electrons
d.neither free mobile electrons nor holes

Answer d. neither free mobile electrons nor holes

5. A zener diode is invariably used with

a. forward biased
b. reverse biased
c. Zero bias
d. no bias

Answer b. reversed biased

6. The light emitting diode produces light when

a. Unbiased
b. forward bias
c. reverse bias
d. zero bias

Answer b. forward bias

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7-14 Diodes and Applications

7. The PN junction offers

a. a high resistance in forward as well as reverse direction
b. Low resistance in forward as well as in reverse
c. conducts in forward direction only
d. conducts in the reverse direction only

Answer c. conducts in forward direction only

8. The DC resistance of a diode is ________than its AC resistance.

a. same as
b. more than
c. less than
d. all of the above

Answer c. less than

9. The PIV rating of a crystal diode is ________that of equivalent vacuum diode.

a. lower than
b. more than
c. the same as
d. all of the above

Answer a. lower than

10. Crystal diode is a _____device.

a. non-linear
b. linear
c. amplifying
d. oscillating

Answer a. non-linear

11. A zener diode has______.

a. one PN junction
b. two PN junction
c. three PN junction
d. 1.5 PN junction

Answer a. one PN junction

12 The doping level in a zener diode is ______that of a crystal diode.

a. more than
b. less than
c. the same as
d. none of these

Answer a. more than

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Diodes and Applications 7- 15

13. The most widely used rectifier circuit is ______.

a. half wave
b. center tap
c. bridge type
d. book type

Answer c. bridge type

14. If PIV rating of a diode is exceeded, the diode ________.

a. stops conduction
b. is destroyed
c. conducts heavily in the forward direction
d. is not destroyed

Answer b. is destroyed

15. The _______filter circuit results in the best voltage regulation

a. choke input
b. capacitor input
c. resistant input
d. transformer input

Answer a. choke input

16. A 60 Hz sine voltage is applied to the input of a half wave rectifier, what is the output
frequency?
a. 60 Hz
b. 120 Hz
c. 30 Hz
d. 180 Hz

Answer a. 60 Hz

17. If the load resistance of a capacitor –filtered - full wave rectifier is reduced, the ripple voltage
a. increases
b. decreases
c, is not affected
d. has different frequency

Answer a. increases

18. Load regulation is determined by

a. changes in load current and input voltage
b. changes in load current and output voltage
c. changes in load resistance and input voltage
d. changes in zener current and load current

Answer b. changes in load current and output voltage

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7-16 Diodes and Applications

19. If you are checking a 60 Hz full-wave bridge rectifier and observe that the output has a 60 Hz
ripple,
a. the circuit is working properly
b. the transformer secondary is shorted
c. there is an open diode
d. the filter capacitor is leaky

Answer c. there is an open diode

20. The cathode of a zener diode in a voltage regulator is normally

a. more positive than the anode
b. more negative than the anode
c. at +0.7 V
d. grounded

Answer a. more positive than the anode

21. A no load condition means that

a. the load has infinite resistance
b. the load has zero resistance
c. the output terminals are pen
d. answers a and c

Answer d. answers a and c

22. The internal resistance of a photodiode

a. increases with light intensity when reversed bias
b. decreases with light intensity when reversed bias
c. increases with light intensity when forward bias
d. decreases with light intensity when forward bias

Answer b. decreases with light intensity when reversed bias

23. A diode that has a negative resistance is the ________.

a. Schottky diode
b. Tunnel diode
c. Laser diode
d. hot-carrier diode

Answer b. Tunnel diode

24. The small value of direct current that flows when a semiconductor device has a reverse bias
(November, 1999)
a. surge current
b. bias current
c. reverse current
d. current limit

Answer c. reverse current

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Diodes and Applications 7- 17

25. How does a junction diode rated? (November, 1996)

a. maximum reverse current and PIV
b. maximum forward current and PIV
c. maximum forward current and capacitance
d. maximum reverse current and capacitance

Answer b. maximum forward current and PIV

26. Where do you measure the positive direct current output voltage from a half wave rectifier
circuit? (November, 2003)
a. anode terminal
b. any terminal
c. cathode terminal
d. ground terminal

Answer c. cathode terminal

27. The main disadvantage of a conventional full-wave rectifier is that the peak voltage is_____that
of a half wave rectifier. (November, 2003)
a. triple
b. half
c. double
d. quadruple

Answer b. half

28. What is the condition of the diode in a series –limiter when the output is developed?
(November, 2003)
a. conducting
b. cut-off
c. shorted
d. shunted

Answer a. conducting

29. As a rule of thumb, what is an acceptable ratio of back-to-forward resistance for a diode?
(November, 2003)
a. 2 to 1
b. less than 10 to 1
c greater than 10 to 1
d. 5 to 1

Answer c. greater than 10 to 1

30. What do you call the tiny crystal of semiconductor material that glows when an electric current
passes through it? (November, 2003)
a. LED
b. laser beam
c. photon
d. liquid crystal

Answer d. liquid crystal

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7-18 Diodes and Applications

31. The percentage change in output voltage for a given change in load current is called________
(November, 2003)
a. load regulation
b. line regulation
c. output regulation
d. voltage regulation

Answer a. load regulation

32. How many diodes does a bridge circuits require? (April, 2004)
a. two diodes
b. three diodes
c. five diodes
d. four diodes

Answer d. four diodes

33. What type of circuit would a zener diode is most likely used in? (April, 2004)
a. voltage regulator
b. amplifier
c. oscillator
d. rectifier

Answer a. voltage regulator

34. What is the correct operating voltage for a typical LED? (April, 2004)
a. +3 to +6 V
b. -6 to +5 V
c. +12 to +18 V
d. 0 to +120 V

Answer a. +3 to +6 V

35. The ratio of a varactor’s capacitance at specified minimum voltage to the capacitance at a
specified maximum voltage.
a. tuning ratio
b. percentage ratio
c. capacity ratio
d. efficiency ratio

Answer a. tuning ratio

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