Journal of the Korean Physical Society, Vol. 59, No. 5, November 2011, pp.

3267∼3272

Design and Optical Properties of Two-dimensional Photonic Crystals:

A Finite-Difference Time-Domain Numerical Simulation Study

Inkyu Park
Department of Physics, University of Seoul, Seoul 130-743, Korea

Sunman Kim
Quantum Photonic Science Research Center, Hanyang University, Seoul 133-791, Korea,
Department of Physics, University of Seoul, Seoul 130-743, Korea and
R&D Center, LG Display, Paju 413-811, Korea

Geon Joon Lee∗ and YoungPak Lee

Department of Physics and Quantum Photonic Science Research Center, Hanyang University, Seoul 133-791, Korea

Jihye Kim
Quantum Photonic Science Research Center, Hanyang University, Seoul 133-791, Korea and
Department of Physics, University of Seoul, Seoul 130-743, Korea

(Received 9 December 2010, in final form 28 June 2011)

In this research, the photonic band structures and the transmittance spectra are obtained by
solving the Maxwell equations using the finite-difference time-domain method. Two-dimensional
(2D) square-lattice photonic crystals (PCs) were designed such that the center wavelength of the
photonic bandgap (PBG) was located near 800 nm. The optimized 2D square-lattice PC has εH
= 7.0, εL = 1.0, lattice constant (a) = 272 nm, and radius of lattice (rH ) = 0.3∗a. The square-
lattice PC shows a complete PBG between 711 and 841 nm. The proposed square-lattice PC
can be created by the interference of four umbrella beams. For the interference of four umbrella
beams with a wavelength of 400 nm and a crossing angle of 47.3◦ , the interference pattern has a
square lattice-like profile with a lattice constant of 272 nm. As applications of 2D square-lattice
PCs, we investigated the optical properties of a linear waveguide, a 90◦ -bent waveguide, and an
interferometer formed by introducing proper defects into 2D square-lattice PCs. Similar to 2D
square-lattice PCs formed by four beam interference, 2D triangular lattice PCs can be created by
three beam interference. A triangular lattice PC with a lattice constant of 287 nm can be created
by the interference of three umbrella beams with a wavelength of 400 nm and a crossing angle of
68◦ . The corresponding 2D triangular lattice PC shows a complete PBG between 706 nm and 916
nm.

PACS numbers: 42.40.Eq, 42.82.Cr, 61.80.Ba

Keywords: Two-dimensional photonic crystals, Photonic bandgap, Multiple beam interference, Square-
lattice, Triangular lattice, Defect, 90◦ -bent waveguide
DOI: 10.3938/jkps.59.3267

I. INTRODUCTION lar range of wavelength is prohibited [1–3]. Under proper

Periodic dielectric structures control the propagation
of light wave in the same way as periodic electric poten-
tials in a conventional crystal modify the electron motion
due to the forbidden energy bands. Photonic crystals
(PCs) represent artificial crystal structures whose dielec-
tric constants are periodically modulated in space so that
the propagation of an electromagnetic wave in a particu-
∗ E-mail: glee@hanyang.ac.kr
-3267-
conditions, PCs show the forbidden frequency bands,
usually referred to as the photonic bandgaps (PBGs).
Also, they exhibit useful properties such as the optical
confinement effect and the superprism effect, which may
be exploited in high-density optical integrated circuits.
The PBG structures can be used in various applications,
such as add-drop multiplexers, waveguides, mirrors, and
resonant cavities [4–8]. In order to develop PCs, it is nec-
essary to design the PC structure and to determine the
lattice parameters. Generally, the photonic band struc-
-3268- Journal of the Korean Physical Society, Vol. 59, No. 5, November 2011
tures and the transmission spectra of PCs are determined
by the crystal structure, the refractive index contrast,
the lattice constant, and the filling ratio. By performing
numerical simulations that calculate the optical charac-
teristics of PCs with various lattice parameters, we can
determine the lattice parameters for a proper PC.
Experimentally, PCs can be made by using sev-
eral methods, such as mechanical machining, direct
laser writing, electron/ion/X-ray-beam patterning, litho-
graphic techniques and self-assembly [9–17]. Direct
laser writing and mechanical machining methods allow
recording of arbitrary crystal structures, but these meth-
ods exhibit relatively slow prototyping efficiency associ-
ated with the pixel-by-pixel scanning method. Although
electron/ion/X-ray beam patterning can be used to pro-
duce PCs, these methods must use vacuum equipment
and masks. Meanwhile, light interference structuring
has the advantage of rapidly producing PCs. For the
fabrication of defects into the PCs, Sun et al. demon-
strated direct laser writing by using femtosecond laser
pulses [9]. Direct laser writing is useful to produce de-
fects in the samples when PCs are fabricated by multiple
beam interference. An alternative method for obtaining
defects into the PCs is to insert nano-crystals by using
micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) [18,19].
In this study, the photonic band structures and
the transmittance spectra were obtained by solving
the Maxwell equations using the finite-difference time-
domain method. Two-dimensional (2D) PCs were de-
signed such that the center wavelength of the PBG was
located near 800 nm. In order to obtain the optimum
PCs, we investigated the optical properties of PCs with
various crystal structures. The proposed PCs can be cre-
ated by multiple beam interference. First, numerical sim-
ulations have been performed to get the spatial intensity
distribution for multiple beam interference with various
interference conditions. Next, we show that the proposed
PCs can be prepared by transferring the optimized in-
terference pattern to a photosensitive medium. In order
to find possible applications of 2D PCs, we investigated
the effect of point defects on the optical characteristics
of the PC waveguides and the PC interferometers.
II. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Two-dimensional (2D) PCs were designed such that
the center wavelength of the PBG was located near
800 nm. The photonic band structures of the proposed
PCs were calculated by solving the Maxwell equations.
Maxwell equations are given by
∂ In this study, the proposed PCs are created by using
∇ × E = −µ0 µr (r) H, (1)
∂t
∂ interference employs four umbrella beams and three um-
∇ × H = ε0 εr (r) E + σ(r)E, (2)
∂t
∇ · D = 0, (3)
Fig. 1. (Color online) Schematic diagram for (a) the 2D
PC geometry and (b) the propagation direction.
Fig. 2. (Color online) Schematic diagram for (a) four-beam
interference and (b) three-beam interference.
∇ · H = 0. (4)
Here, E and H are the electric and the magnetic fields, ε0
and µ0 are the electric permittivity of free space and the
magnetic permeability of free space, respectively. εr (r)
= ε(r)/ε0 and µr (r) = µ(r)/µ0 are the relative electric
permittivity (or the dielectric constant) and the relative
magnetic permeability, respectively. σ(r) is the electric
conductivity.
For nonconductive and nonmagnetic medium (σ(r) =
0, µr (r) = 1), combining the Maxwell equations results
in the generalized Helmholtz equation as follows:
   
1 ω 2
∇× ∇×H = H,
εr (r) c
εr (r) = εr (r + R),
R = la1 + ma2 . (5)
Here, c2 = 1/(ε0 µ0 ), a1 and a2 are basis vectors of 2D
PC, and l and m are integers. This is a kind of eigen-
value equation. By solving these equations for the irre-
ducible Brillouin zone, we can obtain the photonic band
structure. To calculate the photonic band structure, we
used the MIT photonic band (MPB) program developed
by Johnson and Joannopoulos [20, 21]. Meanwhile, the
transmission spectra were obtained by using the MIT
electromagnetic equation propagation (MEEP) program
developed by Roundy et al. [22,23]. Finally, the spa-
tial intensity distributions were calculated by solving the
Maxwell equations using the FDTD method [24]. In this
research, the PC geometry and the propagation direction
are defined as in Figs. 1(a) and 1(b), respectively. In or-
der to calculate the spatial intensity distribution inside
the PC waveguides, we solved the Maxwell equations us-
ing the MEEP program.
multiple beam interference structuring. Multiple beam
brella beams [Fig. 2(a) and Fig. 2(b)]. As N monochro-
matic waves are superposed, these waves interfere with
Design and Optical Properties of Two-dimensional Photonic Crystals: · · · – Inkyu Park et al.
Fig. 3. (Color online) (a) Photonic band structure and (b)
transmission spectrum of the 2D square-lattice PC with εH
= 7.0, εL = 1.0, a = 272 nm, and rH = 0.3∗a.
Fig. 4. Spatial intensity distribution formed by four-beam
interference: (a) surface contour and (b) three-dimensional
(3D) distribution. For the interference of four umbrella beams
with λinc = 400 nm and θ = 47.3◦ , the interference pattern
has a square lattice-like profile with a = 272 nm.
each other and spatially modulate the light intensity.
The interference intensity profile is given by
N
X N
X spatially selective amorphous-to-crystalline transforma-
I(r) = Ep2 +2 Ep · Eq cos [(kp − kq ) · r
p=1 p<q=1
+(ϕp − ϕq )] .(6)
Here, Ep , ϕp , and kp are the amplitude, phase, and wave
vector of the p-th interfering beam, respectively.
III. STRUCTURE DESIGN AND OPTICAL
PROPERTIES OF TWO-DIMENSIONAL
PHOTONIC CRYSTALS BASED ON
MULTIPLE BEAM INTERFERENCE
Two-dimensional (2D) square-lattice PCs were de-
signed such that the center wavelength of the PBG was
located near 800 nm. By investigating the optical proper-
ties of the 2D square-lattice PCs for various conditions of
lattice parameters, such as the dielectric constant of the
lattice (εH ), the dielectric constant of the background
material (εL ), the lattice constant (a), and the radius of
the lattice point (rH ), we obtained the optimized lattice
structure. Figure 3(a) shows the photonic band struc-
ture of the 2D square-lattice PC with εH = 7.0, εL =
1.0, a = 272 nm, and rH = 0.3∗a. The proposed 2D
square-lattice PC shows a complete PBG between 711
-3269-
and 841 nm. Figure 3(b) shows the transmission spec-
trum of the 2D square-lattice PC for a wave propagating
in the X direction.
In order to prepare the proposed 2D square-lattice
PCs, we used the interference of four umbrella beams.
For the interference of four umbrella beams with a wave-
length of 400 nm and a crossing angle of 47.3◦ [Fig. 2(a)],
the propagation wave vectors of the four interfering
beams are given as follows:
k1 = k0 sin(47.3◦ ) cos(0◦ )ex
+k0 sin(47.3◦ ) sin(0◦ )ey + k0 cos(47.3◦ )ez , (7)
k2 = k0 sin(47.3◦ ) cos(90◦ )ex
+k0 sin(47.3◦ ) sin(90◦ )ey + k0 cos(47.3◦ )ez , (8)
k3 = k0 sin(47.3◦ ) cos(180◦ )ex
+k0 sin(47.3◦ ) sin(180◦ )ey + k0 cos(47.3◦ )ez , (9)
k4 = k0 sin(47.3◦ ) cos(270◦ )ex
+k0 sin(47.3◦ ) sin(270◦ )ey + k0 cos(47.3◦ )ez .(10)
The spatial interference pattern exhibits a square lattice-
like profile with a lattice constant of 272 nm, as shown
in Fig. 4. By irradiating a photosensitive thin film with
four umbrella beams, it is possible to obtain a 2D square-
lattice PC. For the interference structuring by four um-
brella beams, we assume that the region with an inten-
sity higher than the threshold has a dielectric constant
of εH , and that the lower intensity region has a dielec-
tric constants of εL . The possible mechanisms for the
formation of the 2D PC are spatially selective ablation,
tion, and photolithography. In the four-beam interfer-
ence structuring, the radius of each pillar can be adjusted
by controlling the beam intensity.
In order to find a possible application of the 2D square-
lattice PC, we investigated light propagation along the
linear waveguide formed inside the PC. The linear waveg-
uide was prepared by generating a linear array of de-
(W G)
fects (εD ) into the 2D square-lattice PC. Figure 5(a)
shows the spatial intensity distribution along the linear
waveguide. The incident light propagates along the lin-
ear waveguide. Next, we investigated the possibility of
optical switching by introducing a point defect at the
center of the linear waveguide. Figure 5(b) shows the
spatial intensity distribution along the linear waveguide
(P )
after introducing a point defect with εD = 7.0 at the cen-
ter of the linear waveguide. That is, when the dielectric
constant of the point defect is varied from 1.0 to 7.0, the
transmission characteristics are also modified. For the
point defect with a dielectric constant of 1.0, the incident
wave can transmit along the linear waveguide, but after
the dielectric constant of the point defect is switched to
7.0, the wave propagation is forbidden. That is, a sin-
gle point defect controls light propagation along the lin-
ear waveguide. Next, we studied light propagation along
a 90◦ -bent waveguide formed inside a 2D square-lattice
PC. As can be seen in Fig. 6, the dielectric constant of
-3270- Journal of the Korean Physical Society, Vol. 59, No. 5, November 2011
Fig. 5. (Color online) Spatial intensity distribution of lin-
ear waveguides formed inside the 2D square-lattice PCs. εH
(W G)
= 7.0, εL = 1.0, εD = 1.0. A point defect was located at
the middle of the waveguide. In (a), εD
(W G)
of the point defect
(W G)
was 1.0. In (b), εD of the point defect varied to 10.0
Fig. 6. (Color online) Spatial intensity distribution of 90◦ -
bent waveguides formed inside the 2D square-lattice PCs. εH
(W G)
= 7.0, εL = 1.0, εD = 1.0. A point defect was located at
(W G)
the corner of the 90◦ -bent waveguide. In (a), εD of the
(W G)
point defect was 1.0. In (b), εD of the point defect varied
to 7.0.
Fig. 7. (Color online) Spatial intensity distribution of PC
interferometers formed inside the 2D square-lattice PCs. εH
(Arm)
= 7.0, εL = 1.0, εD = 1.0. A point defect was located in
(Arm)
one arm of the PC interferometer. In (a), εD of the point
(Arm)
defect was 1.0. In (b), εD of the point defect varied to
7.0.
the point defect controls the spatial intensity distribu-
tion along the 90◦ -bent waveguides. For the point defect
with a dielectric constant of 1.0, the incident wave can
transmit along the 90◦ -bent waveguide, but after the di-
electric constant of the point defect is switched to 7.0,
the wave propagation is forbidden. Finally, we inves-
tigated the possibility of a PC interferometer. The PC
interferometer was designed to have a configuration of a
Mach-Zehnder interferometer, as shown in Fig. 7. Here,
defects were located in one arm of the interferometer.
Variation of the dielectric constants of the defects allows
to control the output of the interferometer, as illustrated
Fig. 8. (a) Photonic band structure and (b) transmission
spectrum of the 2D triangular-lattice PC with εH = 7.0, εL
= 1.0, a = 287 nm, and rH = 0.3∗a.
Fig. 9. (Color online) Spatial intensity distribution by
three-beam interference: (a) surface contour and (b) three-
dimensional distribution. For the interference of three um-
brella beams with λinc = 400 nm and θ = 68◦ , the interfer-
ence pattern has a triangular lattice-like profile with a = 287
nm.
in Fig. 7(a) and Fig. 7(b).
Now, we consider the optical properties of the 2D tri-
angular lattice PCs. The photonic band structure of the
triangular lattice with εH = 7.0, εL = 1.0, a = 287
nm, and rH = 0.3∗a is shown in Fig. 8(a). The cor-
responding photonic band structure shows a complete
PBG between 706 and 916 nm. Figure 8(b) shows the
transmission spectrum of the 2D triangular lattice PC
for a wave propagating in the X direction. The pro-
posed triangular-lattice structure can be created by three
beam interference. For the interference of three umbrella
beams with a wavelength of 400 nm and a crossing angle
of 68◦ [Fig. 2(b)], the propagation wave vectors of the
three interfering beams are given as follows:
k1 = k0 sin(68◦ ) cos(0◦ )ex
+k0 sin(68◦ ) sin(0◦ )ey + k0 cos(68◦ )ez , (11)
◦ ◦
k2 = k0 sin(68 ) cos(120 )ex
+k0 sin(68◦ ) sin(120◦ )ey + k0 cos(68◦ )ez , (12)
k3 = k0 sin(68◦ ) cos(240◦ )ex
+k0 sin(68◦ ) sin(240◦ )ey + k0 cos(68◦ )ez . (13)
The spatial interference pattern exhibits a triangular
lattice-like profile with a lattice constant of 287 nm, as
shown in Fig. 9. By exposing a photosensitive thin film
to these beams, a triangular lattice structure can be ac-
quired. Similar to the 2D square-lattice PCs, a linear
waveguide, a 90◦ -bent waveguide, and an interferometer
were formed by introducing defects into the 2D triangu-
Design and Optical Properties of Two-dimensional Photonic Crystals: · · · – Inkyu Park et al.
Fig. 10. (Color online) Gap map diagrams for (a) 2D
square-lattice PC and (b) 2D triangular-lattice PC.
lar lattice PC.
To summarize, 2D square-lattice PCs are created
by the interference of four umbrella beams, while 2D
triangular-lattice PCs are produced by the interference
of three umbrella beams. As a result of numerical sim-
ulations, the 2D triangular-lattice PC formed by three
beam interference exhibits a wider PBG than the 2D
square-lattice PC formed by four beam interference:
∆λtriangular = 210 nm, and ∆λsquare = 130 nm. From
the gap map diagrams for various ratios of the diameter
of lattice point (D) to the lattice constant (a) [Fig. 10],
the 2D triangular-lattice PC has a wider band than the
2D square-lattice PC. Theoretically, 3D, as well as 2D,
PCs can be created with multiple beam interference. The
propagation and the polarization directions of multiple
interfering beams can be controlled to produce the de-
sired PC structure. All fourteen 3D and all five 2D Bra-
vais lattices can be created by holographic lithography
with four beams [25]. Meanwhile, the interference of
three beams always results in a 2D intensity profile be-
cause the difference vectors are always coplanar. There-
fore, only 2D PCs can be created by holographic lithog-
raphy with three beams [25].
IV. CONCLUSIONS
The photonic band structures and the transmittance
spectra are obtained by solving the Maxwell equations
using the FDTD method. First, 2D PCs were designed
such that the center wavelength of the PBG was located
near 800 nm. The optimized 2D square-lattice PC has
-3271-
εH = 7.0, εL = 1.0, a = 272 nm, and rH = 0.3∗a. The
proposed structure shows a complete PBG between 711
and 841 nm. The proposed square-lattice PC can be pre-
pared by the interference of four umbrella beams. For the
interference of four umbrella beams with a wavelength
of 400 nm and a crossing angle of 47.3◦ , the interference
pattern has a square lattice-like profile with a lattice con-
stant of 272 nm. As applications of the 2D square-lattice
PCs, a linear waveguide, a 90◦ -bent waveguide, and an
interferometer were created by introducing defects into
PCs.
A triangular lattice PC with a lattice constant of 287
nm can be prepared by the interference of three umbrella
beams with a wavelength of 400 nm and a crossing angle
of 68◦ . The optimized 2D triangular lattice PC has εH
= 7.0, εL = 1.0, a = 287 nm, and rH = 0.3∗a. The 2D
triangular lattice shows a complete PBG between 706
and 916 nm. Similar to the 2D square-lattice PCs, a
linear waveguide, a 90◦ -bent waveguide, and an interfer-
ometer were formed by introducing defects into the 2D
triangular lattice PC.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by the Basic Science Re-
search Program through a National Research Founda-
tion of Korea grant funded by the Ministry of Edu-
cation, Science and Technology, Korea (Grant number
2011-0004677).
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