MHT Manual

Maintenance Hydraulic Troubleshooting

About GPM Hydraulic Consulting
GPM Hydraulic Consulting, Inc. is dedicated to improving the

quality of hydraulic maintenance by teaching the skills necessary to
troubleshoot your in-plant hydraulic systems. Our only business is
hydraulic maintenance training and consulting. The company is
located approximately 40 miles east of Atlanta in Social Circle,
Georgia.
C.A. “AL” Smiley, Jr.
founded and organized “GPM” in

October of 1994. Al initially worked with a leading
hydraulic distributor from 1977 to 1986. Since
1987, he has taught and designed hydraulic
troubleshooting programs for companies
throughout the United States. Al does technical
writing for GPM’s “Troubleshooting” manuals. He
has a Bachelor of Education degree from the
University of Mississippi and is certified and
registered with the Fluid Power Society as a Fluid
Power Specialist. He writes a monthly column for
Southern Lumberman, Canadian Wood Products
and Hydraulics & Pneumatics magazines on
hydraulic troubleshooting methods.
Robin Garner,
GPM’s Training Coordinator, joined the

organization in 2004. In addition to
coordinating the training classes, she also
does the company word processing and the
production of the training manuals.
Robin also participates in the drafting and
customizing of each program.
Jack Weeks,
entered GPM’s organization in January of

1997 as a CAD draftsman and hydraulic
instructor. He has trained thousands of
electricians and mechanics in Hydraulic
Troubleshooting methods. His
computerized animations and power point
have been integrated into GPM’s
workshops. He received his education from
the Georgia Institute of Technology School
of Electrical Engineering and the
Department of State Foreign Service
Institute. Jack is an experienced draftsman
and taught telecommunications equipment
and repair for the Central Intelligence
Agency at American embassies overseas.
Alan Dellinger,
joined GPM’s team of hydraulic

instructors and consultants in 2000. He
has 16 years of previous hands-on
mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic
troubleshooting experience with a leading
forest products manufacturer. Alan is also
a CAD draftsman, his customized
hydraulic schematics are used in the in-
plant troubleshooting manuals. Alan has
trained hundreds of electricians and
mechanics throughout the United States.
His ability to translate hydraulic theory into
actual application is unsurpassed.
Training and Consulting Services

GPM Hydraulic Consulting is recognized as an authority on in-plant training, consulting and
troubleshooting. The company has worked in more than twenty (20) states across the
country and in Canada. The following outlines the current portfolio of training workshops
and consulting services. Each workshop is taught by a highly trained and experienced
instructor. Since 1994, GPM’s consultants have worked with major corporations in
diagnosing hydraulic problems to reduce downtime and parts cost.

Course length: 3 Days
This workshop is similar to a “Basic Hydraulics”

course, but taught from a troubleshooting
perspective. Specific procedures are covered for
troubleshooting pumps, motors, servo valves,
accumulators, directional, flow and pressure control
valves. The student also learns to read the hydraulic
symbols, a necessary skill for troubleshooting from
the schematic. Actual components and hydraulic
animation are used throughout the workshop.
Training and Consulting Services Page 1

Troubleshooting Board Mill Hydraulics

(OSB, MDF, LVL, Plywood, Particleboard and Panelboard)
Course Length: 3-4 Days
This program is designed and taught on your in-plant

machinery. Log processing, presses and finishing line
system can be included. The student learns how to
troubleshoot from the machine hydraulic schematic.
The course manual is developed by drafting each
circuit which integrates the hydraulic flow with the
electrical control. Time is then spent in the plant to
locate and identify the components on the machinery.
Specific hands-on tests are made to gather preventive
maintenance information and to identify
troubleshooting checkpoints in the system. How to work on the system and machine safely
is stressed in this workshop. We highly recommend that the students go through our
Maintenance Hydraulic Troubleshooting or comparable program before attending this
workshop.
Troubleshooting Injection Molding Hydraulics

This in-plant workshop is designed and taught on the

injection molding circuits in your mill. A customized
manual is developed on the in-plant systems which
integrates the electrical control and the hydraulic flow.
The students will first learn how their machine
functions. They will then learn how to read and
troubleshoot from the hydraulic print. Considerable
time is spent in the mill (hands-on) identifying each
component and learning how to use many
troubleshooting techniques. Safety is stressed in
every workshop. We highly recommend that the
students go through our Maintenance Hydraulic
Troubleshooting or comparable program before
attending this workshop.
Page 2 Training and Consulting Services

Troubleshooting Papermill Hydraulics

This hands-on course is designed and taught on the

paper machine systems in your mill. A customized
manual is developed on the in-plant systems which
integrate the electrical control and the hydraulic flow.
Woodyard, wet end hydraulics, press rolls, calenders,
winders, and finishing lines can be included. The
student will learn the specific checks that can be made
to troubleshoot each hydraulically controlled machine
and to become familiar with the adjustments in the
system that control the speed, force, heat and shock.
The students will also locate and tag each component
in the system. We highly recommend that the students
go through our Maintenance Hydraulic
Troubleshooting or comparable program before
attending this workshop.
Troubleshooting Corrugated Hydraulics

Course Length: 4 Days
This workshop is two (2) hydraulic courses combined

into one. The first day we teach hydraulic pumps,
directional valves , checkvalves and pressure controls
from our Maintenance Hydraulic Troubleshooting
workshop. The second, third and fourth day is
designed and taught on your single facer, marquip
upper & lower stacker, pre-feeder, martin stacker,
strapper and baler. The student learns how to
troubleshoot from the machine hydraulic schematic.
Time is then spent in the plant to locate and identify the
components on the machinery. Specific hands-on
tests are made to gather preventive maintenance
information and to identify troubleshooting
checkpoints in the system. Safety is always stressed.

Troubleshooting Thermal Oil Systems

This is an in-plant program that is developed on your

thermal oil system. The course manual is created by
drawing the thermal oil system in CAD and illustrating
the electrical and pneumatic valves operating in
various flow cycles. Colorized flow is integrated to
replicate suction, outlet and return flow. Various
maintenance procedures for working on the system will
be discussed in the classroom. Some of these include
the following.
1) The proper guidelines for changing a centrifugal pump.
2) The steps for bringing a stand by pump on line.
3) How to isolate and safely remove high temperature flexible lines.
4) How to vent and flush an expansion tank.
Time will then be spent in the plant to identify each

component in the system. Specific pressure’s and
preventive maintenance checks will be made for
future troubleshooting purposes.

Troubleshooting Sawmill Hydraulics

A customized manual is developed on the
in-plant systems which integrates the electrical
control and the hydraulic flow. The students work
troubleshooting and circuit tracing exercises in
class on their in-plant systems. Time is spent in
the plant to identify components, make
preventive maintenance tests and locate
troubleshooting test points. The student will be
taught to understand the hydraulic operation and
electrical control of each mill system. Upon
completion of the course, the student will know
the specific checks that can be made to
troubleshoot each hydraulically controlled
machine and the adjustments in the system that
control the speed, force, heat and shock. We
highly recommend that the students go through our Maintenance Hydraulic
Troubleshooting or comparable program before attending this workshop.

This workshop is two (2) hydraulic courses

combined into one. The first day we teach either the
1-day Maintenance Hydraulic Troubleshooting
workshop or the 1-day Troubleshooting Servo
Hydraulics or Troubleshooting Proportional Valves
workshop. The second day is designed and taught
on one of your in-plant machines. The student
learns how to troubleshoot from the machine
hydraulic schematic. Time is then spent in the plant
to locate and identify the components on the
machinery. Specific hands-on tests are made to
gather preventive maintenance information and to
identify troubleshooting checkpoints in the system.
Safety is always stressed.

Troubleshooting Mill Hydraulics

This two, three, or four-day hydraulic workshop is

designed and taught on the hydraulic controlled
machinery in your plant. A customized manual is
developed on the in-plant systems which integrates
the electrical control and the hydraulic flow. Some
course objectives are; to explain the function of
each component on the specific machinery and
how the system will operate if the pump or valve
fails, to analyze each cycle of the machine with the
hydraulic schematic, and to obtain an
understanding of how each system operates, which
is essential to troubleshooting. The importance of
safety is stressed in every workshop. We highly
recommend that the students go through our
Maintenance Hydraulic Troubleshooting or
comparable program before attending this
workshop.

1-Day and Management

Workshops
Maintenance Hydraulic Management
The course is specifically designed for plant

managers, maintenance superintendents and
supervisors. Learn how to minimize shock by
correctly setting the system pressures. Understand
the dangers of hydraulic accumulators and how to
verify that it is operating properly. Find out how to
eliminate leakage, which is usually caused by a bad
installation or poor maintenance practices.
Discover the causes of system overheating and the
most informative checks to make with a heat gun,
plus much, much more.
Operator Training
Course Length: 1 Day
This on site one day workshop is designed

specifically for operators. The student is taught the
basic function of the hydraulic operated
equipment. They learn the function of the
hydraulic pump, valves and the task they perform.
Actual screen shots from their equipment is used
to discuss the electrical cycles in detail. Colorized
fluid is added to the screen shots so each student
will understand how hydraulic flow and pressures
influence the system. Each student will receive an
operators manual with a complete component
description and colorized screen shots for future
reference.

1-Day and Management Workshops
Troubleshooting Servo Hydraulics

This one day workshop is designed for any

personnel involved in maintaining or
troubleshooting servo and proportional valve
systems. Some important objectives include; the
specific checks that can be made before a servo
valve, proportional valve or linear positioner is
changed. To learn the proper procedures for
removing, replacing, and nulling the valves.
Know how to set the system pressures to reduce
heat, shock and leakage. Learn how to properly
pre-charge and check accumulators and the four
safety procedures for discharging, removing and
working on the system.
Troubleshooting Proportional Valves

This one day workshop will teach the student

exactly how a single and two stage proportional
valve operates, how to determine if the
problem is with the valve, amplifier or PLC.
How to mechanically adjust the pilot, main
valve spool and the amplifier test points for
troubleshooting the system. A hands on trainer
is used throughout the workshop so the student
can learn how to use a test box, multitester and
how to make the necessary adjustments to the
valve amplifier.

1-Day and Management Workshops

This one day workshop is an abbreviated

version of the three-day program and is
designed primarily for companies who cannot
work the three-day course into their schedule.
It is designed to give maintenance personnel
the basic knowledge and skills that are
necessary for troubleshooting and
maintaining their in-plant hydraulic machinery.
The student learns how to set hydraulic pump
and relief valve pressures and the safest,
easiest and fastest way to troubleshoot their
in-plant hydraulics.

This one day course is designed and taught in

one or two of your key in-plant systems. These
may include cranes, carriages, chip-n-saw,
sharp chains, edgers and planers. A
customized manual is developed integrating
electrical control and the hydraulic flow. The
students learn how to troubleshoot from the
machine hydraulic schematic. Time is then
spent in the plant to locate and identify the
components. Specific hands-on tests are
made to gather preventive maintenance
information and to identify troubleshooting
checkpoints in the system. Safety is stressed
in each workshop.

Preventive Maintenance
Preventive Maintenance
Very few plants record any hydraulic preventive maintenance information. Therefore,
when a problem occurs, it is unexpected. With no prerecorded information, parts are
usually changed indiscriminately until the problem is solved. We can develop a customized
preventive maintenance and troubleshooting guide on each of your machine centers. By
recording these checks on a regular basis, potential problems can be found in advance,
before causing machine downtime.

Consulting
Heat Problems
Mill hydraulic systems are normally designed to operate at approximately 120 degrees F.
Excess heat is caused by improper pressure adjustments, increased internal bypassing of
components, dirty reservoirs, etc. The result is leakage, premature component failure, oil
breakdown, and lost power. By analyzing the system, we can locate and solve heat
problems at their source. As the temperature drops, so will your operating costs.
Leakage
It is often thought that a hydraulic system is

supposed to leak to some degree. Leakage is
many times accepted because the machine
continues to operate. Hydraulic systems leak
because of improper piping and clamping,
pressure set too high, increased oil
temperature or bad system design. By
thoroughly inspecting the system, we will
reveal any maladjustments, bad installations
or design flaws to keep the oil inside your
machine.

Consulting
Pressure Settings
When a machine is not operating properly, the first thing that is usually done is to increase
the system pressures. When this produces no visual change, the adjustment is rarely reset
to its original position. After a period of time, shock, heat, and leakage occur. Electrical
energy is also wasted. We can provide the proper pressure setting procedures for your
machines.
Shock Damage
Shock occurs in a system when the oil flow rapidly changes directions. Systems are often
not designed to absorb the shock generated when the machine starts and stops. Shock
that is not absorbed by the system relief valve or the accumulator can cause component
failure, burst hoses, pipe thread leakage and structural damage. We will first determine if
high pressure setting, improper accumulator pre-charge, faulty valves or a poor piping
arrangement cause the shock. If necessary, design changes will be recommended to more
effectively absorb and reduce the shock.

Table of Contents
Hydraulic Fundamentals
Hydraulic Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1
Compressibility of Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1
Pascal’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1
Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2
Hydraulic Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 4
Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5
Cylinder Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 6
Pressure Required to Move a Load . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 10
Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 10
Cylinder Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 11
Hydraulic Motor Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 13
Hydraulic Pipe Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 14
Hydraulic Horsepower. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 16
Rule of Thumb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 17
Heat and the Hydraulic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 17
Work Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 19
Maintenance Hydraulic Troubleshooting Page I

Hydraulic Pumps
Fixed Displacement Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1
Gear Pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2
Vane Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2
Relief Valves and Fixed Displacement Pumps . . . . . . Page 4
Checking the Relief Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 4
The Vented Relief Valve & Fixed Displacement Pumps . Page 7
Troubleshooting the Vented Relief Valve . . . . . . . . . Page 8
Setting Relief Valve in Fixed Displacement Pump Circuit. Page 9
Variable Displacement Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 10
Case Drain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 11
Pressure Compensating Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 14
Vane Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 14
Piston Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 16
Compensating Pump Example Circuit . . . . . . . . . . Page 19
Pressure Compensating Pump Pressure Settings . . . . Page 20
Systems without Relief Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 21
Systems with Relief Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 22
Troubleshooting Hydraulic Pump Circuits. . . . . . . . . Page 24
Visual Checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 24
Page II Maintenance Hydraulic Troubleshooting

Sound Checks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 25
Cavitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 25
Aeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 25
Improper Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 26
Troubleshooting Fixed Displacement Pump Circuits . . . Page 27
Checking the Fixed Displacement Pump . . . . . . . . . Page 27
Troubleshooting Variable Displacement Pumps . . . . . Page 28
Volume Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 29
Pressure Checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 29
Directional Valves
Solenoid Operated Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1
Solenoid Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2
Checking the Solenoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 3
Two Way Directional Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 3
Normally Open . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5
Three Way Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 6
Four Way Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 8
Three Position Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 12
Closed Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 12
Closed Center Valves and Cylinder Drift . . . . . . . . . Page 13
Maintenance Hydraulic Troubleshooting Page III

Tandem Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 14
Open Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 14
Float Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 15
Solenoid Controlled, Hydraulic Piloted Valves . . . . . . Page 15
Tandem and Open Center Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 18
Common Valve Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 19
Troubleshooting Directional Valves and Cylinders . . . . Page 23
Check Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 25
Standard Check Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 25
Example No. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 26
Example No. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 26
Spring Loaded Check Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 27
Example No. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 27
Example No. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 28
Pilot Operated Check Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 28
Pilot to Close . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 33
Check Valve Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 33
Logic Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 34
Example No. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 35
Example No. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 36
Page IV Maintenance Hydraulic Troubleshooting

Directional and Check Valve Work Exercise . . . . . . . Page 37
Pressure Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 42
Normally Open Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 42
Troubleshooting the Pressure Reducing Valve . . . . . Page 43
Air Bleed Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 43
Normally Closed Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 44
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 45
Accumulators And Flow Controls
Accumulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1
Dry Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1
Charging the Accumulator with Nitrogen . . . . . . . . Page 2
Checking the Nitrogen Pre-charge Hydraulically . . . . Page 4
Types of Accumulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5
Bladder Accumulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 13
Accumulators and Fixed Displacement Pumps. . . . . Page 16
Accumulator Dump Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 17
Accumulators for Shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 21
Accumulator Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 23
Flow Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 24
Fixed Orifice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 25
Maintenance Hydraulic Troubleshooting Page V

Variable Orifice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 26
Flow Controls and Fixed Displacement Pumps. . . . . Page 28
Flow Control Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 29
Pressure Compensating Flow Controls. . . . . . . . . Page 34
Temperature & Pressure Compensating Flow Controls Page 36
Flow Controls and Pilot Operated Directional Valves. . Page 37
Flow Controls and Suspended Loads . . . . . . . . . Page 38
Two Speed Lowering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 39
Problems with Flow Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 40
Accumulator and Flow Control Exercise . . . . . . . . Page 41
Hydraulic Motors
Radial Piston Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2
Motors and Crossport Relief Valves . . . . . . . . . . . Page 3
Crossport Adjustment Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 4
Brake Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5
Motor Speed Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 7
Internally Drained Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 7
Externally Drained Motors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 8
Motors In Series. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 10
Externally Drained Motors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 11
Page VI Maintenance Hydraulic Troubleshooting

Motors in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 13
Flow Dividers and Parallel Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 13
Servo and Proportional Valves
Servo Valve Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2
Proportional Valve Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5
Linear Positioner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 8
Valve Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 9
Computer Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 10
Troubleshooting and Adjusting the System . . . . . . . . Page 11
Nulling the Proportional Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 12
Servo and Prpoprtional Valve Troubleshooting . . . . . . Page 12
Checking The Linear Positioner. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 14
Hydrostatic Drive
Main Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 17
Charge Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 18
Charge Pump Relief. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 19
Make Up Check Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 19
Crossport Relief Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 20
Hydraulic Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 21
Pump Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 22
Maintenance Hydraulic Troubleshooting Page VII

Shuttle Valve and Relief. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 24
Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 26
Fluid Maintenance
Viscosity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1
Reservoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 3
Cooler Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 7
Contamination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 10
Sources of Contamination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 10
Fluid Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 12
Filter Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 15
Filter Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 15
Maintaining Fluids and Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 18
Hydraulic Leakage Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 19
Page VIII Maintenance Hydraulic Troubleshooting

Hydraulic Advantages
Hydraulics has many advantages not always found in electrical and
mechanical type drives.
• Hydraulic cylinders and motors can be operated at variable speeds.

By varying the volume flowing into the actuator (cylinder or motor) the
speed is changed.
• The hydraulic cylinder or motor can be stalled under a load.

Hydraulic systems use relief valves or pump compensators to limit the
maximum system pressure.
• The actuator can be instantly reversed under load. This is done by

changing the position of a directional valve or the direction of flow out
of a pump. System relief valves will protect the system from damage
caused by the inertia of the moving load.
• Shock caused by the moving load can be absorbed in the hydraulic

system. Crossport relief valves and hydraulic accumulators are used
for this purpose.
Compressibility of Fluids
Hydraulic oil is considered to be non-compressible. Oil will compress ½%
when pressurized to 1000 PSI. This equals approximately .06 inches
reduction in volume per foot of length.
Pascal’s Law
In the 17th century a French scientist, Blaise Pascal, discovered a principle
which explains how force is transmitted through a confined liquid. Pascal’s
Law says that:
Pressure in a confined body of liquid will act equally in all directions.
Maintenance Hydraulic Troubleshooting Page 1

In the example shown in Figure 1, a load of 1000 lbs. needs to be moved.

When the handle is moved to the left, a force of 100 lbs. is exerted on the 1
square inch piston. The fluid is pressurized to 100 pounds per square inch or
100 PSI. According to Pascal’s Law, the 100 PSI is transmitted equally
throughout the container. The 100 pounds of pressurized fluid is exerted on
each of the 10 square inches on the ram. This creates a force of 1000 lbs.
which raises the platen.
Figure 1
Conservation of Energy
A basic law of physics says that energy cannot be created or destroyed. It
would seem that the example in Figure 1 creates energy. Energy is the ability
to do work. Work is done when a force is exerted and moved a certain
distance.
Work = Force x Distance
Page 2 Maintenance Hydraulic Troubleshooting

Looking at the example in Figure 2, let’s say that the small piston is moved 10
inches. A volume of 10 cubic inches is displaced. The large piston will only
move 1 inch. The amount of energy exerted on the small piston is the same
that the large piston exerts to move the 1000 lb. load.
Figure 2
Work = Force x Distance
Work (small piston) = 100 lbs. x 10 inches
Work (small piston) = 1000 in.-lbs.
Work (large piston) = 1000 lbs. X 1 inch
Work (large piston) = 1000 in.-lbs.
Work (small piston) = Work (large piston)
Work (small piston) 1000 in.-lbs. = Work (large piston) 1000 in.-lbs.

Hydraulic Power
Power is the rate that work is done. Power can be expressed in the following
manner.
Power = Force x Distance

Time
In Figure 3, a
cylinder is moving
a 10,000 lb. load a
distance of 12
inches. It takes 10
seconds to fully
extend the
cylinder. If the
cylinder were
required to extend
in 5 seconds then Figure 3
twice as much
power would be
required.
To achieve this increased speed the rate that the oil is pumped into the
cylinder would have to be doubled. We will see later in this section that the rate
of oil flow (GPM) is a unit of hydraulic power.

Pressure
Pressure in a hydraulic
system is generated by a
resistance to flow. In Figure
4A the hand valve is fully
open allowing the pumped
fluid to flow into the oil drum
at 0 PSI.
Figure 4A
In Figure 4B the hand valve

is closed. The pressure will
then begin to build until it
overcomes the resistance of
the relief valve spring, 500
PSI. At that time the
pressure gauge will indicate
500 PSI and the pump flow
will return to tank through the
relief valve.
Figure 4B

Cylinder Force
The amount of force that can be developed by a cylinder depends on the
pressure and the number of square inches on the piston.
Force = Pressure x Square Inch Area
We will use a 4” diameter piston with a 2” rod as an example in Figure 5.
Figure 5
To find the force exerted by the cylinder we must find the square inch area of
the piston. To find the area the following formula is used. (D = Cylinder
Diameter)
Square Inch Area = D2 x .7854
Square Inch Area = 42 x .7854
Square Inch Area = 16 x .7854
Square Inch Area = 12.56

Figure 6
If the pressure were to build to 1000 PSI then 1000 lbs of force would be
exerted on each of the 12.56 square inches (Figure 6). By inserting our
numbers in the formula below, we can find the force exerted by the cylinder.
Extend Force = PSI x Area
Extend Force = 1000 PSI x 12.56
Extend Force = 12,560 lbs.
When the cylinder is retracted, less force will be developed with the same
pressure. This is because the rod occupies a specific number of square
inches of area on the piston. To find the force that can be exerted when the
cylinder retracts, we first must find the available square inches. This is done
by subtracting the rod area from the full piston area.
Rod Side Square Inch Area = Full Piston Area - Rod Area

The area of the 2” rod must first be found.
Rod Area = D2 x .7854
Rod Area = 22 x .7854
Rod Area = 4 x .7854
Rod Area = 3.14
Figure 7
The available area on the cylinder rod side can now be determined.
Rod Side Square Inch Area = Full Piston Area - Rod Area
Rod Side Square Inch Area = 12.56 - 3.14
Rod Side Square Inch Area = 9.42
With a rod side square inch area of 9.42 and the pressure at 1000 PSI the
cylinder retract force can be found.

Retract Force = PSI x Area
Retract Force = 1000 PSI x 9.42
Retract Force = 9,420 lbs.
Figure 8
Because of the greater number of square inches of area on the full piston side
more force is exerted when extending the cylinder.
Extend Force = 12,560 lbs.
Retract Force = 9,420 lbs.
Although more force is developed when extending, later in this section we’ll
see that the cylinder will retract faster than it extends.

Pressure Required to Move a Load

When oil is directed to a cylinder or hydraulic
motor to move a load, the pressure will only
build high enough to move the load. In Figure
9 a cylinder with 20 square inches of area is
attempting to raise a 10,000 lb. load.
We again use our force formula but it is

rearranged to find PSI.
Force
PSI =
Area
10,000
PSI =
20
PSI = 500 PSI

Figure 9
Volume
The speed that a cylinder moves and a hydraulic motor rotates depends on
two factors:
• Rate of Oil Flow
• Actuator Size
The component that delivers the flow to the actuator is the hydraulic pump.
The purpose of the pump is to supply a volume of oil to the system. The pump
does not pump pressure. As we have discussed earlier, pressure is
developed when a resistance is present in the circuit.
All hydraulic pumps are positive displacement. This means that the pump will
supply a specific volume of fluid to the system every time the pump shaft is
rotated. This volume of fluid is expressed in cubic inches.

Pumps are normally rated, however, in gallons per minute (GPM), and not
cubic inches. To find the total number of cubic inches a pump supplies,
multiply the GPM x 231. (There are 231 cubic inches in 1 gallon).
Cylinder Speed
To find the cylinder rod speed the following formula can be used:
GPM x 231
Rod Speed (Inches per minute) =
Cylinder Area
Let’s use a 4” diameter

cylinder with a 2” diameter
rod and a 24” stroke
(Figure 10). The pump is
supplying 10 GPM into the
cylinder.
Figure 10
Earlier in this section the area of a 4” cylinder was calculated to be 12.56

square inches.
10 GPM x 231
Extend Rod Speed =
12.56
2310
Extend Rod Speed =
12.56
Extend Rod Speed = 183.92 inches per minute

183.92 = 3.06 or 3 inches per second
60 Seconds

Divide the cylinder stroke by the speed to determine the total extend time.
Since the cylinder stroke is 24” the cylinder will extend in 8 seconds.
24
( = 8)
3
To retract the cylinder the

only number that changes
is the cylinder area.
Again, earlier in this
section we found the area
on the rod side of the
cylinder to be 9.42 square
inches. The pump volume
(10 GPM) is now directed
to the cylinder rod side
Figure 11
(Figure 11).
Retract Rod Speed = 10 x 231

9.42
Retract Rod Speed = 2310

9.42
Retract Rod Speed = 245.22 inches per minute

245 = 4.09 or 4 inches per second
60 seconds
Since our cylinder stroke is 24” the cylinder will retract in approximately 6
seconds.
24
( = 6)
4

Hydraulic Motor Speed

Hydraulic motors are rated according to the number of cubic inches of oil
required to rotate the shaft one revolution. This is known as the displacement
of the motor.
One Cubic Inch
To find the drive speed for a given motor the following formula can be used:
GPM x 231
Motor RPM =
Cu. In. Displacement

As an example, let’s use a 10 cu. in/rev. displacement motor that is supplied by

a 10 GPM Pump.
10 GPM x 231
RPM =
10 Cu. In. /Rev.
2310
RPM =
10
RPM = 231
Anytime a motor is changed and replaced with a different displacement, the

speed will change. For example, if the existing motor is replaced with a 20 cu.
in/rev displacement motor, then the speed will be half that of the 10 cu. in/rev
motor:
10 x 231
RPM =
20 Cu. In. /Rev.
2310
RPM =
20
RPM = 115.5
Hydraulic Pipe Size

To reduce friction (heat) and turbulence in the line, the proper pipe size should
be used. Schedule 40 pipe can be used for suction and return lines. Schedule
80 or 160 should be used for the pressure lines. The lines in the system should
be sized as follows:
Pump Suction - 2-5 ft/sec.
Return Lines - 10-15 ft/sec.
Pressure Lines (500 – 3000 PSI) - 15 – 20 ft/sec.
Pressure Lines (Above 3000 PSI) - 30 ft/sec.


Hydraulic Horsepower
We discussed earlier that power is the speed of doing work. Work is moving a
force a certain distance. In the hydraulic system speed and force are
represented by Gallons Per Minute (GPM) and Pressure (PSI). The following
formula can be used to find the horsepower delivered by a hydraulic system.
HP = GPM x PSI x .000583
If the hydraulic pump were 100% efficient then the previous formula could be
used to find the electric motor horsepower size. Because of internal pump
bypassing, friction of the bearings and pump elements, the pump is less than
100% efficient. Therefore, slightly more electrical horsepower must be used
to drive the pump.
Most pumps are 85-90% efficient. Piston pumps are more efficient than vane
or gear pumps. The efficiency of the pump is established by the pump
manufacturer when the pump is tested.
In Figure 12, a 30 GPM pump is supplying

a system with a maximum pressure of
1500 PSI. If the pump is 87% efficient we
can find the electric motor horsepower
required with the following formula:
HP = 30 GPM x 1500 PSI x .00067
HP = 45,000 x .00067
HP = 30 HP
Figure 12

Rule of Thumb
It takes 1 horsepower to pump 1 GPM at 1500 PSI. In the example, since our
pump volume is 30 and the maximum pressure is 1500 PSI, a 30 horsepower
electric motor can be used.
Heat and the Hydraulic System

We discussed earlier in this section the
Conservation of Energy. The law stated
that energy cannot be created or
destroyed. In Figure 12 our pump flow
was being delivered to the system to drive
our actuator. The energy from the electric
motor (30 HP) was converted into
hydraulic energy and then back to
mechanical energy by our actuator.
In Figure 13 the hand valve is closed. Our

pump is still delivering 30 GPM but now
the oil is dumping over the relief valve at
1500 PSI.
The electric motor is still pulling 30 HP of

electrical energy. However, now instead
of being converted into mechanical
energy at the actuator it turns into HEAT!
Anytime oil is dumped back to tank no Figure 13

useful work is done, heat is generated.
This is, of course, undesirable. Besides
wasting energy the oil will get extremely
hot and begin breaking down.
In all hydraulic systems when the pump volume is not being used to move the
load one of two things happen:
• The oil is dumped back to tank at low pressure.
• The pump volume is reduced to 0 GPM.

In Figure 14 another hand valve has been installed to dump the oil back to tank
at low pressure. The electric motor will only pull enough electrical current to
drive the hydraulic system. Therefore, the electric motor horsepower will be
very low.
About 5% of the system horsepower is required to pump the fluid back to tank
at 0 PSI. The electric motor again only supplies the horsepower needed to
drive the hydraulic system. 5% of 30 HP is 1.5 HP. Only 1.5 HP is converted
into heat.
Figure 14

Work Exercises
1. Hydraulic oil will compress_________ % when pressurized to 1000 PSI.
2. Pascal Law states that pressure in a confined body of liquid will

act __________________ in all directions.
3. Power is the _______________________that work is done.
4. Pressure in a hydraulic system is caused by a_________________to flow.
5. How much force can the cylinder develop if the maximum system pressure
is 2000 PSI? (Formulas - Pages 6,7,8,9)
Extend Force _______________
Retract Force _______________

6. How much pressure is required to raise

the load at the right? (Formula-Page 10)
7. What two factors influence a cylinder or hydraulic motor’s speed?
1) _____________________
2) ______________________
8. How many inches per second will the cylinder rod move when extending
and retracting if a 60 GPM pump is used? Round the areas of the cylinder
off to the nearest even number. (Formula-Pages 11,12)
Extend inches per second________________
Retract inches per second________________

9. What is the RPM of the 15 cu. in/rev motor if supplied by a 75 GPM pump?
(Formula - Pages 13,14)
Answer:_________________
10. If the pump is 87% efficient in the

system at the right, what size electric
motor is required? (Formula -Page 16)
Answer:________________

Hydraulic Pumps
Hydraulic Pumps
The purpose of the pump is to deliver a flow of oil to the system. The pump
does not pump pressure. Pressure is developed in the line only when there
is a resistance to flow.
All hydraulic pumps are positive displacement devices. This means that the
pump will supply a specific volume of oil to the system every time the pump
shaft is rotated. Pump flow is usually rated in GPM (gallons per minute).
Fixed Displacement Pumps

The GPM of the fixed displacement pump
cannot be varied. On some mobile
applications the engine speed is changed,
therefore, the flow out of the pump is also
changed. In industrial hydraulic systems
fixed displacement pumps are usually only
used when the full pump volume is
delivered to the load. Hot presses, stackers
and dedicated filtering and cooling pump
circuits are examples. Flow controls can be
used to meter the oil to the actuators,
however, the excess pump volume returns
to tank over the relief valve generating heat.

Hydraulic Pumps
Gear Pumps
In mobile equipment, the most
common fixed displacement pump is
the gear type. This is because they
tolerate dirt better than piston and vane
pumps. Two or three gear sets are
sometimes included in one housing.
Each set acts as a separate pump.
3600 – 4000 PSI maximum pressure
can be achieved by some gear pumps.
The biggest problem with these pumps
is that the pressure at the outlet
constantly exerts a force on the
bearing in the pump. Bearing failure
can cause key and shaft breakage as
well as cracking of the housing. The
gear pump is only made in a fixed
displacement design.
Vane Pumps
Vane pumps are the most common
industrial fixed displacement type
pump. Maximum pressure for vane
pump systems is 2000 – 2200 PSI.
In recent years, higher pressure
vane pumps have been made.
Vane pumps are quieter than gear
and piston pumps.

Hydraulic Pumps
Vane pumps have replaceable pump cartridges. The cartridge kit contains the
rotating elements inside the pump. The GPM rating and direction of rotation is
usually stamped on the cam ring. A cartridge kit with a different ring size can
be installed to change the GPM the pump supplies. The rotation of most
cartridge kits can be changed by rotating the cam ring, vanes and rotor
assembly. Caution should be used when installing the cartridge so that the
dowel pins in the kit fit inside the recessed holes in the pump housing.
Like the gear pump, double

vane type pumps are very
common. Both vane
cartridges are located in
one pump housing. The
two sections operate as two
separate pumps. In some
cases, the volume from
both pumps can be piped
together at the pump
outlets. The pump volumes
from each cartridge may be
the same or different flow
rates.

Hydraulic Pumps
Relief Valves and Fixed Displacement Pumps

Any fixed displacement pump must be provided with a relief valve immediately
downstream from the pump outlet. The relief valve is a normally closed valve.
This means that the valve is closed to flow until the spring setting is reached.
The purpose of the relief valve is to:
• Provide a flow path for the pump

volume back to tank when there is
nowhere else for the fluid to go.
Whenever the pump flow dumps over
the relief valve HEAT IS
GENERATED!
• Limit the maximum pressure in the

system. The relief valve should be set
200 PSI above the pressure required
to move the load.
Checking the Relief Valve

The first and easiest check to make is to take the relief valve apart. The
system pressure should be bled down prior to disassembling the relief. In
order to know what to look for in the relief valve we must have a basic
understanding of how it works.

Hydraulic Pumps
In the “A” view, the pressure

that enters the valve is
sensed on the bottom of the
spool piston. The pressure
is also sensed through the
small orifice on top of the
piston. The purpose of the
spring loaded dart is to limit
the pressure on top of the
piston. If 1000 PSI is
present on both sides of the
spool then the 25 PSI spring
inside the spool exerts
additional force to hold the
valve closed.
In view “B” the system

pressure has increased to
1475 PSI. The spring
loaded dart is now pushed
open limiting the pressure
on top of the spool to 1475
PSI. The valve still remains
closed because of the 25
PSI spring force acting
downward.

Hydraulic Pumps
In view “C” the pressure

has increased to slightly
above 1500 PSI. More
force is now developed to
push the spool up than
what is holding it down.
The spool shifts open
dumping the pump volume
back to tank.
When the valve is taken

apart both springs should
be checked to make sure
they are not bent, broken,
warped, etc. If they look
good they probably are.
The spool should be
pulled out and the small
orifice checked for
contamination. If this
orifice is plugged, then
the valve will open at 25
PSI, dumping the pump
volume back to tank. The
dart itself can be checked
for wear. If the dart has
wear grooves in it, the
valve may make a
chattering noise, causing
the pressure to fluctuate.

Hydraulic Pumps
The Vented Relief Valve and Fixed Displacement Pumps
On any fixed displacement pump circuit when the

oil is not being used to move the load, it should be
returned to tank at low pressure. One of the most
common ways of doing this is by using a vented
relief valve. A normally open solenoid valve is
connected at the vent port of the relief valve. The
position of the solenoid valve controls the
pressure that the relief valve opens. By
controlling the relief valve in this way the relief
performs two functions in the hydraulic circuit.
1) Operates as a low pressure dump valve

when the solenoid is de-energized. The
valve will open at approximately 25 PSI and
return the pump flow back to tank at low
pressure. Electric motor horsepower and
heat are at a reduced level in this condition.

Hydraulic Pumps
2) Operates as a standard high pressure relief

valve when the solenoid is energized. The
relief will now remain closed until the pressure
setting of the spring is reached. The valve will
then open and dump the pump volume back to
tank at high pressure, protecting the system.
Troubleshooting the Vented Relief Valve

Problems with the solenoid operated directional valve can cause the system
not to operate, to run all the time, or to run hot.
• If the solenoid valve fails open the relief will operate as a low
pressure dump all the time. The best way to check it is to manually
actuate the directional valve. If shifting the valve spool closed causes
the pressure to build then there is an electrical problem. The solenoid
may be bad, there may be a broken wire, or the valve may not be
getting an electrical signal to energize. If the orifice is plugged in the
relief valve or the high pressure spring is broken, then the relief valve
will also open at low pressure. See the “Checking the Relief Valve”
procedure discussed earlier in this chapter.
• If the solenoid valve fails closed, then the relief will operate as a
standard high pressure relief valve. Depending on the system
design, the actuator may continuously run or the pump flow will return
to tank at high pressure all the time. The first check is to feel the relief
valve tank line. It should be relatively cool. If it is hot, then the
solenoid may have failed in the energized condition. The solenoid
can be checked as discussed in the directional valve section. The
manual actuator can also be depressed. You should feel the spool
moving. If not, trash may be lodged between the spool and directional
valve housing. The valve can be disassembled and cleaned or
replaced.

Hydraulic Pumps
Setting the Relief Valve in a Fixed Displacement Pump Circuit

To properly set the relief valve, the pressure should first be observed while
operating. A pressure gauge should be installed. Any flow controls should be
fully opened (as long as damage to the machine will not occur). If an
accumulator is used, a hand valve should be closed to isolate the accumulator
from the system.
The maximum load should be present

on the machine. While operating the
actuator (cylinder or motor) the
pressure required to move the load will
be indicated on the gauge. In our
example the load pressure is 1000 PSI.
The relief valve pressure setting should
be 200 PSI above this pressure or 1200
PSI.
To set the pressure, the pump flow has

to dump over the relief valve. In the
example, the hand valve is closed. If a
hand valve is not in the line, the cylinder
can be fully stroked, or a pipe plug can
be installed downstream from the relief
valve. Care should be taken not to
isolate the pump from the relief valve.
The relief valve can then be adjusted to

200 PSI above the pressure required to
move the load. In the example, the
valve is adjusted until 1200 PSI is read
on the gauge. Once set, turn the
system off because heat is generated in
this mode. The system should then be
returned to its original condition. The
gauge should also be removed or
isolated.

Hydraulic Pumps
Variable Displacement Pumps

Variable displacement pumps are used when the volume requirements
change in the system. The 450 arrow through the symbol indicates the pump is
variable displacement. The volume can be varied out of the pump from
maximum to 0 GPM.
The pump volume can be varied by a pressure compensator, servo valve,

lever, cable, and with air or hydraulic cylinders.
The bi-directional variable displacement pump is usually used to drive a

hydraulic motor in a hydrostatic drive. Servo valves are commonly used to
control pump displacement.
Variable Displacement Single Direction Variable Displacement Bi-directional

Hydraulic Pumps
Case Drain
Most variable displacement pumps have an external case drain that is piped
directly back to tank. The fluid that bypasses internally in the pump returns to
tank through the case drain. Normal bypassing is 1-3% of the maximum pump
volume. For example, if the maximum volume is 30 GPM, then bypassing
should be .3-.9 GPM. As the pump operates over a long period of time, the
bypassing will gradually increase. This is because of contamination lodging
between the close tolerances in the pump.
One of the best checks to make if the pump is thought to be bad is to check the
case drain flow. The outlet port of the pump should be at maximum pressure
when making this check. The flow can be checked in one of three ways:

Hydraulic Pumps
1) Remove the case drain, run the flow

into a container of known size and time
it. Caution: Never hold the case drain
line in your hand. Secure the line to
the container before starting the
pump if possible to avoid injury. It is
best to use hard pipe if it is available
and stand away from the container
when making this test. In the example
shown, with a 30 GPM pump bypassing
.9 GPM into a 1-gallon bucket, the
container will nearly fill up in a minute’s
time.
2) A flow meter can be permanently

installed in the case drain. The flow can
be checked periodically for pump wear.
When the pump output volume is
reduced by 10% (3 GPM), the pump is
becoming excessively worn.

Hydraulic Pumps
3) Measure the Temperature difference between the Suction Line and the
Case Drain Line. The following formula can be used to find the amount of
pump bypassing.
TCase Drain – TSuction Line
Case Drain Flow =
PSI x .0093
Example:
Insert the Temperature Difference and maximum pressure in the formula

below.
Case Drain Flow = 120o - 110o

1200 x .0093
10 0
Case Drain Flow = 11.16
Case Drain Flow = .9 GPM

Hydraulic Pumps
Pressure Compensating Pumps

Pressure compensating pumps are the most common type variable
displacement pumps used in mills today. Both piston and vane type pumps
are used when pressure compensation
is required. The compensator is a
pressure control valve that is mounted
on the pump. The pump will deliver
maximum volume to the system until the
setting of the compensator is reached.
The compensator spool will then shift
and the pump volume will be reduced.
The pump will now only supply the oil the
system needs. The compensator
pressure setting will be maintained
while the pump is compensating.
Vane Pumps
Vane pumps are commonly made as
variable displacement type pumps. This means that the volume of the pump
can be varied or changed. The most common method of varying the
displacement of the vane pump is with a pressure compensator control valve.
Figure 1

Hydraulic Pumps
The component that moves in the vane pump to vary the displacement is the
cam ring. Notice in Figure 1 that the outlet port pressure is sensed through the
pump compensator spool to the “A” piston, which acts on the left side of the
cam ring. Pressure is also sensed to the smaller “B” piston. Since the “A”
piston has a greater square inch area than does the “B” piston the cam ring is
forced to the right. The pump is now delivering maximum volume. Pressure in
the system is 1000 PSI. The setting of the adjustable compensator is set for
1500 PSI. The compensator remains in the open position since the outlet
pressure is below the compensator setting.
Figure 2
When the pressure builds to the compensator setting, 1500 PSI, the
compensator spool will shift (Figure 2). Pressure in the “A” piston is now
ported to tank through the compensator spool. The pressure in the “B” piston
now forces the cam ring to the left. If little or no volume is required then the
cam ring will “ center up” with the rotor. Basically at this point the pump is
deliveriing a very small amount of flow, just enough to maintain the
compensator setting.

Hydraulic Pumps
Some vane pumps have a volume adjustment located on the opposite side of
the compensator. By turning the adjustment clockwise, the maximum volume
out of the pump is limited.
One of the most common problems with this pump is that the compensator can
stick. Because of the internal design of the compensator it almost always will
fail in the “shifted” mode directing pressure in the “A” piston to tank. The cam
ring is then shifted by the “B” piston. The pump will put out little or no volume in
this condition. The compensator can be removed from the pump, taken apart
and checked for contamination or spring breakage. The other option is to
replace the compensator with a new one of the same type and pressure range.
Piston Pumps
Piston pumps are the most efficient of the three types. Although available in
fixed and variable displacements, it is normally used when variable
displacement is required over 2000 PSI. Piston pumps are always used in a
hydrostatic drive (discussed later in this manual).

Hydraulic Pumps
As with the vane pump, the most common method of varying the piston pump
displacement is through the use of a pressure compensator. The pump will
deliver maximum volume until the compensator setting is reached. At that
point the pump will only supply the amount of oil that the system needs.
Delivering Maximum Volume
The pressure compensator on the piston pump is a normally closed valve.

The spring behind the swashplate tilts the swashplate at its maximum angle.
The pistons are fully stroking and the pump is delivering maximum GPM.
When the pressure builds to the compensator spring setting (1200 PSI), the
spool shifts and directs fluid to the stroking piston. The swashplate now
moves to the vertical position if no oil is required to operate the system.
The piston’s stroke is now near 0, therefore pump volume is near 0 GPM. Only
enough oil is delivered to maintain the compensator setting.

Hydraulic Pumps
The piston pump compensator can also stick and cause problems in the
system. If the compensator sticks closed, then the pump will continue to
deliver maximum volume. A relief valve should be provided immediately
downstream of the pump for system protection.
Compensator Setting Reached
If the compensator spool fails open, the

pump will compensator at a very low
pressure. Taking the compensator off
and taking it apart is the best way to
check it. The spool will have some very
small holes in it, which could plug up
with contamination. The spring should
also be checked to make sure it is not
bent, broken, or warped.

Hydraulic Pumps
Compensating Pump
Example Circuit
In the example, a 10 GPM
pressure compensator pump is
supplying fluid through a hand
valve to a hydraulic motor. The
pressure required to drive the
motor is 800 PSI. The pump
compensator is set at 1000
PSI. With the hand valve fully
open, all 10 GPM can flow to
the hydraulic motor. The
pressure on both sides of the
hand valve is basically the
same since the motor is the
only resistance in the circuit.
The compensator remains off
because the system pressure
is below the compensator
setting.
In the next example, the

hand valve is partially closed
off. Only 7 GPM can flow
through the valve and to the
motor. Pressure will now
build upstream of the hand
valve because 10 GPM
cannot flow through the
valve. When the pressure
nears 1000 PSI, the
compensator spool shifts,
allowing the pump volume to
be reduced. The pump now
only supplies 7 GPM to the
system.

Hydraulic Pumps
In the next operation the

hand valve has been fully
closed. The pump will now
fully de-stroke and deliver
nearly 0 GPM. Only enough
fluid will be supplied to make
up for bypassing in the pump
and system.
Bypassing will be at
maximum when the pump is
compensating. The small
amount of bypassed fluid
returns to tank as heat. A
cooler installed in the case
drain will remove this heat.
A pump that is compensating reduces the horsepower in the system.
When the pump compensates, the GPM drops down near zero so therefore
the horsepower required to drive the pump also drops. The electric motor
doesn’t pull as much current to drive the system, therefore conserving energy.
Pressure Compensating Pump Pressure Settings

Systems with pressure compensating pumps are designed with and without
relief valves. Those systems without relief valves normally use vane type
pumps. The vane pump compensator is a normally open valve, whereas the
piston pump compensator spool is normally closed. (See the vane and piston
pump cutaways shown earlier in this section.) All pressure compensating
pumps should have a relief valve in the system as an extreme safety device.

Hydraulic Pumps
Systems without Relief Valves

The compensator setting (with or without
a relief valve) should be set 200 PSI
above the pressure required to move the
load. By opening any flow controls in the
system and blocking the accumulator
flow, the load pressure can be found.
Observe the system pressure as the

machine operates. When the load is
moving, the pressure on the gauge is the
operating pressure. Depending on the
machine, the load may change. Be sure
to observe the maximum operating
pressure. Once the maximum operating
pressure is established, now the
compensator can be adjusted.
Put the pump in a deadhead condition.

Most pressure compensating pump
systems use directional valves with the
“P” port blocked. If this is not available,
the cylinder can be bottomed out, or a pipe
plug can be installed downstream of the
pump (turn the pump off before installing
the pipe plug). Once deadheaded, adjust
the compensator until the pressure on the
gauge reads 200 PSI above the maximum
operating pressure.

Hydraulic Pumps
Systems with Relief Valves

The purpose of the relief valve in a
pressure compensating pump system is
to:
• Absorb pressure spikes.
• Operate as an extreme safety device.
The only time the relief valve should

open is when the pressure rises above
the compensator setting. Proper setting
of the relief is 250 PSI above the
compensator setting.
The load pressure should first be

determined as described in the
“Systems without Relief Valves” section.
In the example the load pressure is 1000
PSI. To set the pressures, the system
should be in a deadhead condition by
blocking the pump flow in the system.
The relief valve adjustment should be
turned full counterclockwise. This sets
the relief valve at its lowest pressure.
The compensator then should be turned
full clockwise, setting it at the maximum
pressure. Turn the relief clockwise as
you observe the gauge pressure. Adjust
the relief until, in our example, 1450 PSI
is reached.
Without delay, turn the compensator

counterclockwise. Once the
compensator pressure is slightly below
1450 PSI, the gauge pressure will also
drop. Continue turning the compensator
until the gauge reads 1200 PSI.

Hydraulic Pumps
The biggest problem with

these systems is that the
pressures are randomly
adjusted. If the relief is set
below the compensator then
the pump will operate as a
fixed displacement pump.
That is, instead of the pump
volume being reduced to 0,
the full volume will dump over
the relief valve generating
heat. Let’s say for example
that the compensator is
adjusted to 1600 PSI in the
same system. The oil will
return to tank at 1450 PSI
instead of the volume being
reduced to 0. We can see in
our horsepower formula that
nesarly all of the electrical
horsepower is converted into
heat.

HP = 30 GPM x 1450 PSI x .000583
HP = 25
Electrical energy is also wasted. 746 watts equal 1 horsepower.
Electrical Power = 746 x 25

Electrical Power = 18,650 watts
With the hydraulic system calling for 25 horsepower, 18,650 watts or 18.6
kilowatts of power is wasted.

Hydraulic Pump Work Exercise
1. What is the most common type pump used in mobile equipment?
2. What two pieces of information are normally found stamped on the cam ring
of a vane pump?
1.
2.
3. In a fixed displacement pump circuit the relief valve should be set

PSI
above the pressure required to move the load.
4. The relief valve is a normally closed valve. The term “closed” means that in
the power off condition the valve is: (Circle One)
a) Open to flow
b) Closed to flow
c) Non adjustable
5. If the orifice in a relief valve plugs up, the valve spool will shift open at
PSI.
6. A vented relief valve used in a hydraulic circuit will:
a) Dump the pump volume back to tank at low pressure when not needed to
move the load.
b) Reduce heat.
c) Conserve the electrical horsepower
d) All of the above
7. What can be the problem in a system using a vented relief valve if the
pressure remains high all the time? (Circle One)
a) The orifice is plugged.

b) The solenoid valve is stuck in the open position.
c) The solenoid valve is stuck in the closed position.
d) The pump is bypassing.
8. How much will a 50 GPM pump normally bypass when the pump is relatively
new?
To GPM
9. When the compensator setting is reached the pump volume will: (Circle One)
a) Dump back to tank through the relief valve.

b) Dump back to tank through the compensator.
c) Be reduced to only what the system needs.
d) Be reduced until the pressure drops to near 0.
10. What two purposes does the relief valve serve in a system with a pressure
compensating pump?
1)
2)
11. What will happen to the system if a 40 GPM pump has its compensator set at
2500 PSI and the relief valve set at 2000 PSI?
12. How much horsepower of heat will be created in problem 11?
HP
13. How many kilowatts of power are wasted in problem 11?
KW
Hydraulic Pumps
Troubleshooting Hydraulic Pump Circuits

The first thing that should be done
when a hydraulic problem occurs
is to gather information. Many
times the problem can be found by
looking, listening, or feeling the
system. The key to
troubleshooting is to isolate the
power supply from the rest of the
system. The easiest checks
should be made first. The
important thing is to make a good
decision instead of
indiscriminately changing parts.
Visual Checks
Several visual checks can be made when first called in on a hydraulic problem.
• Is the electric motor running? Many times the pressure is turned up

too high causing the motor to kick out. In this case, the hydraulic
system is calling for more horsepower than the electrical motor can
deliver.
• Is the pump shaft rotating? The key may be sheared or the coupling
may be broken.
• Is there adequate fluid in the reservoir? The oil level should always
be visible in the sight glass. A properly mounted sight glass will line
the low level mark 3” above the pump suction. If the oil level drops
below this mark then a vortex can be formed at the pump suction. Air
will get into the pump causing pump noise.
• Is there a leak in the system? Everything will sound normal at the

reservoir but the pressure on the gauge will be very low.

Hydraulic Pumps
Sound Checks
The pump should be listened to when it is operating normally. Some pumps
are naturally noisier than others. When the pump makes a high pitched noise,
it may be one of the following problems.
Cavitation
Cavitation is the formation and collapse of air cavities in the liquid. When the
pump cannot get the total volume of oil it is called for at the suction port,
cavitation occurs. Hydraulic oil has about 9% dissolved air in it. The air is
“pulled” out of the oil by a high vacuum pressure. The air bubbles then
collapse or implode inside the pump. These implosions cause a very high
pitched sound. As the air bubbles collapse, damage is caused inside the
pump.
A pump that is cavitating will put out a reduced flow until the pump destroys
itself. Cavitation is caused by three problems.
• Oil viscosity is too high. Cold oil has a high viscosity and can cause
a pump to cavitate. If the viscosity of the oil is higher than the pump
manufacturer recommends, cavitation will occur.
• Plugged suction filter or strainer. This is the number one reason

that a pump cavitates. The suction strainer is underneath the fluid
level. It is out of sight and out of mind. The strainer should be
removed and cleaned. It can be cleaned by a solvent or by blowing air
from the inside out.
• Electric motor is driving the pump at a higher RPM than it is rated

for.
Aeration
Aeration is similar in sound to cavitation. Aeration has a more erratic high
pitched sound whereas cavitation is a steady whine. Aeration is caused by air
from the outside entering the suction side of the pump. Besides the difference
in sound, a system that is aerating will have foaming in the reservoir. This is

Hydraulic Pumps
because air from the outside was added to the oil. With cavitation, the air was
already present in the oil.
Causes of aeration are:
• Air leak in the suction line. Squirting oil around the suction fittings
will detect this problem. The pump will quiet down momentarily when
the leak is found.
• Bad shaft seal on a fixed displacement pump. Fixed displacement

pumps are internally drained back to the suction port. The problem
can be found, as with a leaky fitting, by squirting oil around the seal.
• Fluid level too low. The oil level should not drop any lower than 2”
above the suction strainer. If this happens a vortex in the fluid can be
formed, drawing air into the suction line.
Improper Installation
• Coupling not properly aligned. Alignment should be within .003”
total dial indicator reading.
• Wrong shaft rotation. Pumps are generally designed to rotate in

one direction only. The direction of rotation should be viewed from the
shaft end. An arrow will be stamped or tagged on the pump. Rotation
can be checked by connecting the suction line, filling the pump with
fluid, and leaving the pressure port disconnected. Rotating the pump
by hand or jogging the electric motor should produce a flow out of the
outlet port.

Hydraulic Pumps
Troubleshooting Fixed Displacement Pump Circuits

Is there enough pressure to move the
load? If not, then the pump and relief
valve should be isolated from the rest of
the system. This is done by blocking the
flow off immediately downstream of the
relief valve. If the pressure builds to the
relief valve setting, the problem is out in
the system (cylinder bypassing, valves
bypassing or stuck open in the system).
If the pressure does not build up, the
problem is either the pump or the relief
valve.
Checking the Fixed Displacement Pump

As the pump wears over a period of time more fluid will internally bypass and
less will be delivered to the system. Pumps bypass when the outlet port is
pressurized. Several methods can be used to troubleshoot the pump.
• Check the pump housing for

heat. Heat is generated when
the pump bypassing increases.
Feeling of the pump or checking
the temperature with a heat gun
is a good test. This is
particularly effective when two
or more pumps of the same
volume are on the same
hydraulic unit. A heat test
should be made when the pump
is relatively new or operating
normally. If the bypassing is
severe enough then all the inlet
fluid will be bypassed. The
pressure will not build high
enough to move the load when
this happens.

Hydraulic Pumps
• Check the current on the electric drive motor. This check again
should initially be made when the pump is relatively new to establish a
reference. Electric motor horsepower is relative to the horsepower
required by the hydraulic system.
If the pump is excessively bypassing, then the pump is delivering a lower GPM
flow rate than when it was new. Therefore, the electric motor will not pull as
much current to drive the system.
• Check the pump through the relief

valve. Disconnect the outlet port of
the relief valve (with the pump off) and
run it into a container. Turn the relief
adjustment full CCW. Turn the pump
on and observe the flow. At low
pressure the pump will probably put
out full flow. Gradually adjust the
relief valve clockwise. If the flow
drops off as the pressure increases
then the pump is worn. The volume
can be checked at operating pressure
by timing the flow into the container. If the pressure does not rise as
the relief is adjusted and the volume remains constant, then the
problem is the relief.
Troubleshooting Variable Displacement Pumps

The first question that should be answered is “Is
it a pressure or volume problem?” If the load is
moving too slowly, then it is a volume problem.
If the load is not moving, the gauge should be
checked to see if adequate pressure is
available to move the load. Visual and sound
checks should be made prior to any volume or
pressure checks.

Hydraulic Pumps
Volume Problem
1) Feel the relief valve tank line. In pressure compensating pump systems
there should not be any flow over the relief valve. If the line is hot, go through
the pressure adjustment procedure discussed previously in the “Pressure
Compensating Pump Pressure Settings” section. If the line is still hot, take the
relief valve apart and check it for contamination. Turn the system off making
sure the pressure is bled down before disassembling the relief valve.
2) Take the case drain line off and check for excessive bypassing.
Bypassing should be 1-3% of the total pump volume.
3) Check the electrical current on the drive motor. A pump that is severely
bypassing or one that is compensating will not require as much horsepower to
drive the system. The electrical current will be at a low level.
4) The compensator is set less than 200 PSI above the maximum
operating pressure. Adjust the compensator clockwise and set to the correct
pressure.
Pressure Checks
If the pressure is too low to move the load, the pump and the relief valve should
be isolated from the system. Once isolated, if the pressure is still too low make
the following checks.
1. If the pressure is very low the problem is probably the relief valve.
Turn the system off, making sure the system pressure is bled down.
Disassemble as described in “Checking the Relief Valve” on page 3.
2. The pump compensator may be bad. Turn the system off and check the
gauge to verify the system pressure is bled down. Remove the compensator
and take it apart. The small orifices in the spool should be checked to make
sure they are not plugged up. The springs should also be checked to make
sure they are not broken, bent, or warped. A compensator of the same type
and spring rating can be taken off of a good pump and installed on the pump on
the machine.
3. Check the case drain. The pump would have to be totally bypassing for the
pressure not to build up. Most case drain lines are not large enough to handle
the total pump flow. The shaft seal will usually blow out first.

Hydraulic Pump Work Exercise
Part II
1. If a pump has a steady, high pitched whining sound you would: (Circle One)
a) Change the pump

b) Check the fluid level
c) Check the fluid temperature
d) Test for an air leak in the suction line
2. What is the number one reason pumps cavitate?
3. What type problem is occurring if the pump has an erratic high pitched
sound?
4. When testing a fixed displacement pump, if the flow drastically decreases out
of the relief valve tank line when the pressure is increased this means that:
(Circle One)
1) The relief valve is bad.

2) The compensator is stuck open.
3) The pump is worn.
4) The oil temperature is too low.
5. In a vane type, pressure compensating pump, what will happen to the

pressure in the system if the compensator spool sticks in the energized
position? (Page 15)
6. If the spool sticks in the de-energized position (Page 18) in a piston pump
circuit with no relief valve the system will: (Circle One)
a) Drop down very low.

b) Bypass back to tank through the compensator spool.
c) Be maintained at the compensator spring setting.
d) Continue to build until the weak point in the system ruptures or the motor
kicks out.
7. What happens to the electrical current to the motor when a pump

compensates?
a) Increases
b) Decreases
c) Goes up until the pump delivers maximum volume.
d) Drops until the motor overload trips.
Directional Valves
Directional Valves
The purpose of a directional valve usually is to direct flow to cylinders and
hydraulic motors. In some cases, they may be used to unload pumps or drain
accumulators.
Solenoid Operated Valves

The most common method of shifting directional valves is with an electrical
solenoid. The illustration shows the spool in the de-energized position.
Coil
Plunger
Spool

Directional Valves
When electrical power is applied to the coil, the plunger is pulled in by

magnetism. The plunger exerts a force on the push pin, which shifts the spool
to the left.
Solenoid Failures
When a solenoid first energizes, a high in-rush current is applied to the coil to
pull the plunger in. When the plunger is seated and the valve is shifted, the
holding current drops to a low level. Solenoids normally fail because the
plunger does not seat causing the current level to remain high. The heat melts
the insulation in the coil causing the windings to short out. The following
reasons can cause a solenoid to overheat:
• The plunger can bind or stick when energized. Iron fillings caused
by repeated contact with the push pin can lodge between the plunger
and frame. If the solenoid is disassembled, be sure to replace the
plunger the same way it came out. Wear patterns develop over a
period of time.
• The valve spool may stick due to contamination. The current will
again remain very high. If actuating the manual override does not shift
the spool, contamination may be the problem.
• Low Voltage. If the voltage drops too low (103V for 110V coils),
sufficient force may not be generated to shift the coil. The coil will burn
out because the in rush current stays at a high level for a longer period
of time. Always check the voltage at the solenoid. Since voltage
drops may be infrequent, a 24-hour recorder can monitor the voltage.
• High Ambient Temperature. If the valve is in an area where there is

poor ventilation or near a heat source, the coil may fail.
• The valve mounting base should be flat to within .0003” - .0005”.

If not flat, then the spool can bind inside the valve causing the coil to
burn out.
• Energizing both solenoids at the same time. The two coils will
“fight” each other. One plunger will seat and the other one won’t,
causing coil burnout.

Directional Valves
Checking the Solenoid

One of the first checks to make is to feel the solenoid housing. Unless the
solenoid is energized all the time, the housing should be warm, not hot and not
cold. A solenoid that has failed will usually give off a “burnt smell” due to the
insulation in the coil melting. To check the solenoid, disconnect the power
source and attach an ohmmeter across he terminals. For a 110V coil less than
50 ohms will usually be read. If 0 ohms is read it means that the coil wires are
shorted to each other. If the ohmmeter needle reads infinity then the coil is
open.
Two Way Directional Valves

Normally Closed
The first thing that should be noticed
about a two way valve is its
de-energized position. Valves on a
hydraulic schematic are always shown
in the de-energized condition. The
hydraulic lines are shown, connected to
the “closed” ports on the valve. This
means that the valve is normally closed,
or blocked to flow. The term two way
indicates the valve has two ports.
The second thing you should notice

about the valve is how it is shifted. On
this valve the solenoid force shifts the
valve spool. When the solenoid
energizes, the valve shifts into the
“open” position. Oil can now flow from
the inlet to the outlet of the valve.
Depending on the circuit design, oil
could also flow from the outlet back to
the inlet. When the electrical power is
removed from the solenoid, the spring
will shift the valve back to the closed
position.

Directional Valves
When the solenoid is

de-energized the valve is
closed or blocked to flow. The
pressure builds to the
compensator setting,
allowing the pump to deliver 0
GPM.
Energizing the solenoid

shifts the spool into the open
position. Flow from the
pump is directed to drive the
hydraulic motor.

Directional Valves
Normally Open
The normally open valve
operates exactly opposite of
the normally closed valve.
The hydraulic lines are now
shown connected to the
“open” position. The
de-energized position on
spring return, two position
valves are always on the
“spring side” of the symbol.
With the solenoid

de-energized, the pump
flow returns back to tank
through the valve at low
pressure. This method is
commonly used with
presses or stackers to
unload the pump volume
when not needed to raise
the rams.

Directional Valves
The solenoid is energized which shifts

the valve spool closed. The pump flow
is now blocked through the valve. The
oil flows out to the system in this
condition.
Three Way Valves

The three way valve is similar to the two
way except it has 3 ports. The valve, in
this example, has the “P” or pressure
port blocked and the “A” port is
connected to the tank in the
de-energized condition. When the
solenoid is energized the valve spool will
shift, connecting the “P” to the “A” port
and blocking the tank port.

Directional Valves
With the solenoid de-energized the valve

spool blocks the pump flow to the cylinder.
Any fluid in the cylinder is ported back to tank.
The pump is compensating at this time.
When electrical power energizes the

solenoid, the valve spool is shifted. The
pump flow is now directed through the
directional valve and to the cylinder.

Directional Valves
Four Way Valves

Two Position
The two position valve shown is a four
way valve. The valve has four ports; P,
T, A and B. In the de-energized position
(as shown), the valve spool is in the “A”
position. It is called the “A” position
because the pump flow is ported to the
“A” port. At the same time, the “B” port is
connected to the “T” or tank port. We
can consider this valve normally open.
When the solenoid is energized, the
spool is shifted into the “B” position. The
pump flow is then ported to the “B” port
and the “A” port is connected to tank.
De-energizing the solenoid allows the
valve to spring return back to the “A”
position.
The spring is holding the valve

spool in the “A” position. The
pump flow is directed out of the “A”
port, which extends the cylinder.
The oil in the rod side of the
cylinder flows into the “B” port
which is connected to the “T” or
tank port. When the cylinder fully
extends the pressure will build to
the compensator setting.
Pressure will be maintained on the
full piston side of the cylinder when
the directional valve is in the “A”
position.

Directional Valves
When the solenoid energizes, the

valve spool is shifted into the “B”
position. The pump flow is
directed out of the “B” port and into
the rod side of the cylinder. The oil
in the full piston side flows into the
“A” port, which is connected to the
“T” or tank port.
The two position, four way valve is readily available from most hydraulic
suppliers. The two and three way valves are often times not stock items. A
two position, four way valve can be made to operate as a two or three way
simply by plugging off selected ports.

Directional Valves
To make a four way valve a three way, plug either the “A” or “B” port. If the
three way valve is to be normally closed, plug the “A” port and connect the
cylinder to the “B” port. If the valve is to operate as a normally open valve, plug
the “B” port and connect the cylinder line to the “A” port.

Directional Valves
To make a four way valve operate as a two

way, 2 ports are plugged. To configure the
valve to operate as a normally closed valve,
plug the “A” and “T” ports connecting the
motor line to the “B” port.
To operate as a normally open, two way

valve, connect the motor to the “A” port and
plug the “B” and “T” ports.

Directional Valves
Three Position Valves

Three position valves are commonly used to block flow to an actuator, unload
a hydraulic pump, permit a hydraulic motor to free wheel when stopping, or to
bleed pressure out of cylinder lines. Although there are many different
variations possible, only four are used most of the time. Two solenoids are
necessary in order for a three position valve to operate.
Closed Center
When both solenoids are de-energized, the valve spool is in the closed center
position. All ports are blocked in a closed center valve. A pressure
compensating pump is almost always used with this spool position. When the
valve is de-energized, the pump output is reduced to 0 GPM by the pump
compensator.

Directional Valves
Closed Center Valves and Cylinder Drift

Because of the tolerances between the valve spool and housing, fluid can
bypass from the “P” port to the “A”, “B” and “T” ports. The pressure in the “A”
and “B” lines can build to approximately 1/2 of the pressure at the “P” port.
In the example, the pump is

compensating at 2000 PSI. The
leakage past the spool causes the
pressure to build in the “A” and “B” ports
to 1000 PSI each. With a cylinder that
has 10 square inches of area on the full
piston side, the following force will be
developed on the full piston side.
Force = 10 sq. in. x 1000 PSI
Force = 10,000 lbs.
At the same time the 1000 PSI is also

exerted on the rod square inch area (5
square inches). The following force is
exerted on the rod side.
Force = 5 sq. in. x 1000 PSI
Force = 5,000 lbs.
Because of the difference in area, 5,000 lbs. more force is exerted to extend
the cylinder than to retract it. The cylinder could possibly drift out, depending
on the load on the cylinder. To remedy the problem, a float center valve can be
used with pilot operated check valves. A tandem center valve could also be
used if only one directional valve is used in the system.

Directional Valves
Tandem Center
The “P” and “T” ports are hydraulically
connected together and the “A” and “B”
ports are blocked. This spool is commonly
used with a single cylinder application. The
advantage is that when the pump volume is
not being used it returns back to tank at low
pressure. The electrical motor horsepower
and heat are at a low level when the valve is
de-energized. The pressure is maintained
on both sides of the cylinder when the valve
is in the center position.
Open Center
All ports are hydraulically connected
together with the open center spool. When
in the center position the pump volume will
take the path of least resistance, back to
tank. This valve center is commonly used
with a hydraulic motor because the motor
will coast to a stop when the valve is
de-energized.

Directional Valves
Float Center
The “P” port is blocked and
the “A”, “B” and “T” ports are
all hydraulically connected
together. The float center is
commonly used when driving
two or more hydraulic motors.
When the valve de-energizes
after driving the specific
motor, the inertia of the
moving load will continue
turning the motor shaft. The
oil that flows out of the motor
is ported back through the
valve and to the motor inlet.
Motor cavitation is prevented.
Another common use of the float center valve is the pilot valve on double
solenoid, hydraulic piloted, directional valves. The main spool may be any of
the four previously discussed spool positions.
Solenoid Controlled, Hydraulic Piloted Valves

The problem with using Pilot Valve
solenoids to shift larger
valves is the high in rush
current causes overheating
and coil failure. Solenoid
controlled, hydraulic piloted
directional valves are used Pilot Chokes
normally when the flow rate
exceeds 10 – 15 GPM.
Main Spool
To shift the main spool, both
electrical and hydraulic
power are required. The
purpose of the pilot valve is
to direct fluid to shift the

Directional Valves
main spool. A float center position is always used when a double solenoid
valve is used as the pilot.
Approximately 65 PSI pilot

pressure is required to
overcome the internal spring
and shift the main spool. On
some applications “pilot
chokes” are used to control
the rate that the main spool
shifts. A typical schematic is
shown to the right with a
closed center main spool.
To shift the main spool into

the “A” position, the pilot
valve “A” solenoid is
energized. Internal pilot
pressure is ported inside the
valve, through the pilot valve
“P” to “A” ports and to the
hydraulic pilot cavity on the
“A” side. The main spool
shifts to the right once the
hydraulic pressure
overcomes the 65 PSI spring.
The oil that flows out of the “B”
pilot cavity is directed from
“B” to “T” ports of the pilot
valve and back to tank
through the internal drain.

Directional Valves
When replacing a solenoid controlled, pilot operated, directional valve the

drain and pilot pressure configuration must be the same as the original valve.
In the original example, the valve was internally piloted and internally drained.
In many cases you may not have the exact valve for the application. A valve
with the same mounting and spool can be converted. To convert it to an
externally piloted valve, a pipe plug must be installed or relocated.
The pipe plug in the “X” port on the bottom of the valve must be removed and
inserted in the “P” port to convert from an internal to external pilot.
To convert from an internal to external drain, a pipe plug must also be

installed. By removing the pilot valve the mounting ports on top of the main
valve will be exposed. Insert the plug in the threaded tank line port. The valve
will be externally drained by removing the plug in the “Y” port in the mounting
subplate.

Directional Valves
Tandem and Open Center Valves

On tandem and open center valves the fluid coming in the pressure port
returns to tank. A method must be provided to build pilot pressure to shift the
main spool when the pilot valve is energized.
A 65 PSI check valve is installed in one of three places.
• Internally in the “P” port of the main valve.
• Externally in the tank line of the directional valve.
• Externally in the pressure line coming from the hydraulic pump. An

external pilot line is connected between the check valve and pump
and then connected to the “x” port on the mounting subplate.
Once the pressure builds to the rating of the check valve spring, the pump
volume will return to tank through the “P” and “T” ports of the main spool. In the
event the check valve gets trash in it or the spring breaks, the main spool will
not shift.

Directional Valves
Common Valve Actuators
Solenoid
The solenoid actuator is used on smaller directional
valves. Most solenoid valves also have a manual
override to check for a solenoid failure or other
electrical problem.
Manual Actuator
The most common use of the manual actuator is on a
solenoid operated valve. Care must be taken when
manually shifting a valve. You should know what is
going to happen to the hydraulic system when the
manual override is actuated.
Push Button
The push button is used on smaller hydraulic valves.
The most common application is that of a gauge
isolation valve.
Push Button Example:
When the valve is de-energized,

pressure is blocked to the gauge. Any
pressure in the gauge is drained to tank.
When the push button is depressed,
pressure in the line is ported to the
gauge.

Directional Valves
Lever
The lever is commonly used on mobile
applications; forklifts, knucklebooms,
etc. Manually moving the handle
causes the valve spool to shift.
Mechanical
The mechanical actuator is a roller that,
when depressed, shifts the valve spool.
Mechanical Actuator Example:

The cylinder will extend at fast speed
until the mechanical actuator is
depressed. The valve then shifts into
the “B” position. With the “B” port
plugged, the oil that exhausts out of
the cylinder rod side flows through the
needle valve, slowing the cylinder
down.

Directional Valves
Air Pilot
Air pressure is directed by an external air
valve to pistons that act on both sides of
the valve spool. Since air pressure is
usually 70-90 PSI, these pistons are
normally fairly large.
Hydraulic Pilot
Pilot pressure that is directed from an
external hydraulic valve shifts the valve
spool. Hydraulic actuators are usually
found on large valves.
Solenoid Controlled, Hydraulic Piloted

Both electrical and hydraulic power is
required to shift the main spool. The pilot
valve is mounted on the main spool
assembly. This actuator is explained
earlier in this section.
Proportional
The valve operates similar to the solenoid
controlled, hydraulic piloted valve except
that D.C. voltage is used. The valve spool
shifts directly proportional to the applied
D.C. voltage. Proportional valves are
discussed later in this manual.

Directional Valves
Servo
The servo actuator operates off of a positive
or negative D.C. voltage. The valve spool
shifts directly proportional to the D.C. signal.
Servo valves are used to precisely control
the speed and/or position of hydraulic
cylinders and motors.
Detent
The detent doesn’t actuate the spool, it
simply holds it in the last energized position.
The detent is commonly used with a lever or
double solenoid actuator.
Detent Example:
When the valve is shifted into the “A” position and
the voltage is removed from the solenoid, the
detent locks the spool into position. The spool
will remain in the “A” position until the “B”
solenoid is energized. The detent performs the
same function when the “B” solenoid is
energized.

Directional Valves
Troubleshooting Directional Valves and Cylinders

Cylinder Testing
One of the most common problems with cylinders is piston seal bypassing.
Piston seals in a hydraulic cylinder are usually made of cast iron or a synthetic
rubber compound. Cast iron seals will leak 1-3 cubic inches per minute when
pressurized to 1000 PSI.
To test a cylinder for excessive leakage, shift the directional valve to fully
extend the cylinder. The best method of checking it is to remove the line and
run it into a container. Before removing the line, turn the hydraulic pump off,
drain any accumulators, and verify the pressure in the line is 0 PSI, if a gauge
port is available. Extreme caution should be taken when removing the line to
not expose yourself to high pressure fluid.

Directional Valves
Directional Valve Testing

After checking the cylinder, the directional valve can be tested for bypassing.
The tolerances between the spool and the valve housing can increase due to
wear over a period of time. Part or all of the pump flow can bypass through
these tolerances if excessively worn. This will only occur when a low volume
pump is used.
The directional valve can be tested by checking the flow in the tank line with
pressure maintained on the cylinder. Make sure the pressure in the line is at 0
PSI before removing the line. If the valve is good only a trickle of fluid should
come out of the line.

Directional Valves
Check Valves
Check Valves are the simplest form of directional control valves but can also
be used as a pressure control.
Standard Check Valve

The standard check valve permits free flow in
one direction but blocks flow in the reverse
direction. Although not normally shown on the
print, the valve does have a 1-3 PSI spring
inside to hold it closed when the hydraulics are
turned off.
Standard check valves are made in an “inline”

and a “right angle” design. The inline check is
used for systems where the flow does not
exceed 100 GPM. The right angle check valve
is used in systems up to 300 GPM.

Directional Valves
Example No. 1
Pump Isolation
A well designed hydraulic circuit will
incorporate a check valve immediately
downstream from the hydraulic pump.
The check valve will prevent system
pressure spikes from damaging the
pump. In cases where the pump is
located below the cylinders or motors,
the check will maintain oil in the lines.
When used with an accumulator and the
pump is turned off, the check valve will
prevent the fluid in the accumulator from
rotating the pump backwards. (Circuits
with accumulators should have a
method of dumping the accumulator
when the pump is turned off. See the
accumulator section).
Example No. 2
Motor Protection
The check valve used in the circuit
shown keeps fluid supplied to the
motor inlet when the directional valve
is de-energized and the motor coasts
to a stop. If this check were not in the
line, the motor would pull the air out
of the fluid. The air bubbles would be
compressed inside the motor
eventually destroying the motor.

Directional Valves
Spring Loaded Check Valves

The spring loaded check valve operates
just as the standard check does in
allowing free flow in one direction and
blocking flow in the opposite direction.
Because of the spring rating, the pressure
must build to 65 PSI before the oil can free
flow through the check. The valve is
normally used as a pressure control when
used with a spring pressure above 3 PSI.
Check valves that look alike may be

different because of the spring rating.
The part number should be checked
closely to verify that the valve that’s being
replaced is the same as the original.
Example No. 1
Relief Valve
A common use of a spring
loaded check valve is to
protect a cooler. When the
cooler plugs up the pump
flow will bypass through the
check valve. Damage to the
cooler is prevented.

Directional Valves
Example No. 2
Tank Line Check

The purpose of this check valve is to
keep fluid in the lines when the
directional valve is de-energized. If air is
in the line, condensate will form when the
system cools down. The oil could also
gravity flow out of the hydraulic motor if
this check valve were not used. The next
time the motor is driven there would be
air in the motor possibly causing motor
damage.
Pilot Operated Check Valves
Pilot to Open
The most common pilot operated check
valve is the pilot to open. The valve
operates the same as a standard check
valve when there is no pilot pressure.
That is, free flow is permitted in one
direction but blocked in the other.

Directional Valves
When pilot pressure is applied to the pilot

port, reverse flow is allowed through the
valve.
The most common application of the pilot to open check valve is on

suspended loads. A standard closed center directional valve will allow a
cylinder to drift down because of leakage between the valve spool and
housing. The pilot operated check valve has little or no leakage. Float center
valves are normally used with the P.O. checks. This allows the check to close
and hold the load by draining any pressure in the pilot line back to tank.

Directional Valves
When the directional valve is in the de-energized condition (Figure 1) the pilot
operated check valve locks fluid in the rod side of the cylinder. Any pressure in
the pilot line is bled back to tank through the directional valve.
To lower the
cylinder, (Figure 2)
the directional valve
is energized in the
“B” position.
Pressure is directed
to the full piston side
of the cylinder. At
the same time pilot
pressure builds at
the bottom of the
pilot piston. The
area that the pilot
pressure acts upon
is much larger than
the area on top of the
check valve. The
difference in area is Figure 1
usually 3:1. This is
known as the pilot
ratio. Originally
there was 900 PSI
acting downward on
top of the check valve.
Let’s say for example the area that the 900 PSI is acting upon is 1 square inch.
We can find the force holding the valve closed as follows:
Force = PSI x Area
Force = 900 x 1 square inch
Force = 900 lbs.
With 900 lbs. of force holding the valve closed, then slightly more than 900 lbs.
of force is required to shift the check valve open for reverse flow. If the square

Directional Valves
inch area of the pilot piston is 3 square inches, we can find the pressure
required to open the check valve.
Force
PSI =
Area
900 lbs.
PSI =
3 sq. in.
PSI = 300
Figure 2
With a 3:1 pilot ratio, slightly more than 300 PSI will shift the valve open.

Directional Valves
To raise the cylinder (Figure 3) the directional valve is energized in the “A”
position. The oil then free flows through check valve and into the rod side of
the cylinder, raising the load.
Figure 3

Directional Valves
Pilot to Close
The pilot to close valve is a normally open valve. With the hydraulic system off,
the spring holds the valve open. When the system is turned on, the oil can flow
in either direction.
When pilot pressure is applied to the pilot port the valve shifts to the closed
position. Flow is now blocked in both directions.
The most common use of the pilot to close check valve is an accumulator
dump valve. The application is demonstrated in the accumulator section of
this manual.
Check Valve Failures

Check valves will normally fail in the open position. Contamination can lodge
between the ball and seat permitting reverse flow through the valves. On a
standard and pilot operated check valve, removing it from the system and
visually inspecting it is the best test. Care should be taken that the system
pressure is bled down before removing the valve. On pilot to open check valve
applications, the load should be fully lowered before removing from the
system.

Directional Valves
Since spring loaded check valves are normally used for pressure control, the
gauge pressure can be checked at the inlet of the valve. The first question that
should be answered is whether or not there should be flow through the valve.
Most spring loaded check valves have their spring pressure indicated in the
part number. 5, 25, and 65 PSI are common spring pressures. In the example
of a check used as a relief, the gauge pressure can be checked and the outlet
of the valve can be felt for heat. If the outlet is warm and the gauge pressure is
below the spring rating, the valve is stuck open.
Logic Valves
Logic valves, also called
cartridge valves, have become
more popular in recent years.
The advantage of logic valves
is that they are usually
mounted inside a manifold,
reducing piping, fittings, and
leaks. The disadvantage to a
logic valve is that because it is
mounted in a manifold it is
difficult to isolate a single valve
for troubleshooting. Although
logic valves can be used for
pressure and flow control, their
most common use is
directional control applications.
The square inch area on top of

the valve piston is equal to the
square inch area on the bottom of
the piston. For example, if the
area on top of the piston is 3
square inches, then the total area
on the bottom of the piston is also
3 square inches. The spring
acting downward to hold the
valve closed is usually less then
100 PSI.

Directional Valves
As long as the hydraulic force acting upward is greater than the hydraulic and
spring forces acting downward, oil will flow through the valve in either
direction. When the total force pushing downward is higher than the upward
force, the valve shifts closed. Flow is then blocked through the valve in both
directions. A small directional valve is normally used to control the opening
and closing of the valve.
The main cause of failure in logic valves is contamination lodging between the
piston and seat. When used with directional valves as the following examples
show, problems with the directional valve sticking or bypassing can cause the
logic valve to fail open or closed.
Example No. 1
In the example, the logic valve is used to lower a vertical load. When the
directional valve is de-energized pressure is ported to the top of the logic valve
piston. With an area of 3 square inches on top of the piston and a 10 PSI
spring we can find the force holding the valve closed.
Hydraulic Force = PSI x Area
Hydraulic Force = 1000 PSI x 3 sq. in.
Hydraulic Force = 3000 lbs.
3000 lbs. + 10 lb. spring = 3,010 lbs.
The hydraulic force trying to open the

valve is acting on an area of 1 square
inch. The force trying to open the valve
is:
Force = 1000 PSI x 1 square inch
Force = 1000 lbs.
With 3010 lbs. of force exerting

downward on the piston and only 1000
lbs. acting upward, the valve remains
closed.

Directional Valves
To lower the load, the solenoid

energizes and shifts the directional
valve spool. Pressure from the system
is now blocked to the top of the piston.
Pilot pressure is ported from the top of
the piston back to tank through the
directional valve. The fluid from the
cylinder now only has to overcome the
spring force (10 PSI) to shift the logic
valve open. Oil flows out of the
cylinder and back to tank through the
logic valves.
Example No. 2
With the solenoid de-energized, flow
from the pump is blocked to the top of
the valve piston. At the same time any
pressure on top of the piston is vented
to tank. The logic valve is open
allowing flow from the pump to the
hydraulic motor.
When the solenoid energizes, pilot pressure from the pump is directed to the
top of the valve piston. Initially the same pressure is on the bottom of the logic
valve piston. Because of the added force of the spring pushing down, the
valve shifts closed. Flow to the motor is now blocked.

Directional Valves
Directional and Check Valve Work

Exercise
1. What are two reasons why a solenoid fails?
A. ________________________________________
B. ________________________________________
2. When a solenoid is checked with an ohmmeter, and the reading is less

than 50 ohms, this means: (circle one)
a) The coil is open
b) The coil wires are shorted to each other.
c) The solenoid is good.
3. What five characteristics does the valve at the right have?
1. ___________________________
2. ___________________________
3. ___________________________
4. ___________________________
5. ___________________________

Directional Valves
4. Make the directional valve a normally closed three way valve by drawing
an X by the proper port. Then draw a line from the cylinder port to the
proper port on the directional valve.
5. Which valve center position would be best to use with a fixed

displacement pump? (circle one)

Directional Valves
6. If you were replacing the pilot valve on a solenoid controlled, hydraulic

piloted valve, which center position would be correct? (circle one)
7. Why won’t the main spool shift in the valve assembly below? Add the
valve in the circuit that will allow it to shift.

Directional Valves
8. Which of the valve actuators indicates a large valve? (circle one)
9. Draw in three check valves in the circuit below that will prevent pump,
motor and cooler damage.

Directional Valves
10. Draw the check valve pilot line and the correct directional valve center
position in the circuit.

Directional Valves
Pressure Controls
Normally Open Valves
Pressure Reducing Valve
The pressure reducing valve is the most
common normally open valve. The
valve does the same thing an air
regulator does in an air circuit or a step
down transformer does in an electrical
circuit. That is, it reduces or limits the
pressure to an actuator.
The pressure reducing valve senses the

pressure on the downstream side.
When the downstream pressure is
below the spring setting the valve will
remain fully open. When the spring
setting is reached, the valve spool will
shift between fully open and fully closed.
Only enough oil will flow through the
valve to maintain the pressure setting of
the spring.
Figure 1

Directional Valves
In Figure 1, a pressure reducing valve is used when there are two or more
actuators and the pressure to one must be lower than the other. In the
example, the reducing valve spring is set for 400 PSI. The pressure required
to drive the hydraulic motor is 800 PSI. The reducing valve is limiting the
pressure to the cylinder to 400 PSI at this time.
Troubleshooting the Pressure Reducing Valve

The reducing valve internally is very similar to a relief valve except that it is
normally open. The first check to make if you suspect a pressure reducing
valve failure is to check the downstream pressure.
If the pressure is too high or too low, the valve can be taken apart. Pressure in
the line should be bled down before disassembly. There are one or two
springs inside the valve that can be visually inspected. If the orifice in the
spool is plugged up, then the downstream pressure will be very low.
Some reducing valves have an internal check valve for reverse flow. If the
valve is stuck open, the pressure downstream will be too high.
Air Bleed Valve

Air
The air bleed valve is used with pressure Bleeding
compensating pumps and closed center From Line
directional valves. When initially starting
the pump, there may be air in the suction
line or pump itself. The purpose of the
valve is to bleed the air back to tank.

Directional Valves
When the hydraulic pressure builds to

the spring setting, approximately 12
PSI, the valve closes.
The valve physically resembles a check

valve. The rated flow of the valve is Air In Line
commonly 2 GPM. To make sure the Removed,
valve is closed off feel the tank line, it Valve Closed
should be cool.
Normally Closed Valves

Relief Valve
The relief valve limits the maximum pressure in a
hydraulic system. The relief valve outlet port always
returns to tank. Troubleshooting and setting the
relief valve is discussed in the pump section.
Sequence Valve
The sequence valve is used in the system to
hydraulically sequence two or more actuators. A
bypass check valve can be included inside the valve
if oil flows in reverse.

Directional Valves
Example
In the example, the sequence of operation is:
1. Clamp Log
2. Extend Saw
3. Retract Saw
4. Unclamp Log
To clamp the log, the “A” solenoid is energized. The clamp cylinder will extend
and lower the clamp on the log. The pressure will build until the “B” sequence

Directional Valves
valve setting is reached, 500 PSI. The valve then shifts open, directing oil to
extend the saw cylinder.
Once the saw has cut the log, the directional valve is shifted into the “B”
position. The pump flow is then ported to retract the saw cylinder. When the
saw cylinder fully retracts, the pressure will build to the “A” sequence valve
setting. The valve then opens and directs oil to retract the clamp cylinder.
Counterbalance Valve
The counterbalance valve is used with
suspended and over running type loads.
When there is no pressure directed to
the full piston side of the cylinder, the
valve will maintain oil in the rod side.
The spool type valve does contain a
small amount of internal leakage. Over
a long period of time oil will seep past the
tolerances allowing the load to lower. A
pilot operated check valve (discussed
earlier in this section) should be used
when this cannot be tolerated.
The two pilot lines shown act on different areas inside the valve. The ratio of
these areas is usually 3:1 or 4:1. For explanation we will use the 3:1 ratio. The
line connected between the valve and cylinder’s rod side acts on a small
piston area (1 square inch) inside the valve. To overcome a spring force of
1800 lbs, the pressure would have to build to 1800 PSI. This can be seen in
the following formula.
Spring Force
PSI = Square Inch Area
1800 lbs
PSI =
1 Sq. In.
PSI = 1800
Since the load in the example is exerting a force of only 1500 PSI, the valve will
remain closed.

Directional Valves
When necessary to lower the load, the full piston side of the cylinder is
pressurized. The “remote” pilot line will then be pressurized to open the valve.
The remote pilot line acts on three times the area (3 square inches) that the
internal pilot line acts upon.
In actuality, 1500 lbs. of force is already being exerted by the load on the
spring. Therefore, the remote pilot pressure only has to develop 300 lbs. of
additional force. Pressure only has to build to 100 PSI on the 3 square inches
of area to equal 300 lbs. of force.
300 lbs.
PSI =
3 Sq. In.
PSI = 100
The pressure and the weight of the load will now cause the valve to open,
allowing the load to lower. If the load starts dropping faster than oil is supplied
into the full piston side, pressure will also drop in the remote pilot line. The
counterbalance spool will then partially close preventing an uncontrolled drop
of the load.
To properly set the valve, tension the

spring to it’s highest setting then raise the
load. On some counterbalance valves,
the adjustment is turned
counterclockwise to increase the
pressure setting. Turn the adjustment
slowly in the opposite direction to reduce
the spring tension. Care should be taken
to not position yourself underneath the
load itself. Once the load starts falling,
turn the adjustment ¼ - 1 turn in the
opposite direction. Properly setting the
valve will reduce force on the cylinder and
heat generated by the valve.
This valve can also be used with hydraulic motors and is commonly referred to
as a “brake valve”. This is explained in the Hydraulic Motors section of this
manual.

Accumulators
Hydraulic accumulators are used to store
pressurized hydraulic fluid. The accumulator
performs the same function in a hydraulic
circuit that a capacitor does in an electrical
circuit. Dry nitrogen is used to “pre-charge”
one side of the accumulator. A piston or some
type of rubber element (bladder or diaphragm)
is used to separate the hydraulic fluid and the
nitrogen.
Accumulators primarily will perform two functions in the hydraulic circuit:
1) Supply additional oil flow to the system at a very fast rate. The
accumulator amd pump volumes are combined together to rapidly
cycle hydraulic cylnders
2) Absorb shock. Hydraulic oil flows through the system at a rate of

approximately 20 feet per second. When a cylinder piston bottoms
out or a valve is rapidly closed, shock occurs in the system.
Dry Nitrogen
Dry nitrogen is used to pre-charge
accumulators because it is an inert gas.
Although any inert gas can be used,
nitrogen is cheaper because it is more
readily available. 78% of the earth’s
atmosphere is nitrogen, 21% oxygen,
and 1% is made up of Argon and other
gases. An inert gas will not react readily
with other chemicals. Oxygen or
compressed air should never be used
to pre-charge an accumulator. As
oxygen is compressed it heats up and
can cause a fire or explosion when
mixing with the hydraulic oil.

Charging the Accumulator with Nitrogen

In order for the accumulator to deliver the right amount of oil, the nitrogen
pre-charge pressure must be correct. A good rule of thumb is to
pre-charge to half the maximum system pressure. In systems using
pressure compensating pumps, the maximum system pressure is determined
by the compensator setting. The relief valve setting determines maximum
system pressure in fixed displacement pump circuits (see pg. 17). This rule of
thumb applies only to accumulators used for volume. Accumulators used for
shock require a different pre-charge and are discussed later in this section.
In the example shown, the

compensator setting
determines the maximum
system pressure. The
accumulator pre-charge in
this system should be ½ of
2000 PSI or 1000 PSI.
To charge the accumulator,

the pressure on the oil side
should be bled down to 0
PSI. In the example circuit,
valve No. 1 should be closed
first, then valve No. 2 should
be opened. If the hydraulic
pump is turned off, valve No.
2 should still be opened
allowing the oil pressure to
drop to 0 PSI.
Once the hydraulic pressure is bled to 0 PSI (Figure 1), the protective valve
cover on top of the accumulator can be removed. The gauge and charging rig
is then installed onto the accumulator gas valve. With the bleeder valve
closed, turn the gas chuck handle clockwise. The pre-charge pressure should
then be indicated on the pressure gauge. Cracking the bleeder valve open will
relieve the nitrogen pressure to atmosphere if overcharged. Before charging
a piston accumulator, bleed all the nitrogen off, as there may be oil build up on
top of the piston due to bypassing.

To charge with nitrogen turn the gas chuck handle counterclockwise. To vent
the pressure out of the charging assembly open and then re-close the bleeder
valve. Connect the hose from the nitrogen bottle to the charging rig.
The bottles normally are originally pre-charged to 2200 PSI. With the nitrogen
bottle gas valve closed, turn the gas chuck handle clockwise to depress the
accumulator gas valve. Gradually open the valve on the nitrogen bottle. Set
the regulator on the nitrogen bottle to the desired pressure. Close the nitrogen
bottle gas valve when pre-charged to the proper pressure. After pre-charging,
turn the gas chuck handle counterclockwise and open the bleeder valve to
relieve the pressure in the hose. The hose and charging rig can now be
removed. The accumulator gas valve cover should be replaced.
Figure 1

Checking the Nitrogen Pre-charge Hydraulically
Instead of attaching the

charging rig for checking the
pre-charge, a hydraulic
method is available. When
the pump is turned off,
pressure is locked in the
system.
Open the No. 2 manual

dump valve a small amount.
The pressure in the system
will slowly drop. The
pressure will drop to a point,
then rapidly 0 PSI. The
pressure that it rapidly drops
to 0 is the pre-charge
pressure.

Types of Accumulators
Piston
The piston accumulator is similar to a cylinder
without the rod. The piston separates the
nitrogen and oil. Piston types are usually used
when larger accumulators are required.
Although it can be mounted in any position, a
vertical mounting is better. If mounted
horizontal, the barrel will wear on the bottom side
because of the weight of the piston and
contamination.
In the example
circuit, the pump is
off and the ¼” hand
valve is open. The
nitrogen pre-charge
pressure has forced
the piston all the way
to the bottom. Any oil
in the accumulator is
drained to tank
through the ¼” dump
valve.

With the ¼” manual dump valve closed and the pump turned on, the pump
volume will begin filling the accumulator. As the accumulator fills, the dry
nitrogen is compressed. The pump will continue to fill and pressurize the
accumulator until both the nitrogen and hydraulic pressures are 2000 PSI
(pump compensator setting). At this point the accumulator is fully charged
and the pump will compensate.

When the directional valve is energized, in the “A” position, pressure in the
system will drop. The pressure drops because it takes less than 2000 PSI to
move the load. The dry nitrogen forces the oil out of the accumulator
combining it with the pump volume. The oil is ported through the directional
valve to move the load. When the cylinder piston fully bottoms out or the
directional valve is de-energized the pump will again fill the accumulator.

Checking the Piston Accumulator
One of the best checks that can be

made is to feel the sides of the
accumulator. An accumulator that
is properly charged and working
properly will be hotter in the lower
half of the shell. The heat is caused
by the friction of the hydraulic fluid
as the oil rapidly flows in and out of
the accumulator.
Another check that can be made is

to observe the hydraulic pressure
gauge as the system operates.
When the cylinders are not cycling
the hydraulic pressure will build to
the pump compensator setting
(relief valve setting in fixed
displacement pump circuits).

When the directional valve

energizes to operate the system,
the pressure on the gauge should
drop no more than 100 – 200 PSI.
This happens because the pump
and accumulator deliver more
flow than what the system is
calling for.
If the needle on the pressure

gauge drops to a low pressure, it
usually indicates an accumulator
problem. Over and under
charging or piston seal leakage
are common causes of this
condition.

Overcharged
Over or undercharging with
nitrogen can cause the
accumulator to deliver a smaller
volume. Let’s say in our previous
example circuit, the accumulator
pre-charge was 1700 PSI instead
of 1000 PSI. When the pump
volume pressurizes the nitrogen,
the piston will not move as far to
compress the nitrogen to 2000
PSI. Therefore a smaller amount
of oil will be stored and discharged
by the accumulator. An
accumulator that is overcharged
will either have heat near the
bottom or will be completely cold.
In many cases the piston will
“bottom out” after it fully
discharges the fluid. The sound of
the piston bottoming out can be
heard. Damage to the piston and
seal can result.
One of the main problems with

piston accumulators is piston seal
leakage. Piston seal leakage will
cause the accumulator to operate
like it is overcharged. Shock in the
system can cause the oil to be
forced by the piston to the nitrogen
side. As the oil bypasses the seals
it will gradually build up on top of
the piston. The fluid on top of the
piston causes the nitrogen
pressure to build up. In our
example, the accumulator was
initially pre-charged to 1000 PSI.

Because of the seal leakage the oil

build up on top of the piston
causes the nitrogen pressure to
increase (1500 PSI). With a
higher nitrogen pressure, again
the piston doesn’t have to move as
far to build to the 2000 PSI
maximum pressure. Heat will be
felt near the bottom of the shell.
Bypassing Test and Piston

Removal
To check for bypassing and to
inspect the piston, install the
charging rig. For easy removal of
the piston it should be forced to the
top. The following procedures will
accomplish this easily and safely.
1. With the pump on, open

the No. 3 bleeder valve on the
charging rig. The nitrogen should
be forced out of the top of the
piston and the nitrogen pressure
should drop to 0 PSI.
2. Close the No. 1 isolation

valve. The pump can also be
turned off at this time.
3. Open the ¼” manual dump

valve (No. 2). Hydraulic pressure
in the accumulator will bleed back
to tank. The piston should remain
at the top due to the friction of the
seals.
4. Remove the charging rig and the top of the accumulator. A puller can
then be attached to the piston for removal.

Undercharged
An accumulator with too low of a
nitrogen pre-charge will not
deliver the right amount of oil to
the system. The nitrogen can
also be lost across the seals or
through a defective gas valve.
A soapy solution can be applied

to the gas valve to check for
leakage. If bubbling occurs,
then the valve core is not
seating properly or the valve
seal is bad.
The piston will be driven very

near the top when the nitrogen
level is too low. Depending on
the nitrogen pressure only a
small amount of oil will be
discharged. Heat will be felt
nearly to the top. The heat
again indicates the friction of the
oil on the shell as it flows in and
out of the accumulator.

Bladder Accumulator
The bladder accumulator uses a thick
rubber type balloon as the device that
separates the oil from the nitrogen.
Drawing “A” shows the bladder filled
with nitrogen (1000 PSI). The expanded
bladder is holding the poppet valve
closed. The purpose of the poppet valve
is to prevent the bladder from protruding
into the piping and system.
Poppet Valve

In drawing “B”, the hydraulic pressure

has compressed the nitrogen to the
maximum system pressure (2000 PSI).
The hydraulic and nitrogen pressures
are equal at this point.
When the directional valves are

energized to extend the cylinders (C),
the hydraulic pressure drops. The
nitrogen in the bladder forces the fluid
out at a high rate of flow. In normal
operation the bladder should not
contact the poppet valve.

Checking the Bladder Accumulator

A bladder accumulator can be checked for heat much like a piston type. The
heat should be felt on the lower two-thirds of the shell. The heat is caused by
the friction of the oil inside the shell.
Heat
If the heat is felt near the bottom, then the nitrogen pre-charge is too high. The
most common cause of bladder failure is too high of a pre-charge. The
bladder will constantly cycle against the poppet valve each time it discharges
fluid. Either the poppet valve will fail or the bladder will pinch in the poppet
valve as it closes, cutting the bladder.

If no heat is felt on the accumulator shell then one of three things has
happened:
• The pre-charge is above the maximum system pressure.
There is no nitrogen in the bladder.
• The bladder is ruptured.
Another check that can be made is to observe the pressure gauge. This was
described earlier in the “Checking the Piston Accumulator” section.
If the heat is felt all over then the pre-charge is probably too low. The
pre-charge can be checked as previously discussed in this section.
Replacing the Bladder

Prior to installing a new bladder the inner shell of the accumulator should be
lubricated with hydraulic oil. This provides a cushion for the bladder as it
unfurls in the shell when nitrogen pre-charged. Slightly open the nitrogen
bottle valve when initially pre-charging the first 50 PSI. Otherwise the cold
nitrogen introduced quickly can cause the rubber to become brittle and
rupture.
Accumulators and Fixed Displacement Pumps

Although using accumulators with
pressure compensating pumps is
more common, occasionally a
fixed displacement pump is used.
A different type of relief valve is
used in this case. It is commonly
called an unloading valve. The
main difference between the
unloading valve and standard
relief is that the unloading valve
dumps the pump volume back to
tank at low pressure when the
accumulator is fully charged.

Once the accumulator is

pressurized to 1000 PSI the
unloading valve opens. The
path of least resistance for
the pump flow is now through
the unloading valve. The
pressure in the accumulator
maintains the valve in the
open position. The pump is
not exerting any force to hold
the valve open. Little heat is
created in this condition since
the oil returns to tank at near
0 PSI.
Accumulator Dump Valves

A circuit using a hydraulic accumulator must have a method of bleeding the
pressure down when the system is turned off. All accumulator systems should
use a manual or automatic dump valve to accomplish this. If the pressure is
not bled down then the accumulator will remain charged over a period of time.
Prior to working on the system you should verify that the pressure is
bled down by observing the pressure gauge when the machine is turned
off.
In some cases, the electric motor is turned off, however control power to the
system directional valves remains on. If a photocell, limit switch, or proximity
switch is made accidentally, the directional valve can shift causing the cylinder
to move.

Manual Dump Valve

The manual dump valve is
normally a small valve, ¼” or
less. Anytime the pump is
turned off and maintenance is
performed, the valve should
be opened.
Solenoid Operated Dump

Valve
The solenoid on the normally
open dump valve is usually
wired in to the electric motor
starter. When the motor is
started the valve will shift
closed, blocking flow back to
the tank. When the pump is
turned off, electrical power is
removed from the dump valve
solenoid. The valve spool will
then spring return to the open
position. The pressurized
fluid in the accumulator will
automatically bleed to tank
through the dump valve.

Pilot to Close Check Valve

When the pump is turned on,
pilot pressure plus the spring
pressure holds the valve
closed. Flow is then blocked
back to tank. When the pump is
turned off, pressure in the pilot
line will bleed down through the
internal clearances inside the
pump. Pressurized fluid in the
accumulator will shift the valve
open, dumping the oil back to
tank.
Differential Dump Valve

The valve is shifted open and
closed by hydraulic pressure.
The pilot pressure taken
immediately downstream from
the pump acts on a much larger
area than does the pilot
pressure that is sensed from
the accumulator. The area
difference is usually a 4:1 ratio.

For example, if the larger

area is 1 square inch, then
the smaller area on the
opposite end of the spool is ¼
or .25 square inches. When
the pump is turned on, the
same pressure will be
exerted on both sides of the
spool. The valve is not
usually large enough to dump
the total pump volume back
to tank. For this reason the
pressure builds up.
With the same pressure

(1000 PSI) on both sides of
the valve spool, the valve
shifts closed because more
force is exerted on the larger
end of the spool.
Force to Shift Closed = PSI x Area
Force to Shift Closed = 1000 PSI x 1 square inch
Force to Shift Closed = 1000 lbs force
Force on Opposite End = 1000 PSI x .25 square inches
Force on Opposite End = 250 lbs force
When the pump is turned off, the valve shifts back into the open position
shown in the Power Off condition. The oil in the accumulator then returns back
to tank.

Accumulators for Shock

Hydraulic oil flows very rapidly through
hydraulic lines at 15-20 feet per second.
Shock occurs in the system when the oil flow
is suddenly deadheaded (blocked).
The relief valve at the pump cannot usually

respond fast enough to dampen the
pressure spike. If an accumulator is not
used then the pressures can momentarily
increase to 2000 –3000 PSI above the
maximum system pressure.
Example
In the “A” circuit shown, a 60 GPM pump is
used to supply fluid through a directional
valve and to a cylinder. The pressure builds
to 1000 PSI to move the load.
The cylinder rod

moves until the piston
fully extends. The oil
flow is now rapidly
deadheaded, causing
a pressure spike in the
system. The result will
be leaks at the pipe
threads, and possible
damage to the
hydraulic components.

An accumulator installed near the cylinder would absorb the spike when it
occurs. Accumulators that are used for shock should be:
• Installed as close as possible to the component it protects.
• Pre-charged approximately 100 PSI below the pressure required

to move the maximum load.
• 1 gallon or smaller in size.
• A bladder or diaphragm type. The rubber element will respond

faster than the piston type accumulator.

Accumulator Safety
The accumulator is the most dangerous hydraulic component in the system,
simply because it is a source of stored energy. Several safety procedures
should be followed when working with accumulators.
• Make sure the pressure is bled down out of the hydraulic system and
accumulator before working on or around the machine. Watch the
pressure gauge when the system is turned off. If an automatic dump
valve is used, then the pressure should gradually drop to 0 PSI. If the
pressure is not bled down, locate the manual dump valve. Open the
valve and recheck the pressure. In a quiet area, you can hear the
pressurized fluid returning to tank through the valve.
• Release the nitrogen pressure before removing the accumulator from

the system. If the protective cap cannot be removed, do not cut it off
with a torch. The compressed nitrogen can be released violently,
causing possible hearing and other physical damage.
• Never pre-charge with nitrogen pressure above the maximum

pressure of the accumulator. The maximum pressure is stamped on
the outer housing of the accumulator.

Flow Controls
To control the speed of a cylinder or hydraulic motor, the flow into it must be
controlled. This is done either by varying the pump volume or by metering the
fluid with flow controls. There are three variables that affect the flow through a
flow control:
• Orifice Size
• Pressure Difference between the inlet and outlet of the valve.
• Temperature of the oil
If any one of the three is increased, then speed of the actuator will also
increase. We will look at four types of flow controls and where each would be
used.

Fixed Orifice
The fixed orifice flow control has a hole
drilled through it of a specific size. The
fixed orifice is non adjustable. The
machine manufacturer will install a fixed
orifice to limit the flow to the actuator. It
should not be removed or changed to a
variable type. In many cases a fixed
orifice is used for safety purposes.
Sometimes a fixed orifice may actually
be a reduction in pipe size. For example,
a 1/8” line tapped of a 1” line.
Example
The fixed orifice is installed in the tank

line of the directional valve to limit the
maximum down speed of the lift table. A
production worker may stand on top of
the lift table as the product is fed down
the conveyor. Injury could result if the
orifice were variable causing the table to
drop too fast.

Variable Orifice
The variable type flow control can be
adjusted. The more the valve is opened
the higher the flow rate through the
valve. This is many times referred to as
a needle valve. The needle valve will
restrict the flow in both directions.
Needle valves are normally used on
hydraulic motors that are rotating in one
direction only.
Variable Orifice Needle Valve
In many cases, a check valve is

built into a flow control. This
permits full flow in one direction
and a controlled flow in the
opposite direction. In the example
shown to the right, 10 GPM is
entering the valve assembly. The
flow path of least resistance is
through the check valve.

When oil flows in the opposite

direction, flow through the check
valve is blocked. Only 5 GPM can
pass through the flow control.
When installing a flow control with

an internal check valve, look for
markings on the side of the valve.
There should be arrows indicating
the free and controlled flow
directions. In some cases, the flow
control symbol is shown or
stamped on the valve body.
Flow Control With Internal

Bypass Check Valve

Flow Controls and Fixed Displacement Pumps
A flow control used in a circuit with a

fixed displacement pump will cause
heat. In the example, the pump will
deliver 30 GPM to the system at all
times. The flow control is adjusted
so that 20 GPM will flow through the
valve and to the system. The
pressure on the inlet side of the flow
control will build to the relief valve
setting, 2000 PSI. The excess 10
GPM will return to tank through the
relief valve, generating heat. A
portion of the electric motor
horsepower is converted into heat.
HP converted to Heat = GPM x PSI .000583
HP converted to Heat = 10 GPM x 2000 PSI x .000583
HP converted to Heat = 11.66 HP
For this reason, flow controls and fixed displacement pumps do not go well
together. Fixed displacement pumps should be used only when the total
pump volume is required to move the load. Pressure compensating pumps
only deliver the oil required by the system. If a pressure compensating pump
were used in the example, when the pressure reached the compensator
setting, the pump volume would automatically be reduced to 20 GPM.

Flow Control Locations

The flow control can be connected in the system in one of three ways:
• Meter In
• Meter Out
• Bleed Off
Some thought should be given

prior to installing a flow control
to the load that needs to be
moved.
Meter In
A flow control is connected in a
meter in arrangement usually
when a load needs to be lifted
or raised at a controlled speed.
The maximum pump volume
may be 20 GPM. With the flow
control set for 15 GPM, only 15
GPM will flow into the cylinder.
The pressure compensating
pump will automatically
de-stroke and deliver 15 GPM.
The oil exhausting out of the
rod side of the cylinder returns
to tank at low pressure. One
advantage is that as the
cylinder extends, there is no
pressure exerted on the rod
bushing and seals.

When the directional valve is

shifted to retract the
cylinder, the oil flowing out of
the full piston side is ported
through the check valve.
The pump will deliver
maximum volume and the
cylinder will retract at fast
speed.

Meter Out
The most common installation of a flow control is in a meter out arrangement.
The “B” flow control restricts the oil as it exhausts out of the cylinder. The
restriction of fluid causes the pressure to build up on the rod side. This
prevents the load from “running away”.

Shifting the directional

valve into the “B”
position directs the
pump flow through the
bypass check valve of
the “B” control. The oil
exhausting out of the
full side flows through
the “A” flow control.
The setting of the “A”
control determines the
retract speed.
Sandwich Type
Flow Control

Bleed Off
The bleed off flow control is not
connected in series with the load
as are the meter in and meter out
arrangements. In the example
circuit, the pump is supplying 15
GPM. The needle valve will meter
5 GPM back to tank, and the
remaining 10 GPM flows to the
motor. In a bleed off circuit the
extra pump volume does not
dump back to tank over the relief
valve. The oil returning back to
tank through the needle valve
does create heat.
In a bleed off circuit when the flow through the needle valve is reduced, the
actuator speed will increase. Besides causing heat, the other disadvantage of
a bleed off circuit is that flow through the valve will remain the same regardless
of bypassing in the system. for example, if the pump volume, due to wear was
reduced to 12 GPM, then the hydraulic motor speed would slow down. 5 GPM
would still flow through the needle valve, however only 7 GPM would flow to
the motor.

Pressure Compensating Flow Controls

Anytime the pressures in the system change with a standard flow control, then
the speed of the actuator also changes. Let’s look at what happens when a
standard flow control is used in a hydraulic motor circuit driving a conveyor.
In Figure A, the needle valve is allowing 7 GPM to the motor. The pressure
required to drive the conveyor is 1000 PSI. The pressure at the inlet of the
needle valve will build to the pump compensator setting, 2000 PSI. The
pressure drop across the valve is 1000 PSI.

If the conveyor were to

become more loaded,
then the pressure
required to drive the
hydraulic motor would
go up. In Figure B, the
pressure at the motor
has risen to 1300 PSI.
Pressure at the inlet of
the needle valve stays
the same, 2000 PSI.
The pressure drop
across the needle
valve is now only 700
PSI. Since the
pressure drop is less,
flow through the
needle valve is also
less, 5 GPM. The
hydraulic motor and
conveyor speed slow
down.
The pressure compensating flow control will

maintain a constant flow to the motor
regardless of pressure changes. In the
previous example, the flow would have
remained constant at 7 GPM to the motor even
though the pressure rose to 1300 PSI (Figure
B). There is a spool inside the flow control that
will shift in response to pressure changes in the
system. The spool will maintain a constant
pressure drop across the internal adjustable
orifice.
It is not important that you understand how the valve works internally, but you
should know that the valve can be used to maintain a constant speed even
though there are pressure and load changes in the system.

Temperature and Pressure Compensating Flow Controls
If a flow control is not temperature

compensated, then the flow will
increase through the valve as the
temperature of the oil goes up. Flow will
decrease when the oil is cold. This type
flow control will maintain a constant flow
through the valve regardless of
pressure and temperature changes.
Although it is expensive, it can be used
when extremely precise speed control is
required.
Lock

Flow Controls and Pilot Operated Directional Valves
Flow controls are many times

“sandwiched” between the
pilot valve and main spool of a
directional valve. The purpose
of the flow controls is to control
the speed that the main spool
shifts. This keeps the spool
from slamming and prevents
spring breakage. The flow
controls are connected in a
meter out arrangement.

Flow Controls and Suspended Loads
When lowering a suspended load, the

weight of the load itself can be used to
force the load down. The rod side line of
the cylinder can be connected to the
reservoir underneath the fluid level. To
raise the load the directional valve is
energized in the “A” position. The “A”
flow control will meter the fluid in to the
cylinder as it raises. To lower the
cylinder the directional valve is shifted
into the “B” position. Notice that the “B”
port of the directional valve is plugged.
The weight of the load forces the fluid out
of the cylinder. The oil is metered out by
the “B” flow control.

Two Speed Lowering

A typical stacker circuit
requires the load to index
down once the boards are
fed on to the table. When the
table is full, the load is
lowered at a fast rate.
Initially to raise the lift, the

pump is turned on. Once the
lift reaches the top and the
pressure builds to the PSI
pressure switch setting, the
pump is turned off. When the
boards are driven onto the
table the LS1 limit switch is
contacted. This causes the
“A” solenoid valve to
energize. The weight of the
stacker forces the fluid out of
the cylinder and through the
½” flow control. When the
cylinder drops off the limit
switch the “A” solenoid is
de-energized and the
cylinder stops lowering.
When the stacker is full and

the LS2 switch is contacted,
the “B” solenoid is energized.
The table will then lower at
fast speed. The fast down
speed is determined by the
1” needle valve setting.

Problems with Flow Controls

• The wrong type flow control is installed. The most common
mistake is that a standard flow control is installed when a pressure
compensating type is required. Anytime the speed of an actuator
needs to be constant regardless of load changes, a pressure
compensating type should be used.
• Flow controls cause heat. Anytime oil flows from a higher to a lower
pressure, heat will be generated. The heat is absorbed in the oil. The
pump GPM should be matched to the volume requirements of the
system as much as possible. Use pressure compensating pumps

when using meter in and meter out circuits.
• Flow controls are trash catchers. Because a flow control reduces

the oil flow path to a smaller size, it is more likely to plug up with
contamination. In many applications the flow control is wide open and
doesn’t meter the fluid. The valve should be removed if not used as it
will only cause a problem sooner or later.

Accumulator and Flow Control

Exercise
1. In the circuit below, 1000 PSI is required to move the load. Connect the
No. 1 relief valve pilot line so that when the No. 2 accumulator is filled, the
pump volume will dump to tank at low pressure. Then answer or draw in
the following:
A. What should the relief valve setting be? ____________PSI
B. The No. 2 accumulator is used for volume purposes. What is the correct
nitrogen pre-charge? ______________ PSI
C. The No. 3 accumulator is for shock. What is the correct nitrogen

pre-charge? ________________PSI
D. Draw a flow control in line A so

that the accumulator will fill
rapidly but the discharge rate
can be controlled.
E. Draw a solenoid operated

dump valve in the circuit. It
should dump the accumulator
volume when the solenoid is
de-energized.

2. To get the piston to the top of the accumulator for removal, list the
instructions for operating valves 1, 2 and 3. NO means normally open, NC
means normally closed.
1st Step________________________
2nd Step_______________________
3rd Step_______________________

3. What two checks would you make to be sure an accumulator used for
volume is operating properly?
1. _____________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________
4. If no heat is felt on a bladder accumulator, one of two things has happened.

They are:
1) _____________________________________________________
2) _____________________________________________________

5. Draw a bypass check valve around the flow control so that the motor can
turn at a slow controlled speed in the clockwise (cw) direction, but at a fast
speed counter clockwise (ccw). The directional valve shifts into the “A”
position to drive the motor clockwise.

6. Both needle valves are set exactly the same. Circle the correct answer.
a) Motor A turns faster
b) Both motors turn at the same speed
c) Motor B turns faster
A B

Hydraulic Motors
Hydraulic Motors
Hydraulic motors are rated in cubic inches
per revolution. For example, a motor may
have a displacement of 50 cubic inches.
This means that 50 cubic inches of oil is
required to rotate the motor shaft 1 time.
The displacement effects the speed and
torque a motor can develop. The larger the
displacement, the more torque can be
developed by the motor and the slower the
speed.
Motor symbols with a single internal arrow

indicates that the motor turns in one
direction only. The motor shown to the right is
internally drained. This means that the oil
that bypasses internally and collects behind
the shaft seal is drained to the motor outlet.
The tank line pressure should not exceed the
pressure rating of the shaft seal.
Single Direction Motor

Most hydraulic motors that are built today are
bi-directional. Many times on the hydraulic
schematic, it may be shown as a
unidirectional motor because the machine
itself only runs in one direction. On systems
where the motor rotates in both directions,
one of two things is done to prevent blowing
the shaft seal:
• A high pressure shaft seal is used
• The motor is externally drained.

Bi-Directional Motor

Hydraulic Motors
Some of the internal gear type motors

(Char-Lynn, for example) do have high
pressure seals and external drains are not
required. Vane and piston type motors
usually have external drain lines. These
drain lines should be piped directly back to
tank terminating below the fluid level. The
drain line should not be piped in with return
lines. Maximum pressure in the drain line
should not exceed 5-25 PSI, depending on
the type motor being used.
Radial Piston Motors

Radial piston motors are
used on low speed, high
torque applications. This
motor operates very similar to
a car engine. A rotary valve
spool, also known as a
distributor, directs fluid to and
from the motor pistons. The
distributor shaft is coupled to
the motor drive shaft.
If the coupling wears then the

motor can get out of time.
Just like a car engine it may
run very erratically or not at
all. On some motors you can
remove the distributor and
check the coupling for wear.
Be sure to observe the timing
marks on the distributor and
motor drive shafts when
removing.
When the motor shaft is horizontal as shown, the top drain connection should
be used to keep fluid in the motor case at all times. Case pressures in radial
piston motors can be slightly higher than the vane and piston motors. On the
Staffa motor, the standard shaft seal is rated at 45-50 PSI.

Hydraulic Motors
On Staffa motors, the outlet pressure must be higher than the case drain
pressure. A back pressure check valve may be required for this purpose.
When the Staffa motor is braking there must be low pressure at the motor inlet
to prevent cavitating and destroying the motor.
Motors and Crossport Relief Valves

Crossport relief valves perform two
functions in a hydraulic motor circuit.
• Absorb shock when initially

starting the motor.
• Brake the motor when stopping.
When the directional valve in the example

first energizes, oil is ported to the motor.
An immediate pressure spike will occur
because of the fluid deadheading into the
motor. The crossport in the pressure line
will open momentarily and dump the
pressure spike to the low pressure side of
the loop.

Hydraulic Motors
When the valve is de-energized after driving the motor, the inertia of the
moving load will tend to drive the motor. The motor will momentarily turn into a
pump. Since the A and B ports are blocked, pressure will build up at the motor
outlet. The relief valve in the outline line will then open and “brake” the motor
to a stop.
The oil flowing out of the crossport flows back into the motor inlet. Because of
the external case drain, there is less oil flowing out of the motor than what
initially went in. A vacuum will be created at the motor inlet because there is
less oil at the inlet than what the motor needs. The vacuum pressure pulls the
oil out of the reservoir, through the check valve and into the motor.
Crossport Reliefs in a hydraulic circuit should be:
• Located as close as possible to the hydraulic motor.
• Set 200-400 PSI above the compensator setting. Crossport reliefs

are direct operated type relief valves. They crack open at a much
lower pressure than when full open.
Crossport Adjustment Procedure

In any hydraulic circuit, the highest pressure valve(s) should be set first. The
following procedure can be used.
1. Observe the pressure gauge while running to determine the maximum

operating pressure. In the example the operating pressure is 1800 PSI.
2. Turn the pump off and plug off the lines going from the crossports to the
hydraulic motor. Prior to removing the lines, actuate the directional
manually in the “A” and “B” positions, allowing the pressure to bleed
down to 0 PSI.
3. Turn the main relief and both crossports full CCW. Turn the pump
compensator full CW.
4. Turn the pump on; there should be low pressure on the gauge.
5. Turn the relief valve CW until the correct setting is reached (2250 PSI in
the example).

Hydraulic Motors
6. Energize the directional valve in the “A” position and turn the “A”
crossport adjustment CW until the correct setting is reached (2200
PSI).
7. Energize the directional valve in the “B” position and repeat step 6 for
the “B” crossport.
8. Turn the pump compensator CCW to 2000 PSI.
9. Turn the pump off, manually actuate the directional valve in both
directions several times to bleed the pressure to 0 PSI. Then remove
or isolate the gauge and re-connect the lines to the motor.
Brake Valve
The brake valve is a normally closed pressure control valve. The valve
performs two functions in a hydraulic motor circuit.
• Prevents the motor from “running away” or overspeeding due to the

inertia of the moving load.
• Stops the motor smoothly.
There are two pilot lines that control the brake

valve. The external pilot line is ported to a
much larger area of the valve spool than the
internal pilot line is. The area difference is
usually a 3:1 or 4:1 ratio. Since the remote
line pressure acts on a larger area, it will shift
the valve open at a lower pressure than will
the internal pilot pressure. The remote line is
pressurized when driving the motor. The
internal line pilot pressure will open the valve
when braking and stopping the motor.

Hydraulic Motors
Example
When the directional valve solenoid is energized, pilot pressure is directed to

shift the brake valve open. The motor can now rotate and drive the conveyor.
If the conveyor starts driving the motor faster than the pump flow is, the
pressure in the remote line will drop. The brake valve spool will shift partially
closed, restricting the oil coming out of the motor. This prevents the motor
from over speeding or running away.

Hydraulic Motors
When the directional valve is

de-energized, pump flow is blocked to
the motor. The motor will tend to
continue rotating. Pressure will now
build at the outlet of the motor in the
internal pilot line. A higher pressure is
required to shift the valve spool open.
For example, if the remote line
pressure opened the valve at 250 PSI,
then 1000 PSI is required in the
internal pilot line to hold the spool
open. The 1000 PSI back pressure at
the motor outlet brakes and eventually
stops the motor. As the motor is
braking, a vacuum is created at the
motor inlet. Oil flows from the
reservoir, through the check valve and
into the motor, preventing cavitation.
Motor Speed Control

For precise speed control of a motor a
meter in or meter out circuit should be
used. On motor drives where the load
constantly changes, a pressure
compensating control should be used.
A pressure compensating flow control
will maintain a constant flow through
the valve regardless of pressure
changes in the system.
Internally Drained Motors

On internally drained motors, a meter in flow
control will generally control the speed as
well as meter out flow control. This is
because any bypassing is drained to the
outlet of the motor.
There are advantages to both meter in and

meter out circuits. An advantage to the meter

Hydraulic Motors
in is that there is little or no back pressure at the motor outlet. This reduces the
pressure required at the motor inlet to turn the load. Another advantage to the
meter in is that the pump compensator or relief valve pressure is not always
present at the motor inlet as it is in a meter out circuit. Anytime a load that
tends to “run away” is driven, a meter out control should be used.
Externally Drained Motors
Meter In
In the circuit shown, a pressure
compensating flow control is set to
meter 50 GPM to the motor. With
the pressure required to move the
load at 500 PSI, 1 GPM is flowing
out the case drain. 49 GPM is
actually used to rotate the motor
shaft.
When the pressure increases to

1000 PSI to drive the motor, flow
through the flow control stays the
same, 50 GPM. Because the
pressure is higher the motor will
bypass more fluid. Only 48 GPM
is used to drive the motor. The
motor will slow down.

Hydraulic Motors
Meter Out
The flow control is now
connected in the tank line and
set for 50 GPM. Back pressure
created by the flow control
causes the pressure to rise to
the compensator setting, even
though it only takes 500 PSI to
drive the smaller load. System
pressure (1200 PSI) causes
the motor to bypass 2 GPM.
The meter out flow control is
only concerned with the oil that
exhausts out of the motor, 50
GPM. 50 GPM is used to drive
the motor at this time.
It now requires 1000 PSI of the

total system pressure to drive
the larger load. Pressure at the
motor inlet stays at 1200 PSI
because of the restriction
created by the flow control.
Since the pressure at the motor
inlet has not changed, case
drain flow remains at 2 GPM.
Should the motor become worn
and bypassing increase, the
speed will remain the same
because the meter out flow
control maintains 50 GPM at
the motor’s outlet.

Hydraulic Motors
Motors In Series
Internally Drained Motors

Hydraulic motors that are connected in a series arrangement will all turn at the
same speed. The oil that flows into the first motor (30 GPM), also flows into the
second motor. The oil that exhausts out of the second motor (30 GPM) flows
into the third motor.

Hydraulic Motors
Motors that are connected in series are usually used on lightly loaded
applications. The pressure at the inlet of the “A” motor has to be high enough
to drive all three motors. In the example, 500 PSI is required to drive motor C.
The 500 PSI exerts a back pressure on the outlet of motor B. Before motor B
can turn, the pressure has to be high enough to overcome the 500 PSI back
pressure, plus whatever is required to turn it’s own load (500 PSI). Therefore,
1000 PSI is required at the inlet of motor B.
The 1000 PSI at the inlet of B exerts a back pressure on motor “A”. If the load
on motor A requires 500 PSI, then 1500 PSI is needed to drive all three
motors.
Any bypassing of internally drained motors is ported to the inlet port of the next
motor (except motor C in the forward direction). The bypassing of one motor
will not effect the other two. For example, if motor A is bypassing, motors B
and C continue to receive 30 GPM. Motor A will turn slower than B and C in
this case.
Motors that are internally drained all have a maximum back pressure rating at
the motor outlet. If this pressure is exceeded, the shaft seal will blow out.
Many times series motors are externally drained for this reason.
Externally Drained Motors

The bypassing of externally drained motors will effect the flow going into the
next motor. In each
of the motors, 1
GPM of leakage is
flowing out of the
case drain line. In
this case motor A
will turn slightly
faster than B, and B
will turn a little
faster than C. The
check valve will
maintain oil in the
motor cases.

Hydraulic Motors
On gear and vane type motors, the oil that flows out of the case drain is only
the oil that bypasses the non moving components (port plates, seals, and
bearings). This flow may not change that much over a period of time. On
piston type motors, the oil bypasses the moving pistons. This flow can be
checked to determine which motor is bypassing.
On series motors, any motor that stalls will prevent the other motors from
turning. The best check to make is, with the system off and all lines at 0 PSI,
disconnect the hose at the outlet of the first motor. Run the line into a container
or back to the reservoir and start the system. If the motors turns then that
motor is obviously good. Reconnect the hose, and make the same check with
the next downstream motor. Continue checking each motor outlet line until
the bad motor is found.
The other consideration on series motors that

stall is that the load may exceed the pressure
available at the inlet of the first motor. The
system should be observed for a mechanical
jam up.
Motors in Parallel
Motors connected in a parallel arrangement
are normally used to drive heavy loads. Motors
connected in parallel must have a common
load or use a flow divider. Otherwise, the oil
will take the path of least resistance and drive
the motor with the lightest load.
The advantage of connecting motors in parallel

is that system pressure is available to drive
each motor. This was not the case with series
connected motors. In the example, 1500 PSI is
acting on each motor to move the load. Twice
the torque to drive the load is created with two
motors in parallel. Remember, that with
hydraulic motors, torque depends on the
pressure and cubic inch displacement. Twice
the displacement is available with two motors
than with a single motor.

Hydraulic Motors
Motors in parallel will split the incoming pump flow. With the pump delivering
30 GPM, 15 GPM will flow into each motor. One motor cannot turn without the
other since they are driving a common load.
Flow Dividers and Parallel Motors

To drive parallel motors at the same speed that do not have a common load, a
flow divider is used. Pressure compensating flow controls can also be used,
however a flow divider is more common.

Hydraulic Motors
The flow divider normally consists of two or more gear sets in a single housing.
Some dividers use a sliding pool to divide the flow. The gear sets have a
common shaft between them. A 50/50 ratio divider will split the inlet volume
equally to the outlet ports. Flow dividers can also be used to synchronize the
speed of two cylinders that do not have a common load.
The purpose of the relief valves is two fold:
• Absorb Shock
• Allow one motor to continue turning if one motor stalls.
The reliefs should be set 400 PSI above the pressure required to drive each
motor. See the crossport relief valve section for the proper adjustment
procedure.


Servo and proportional valves are
used to precisely control the position or
speed of an actuator. The valves are
different internally but perform the
same function. Both valves operate
from a variable D.C. voltage. Normally
a positive voltage will shift the valve
spool into the “A” position, a negative
voltage will shift the valve spool into
Servo Valve
the “B” position. The valve spool shifts
directly proportional to the strength of
the D.C. Signal.
Proportional Valve
The higher the voltage the more oil can

flow through the valve. The valve
controls both the direction and speed of
the actuator. Filtration to the servo valve
is normally 3 micron. Most proportional
valves only require 10 micron filtration.
Although proportional valves have
improved in recent years, servo valves
can position a cylinder to within .001”.
Proportional valves on the same system
would achieve .020” - .040” accurately.
Servo Valve

Servo Valve Operation

When there is no voltage to the valve coil the flapper is centered between the
two nozzles. This creates an equal pressure on both sides of the main spool,
holding it in the closed center position. If the valve is out of null, then there will
be a small amount of flow from the P port to either the “A” or “B” ports causing
the actuator to drift. Nulling the servo is explained later in this section.

When a D.C. voltage is applied to the valve coil, the torque motor rotates,
moving the flapper closer to the left nozzle. Pilot pressure builds up on the left
side of the main spool. The valve spool shifts, connecting the P to A ports and
the B to T ports. As the spool shifts, the feedback wire bends.

The spool will continue shifting until the torque on the feedback wire
overcomes the electrical force on the torque motor. At that time the torque
motor is returned to the horizontal position. At the same time, the flapper
re-centers between the two nozzles. This causes an equal pressure on both
sides of the main spool once again. The main spool stops shifting and remains
in that position until the voltage is changed. The higher the voltage to the coil,
the more the valve spool will shift.

Proportional Valve Operation

The proportional valve is similar in operation to a standard controlled,
hydraulic piloted directional valve. The main difference is that the positions of
the main and pilot spools are electrically indicated by an LVDT (Linear
Variable Differential Transformer). This allows the main spool to shift in direct
proportion to the voltage applied to the pilot valve coil.
The pilot valve usually has four

positions. When there is no signal
from the amplifier the pilot valve
spool will be in the “float” position.
The pilot valve is only in this position
in the power off mode or if the
voltage signal from the amplifier is
0. This is sometimes known as the
“fail safe” position.
Power Off

The main spool will spring return to the closed position whenever the pilot
valve spool is in the fail safe position. Flow from the pump and accumulator is
then blocked to the cylinder or motor. Some systems will remove the voltage
to the pilot valve if the main spool LVDT signal fails. If the linear positioner
does not move to the proper position or the transducer fails, the voltage to the
pilot line may also be removed.
Valve Shifting
When a 5 volt signal is applied to the pilot valve coil the pilot valve spool shifts
into the “A” position. Pilot pressure is then directed to shift the main spool into
the “A” position. As the spool shifts, the LVDT’s send voltage signals back to
the valve amplifier proportional to the spool movement. The AC signals sent
back by the LVDT’s are converted to a D.C. signal inside the amplifier. The
main spool continues shifting until the converted D.C. signal from the LVDT
equals the command voltage. At that time the pilot valve spool is electrically
shifted closed, blocking flow to the main spool. The LVDT on the pilot valve
indicates when the pilot valve spool is in the closed position. To move the
main spool again the voltage must be changed to the pilot valve coil.

Main Spool Holding Position
Many amplifiers have a “Broken Wire” light that will come on if there is no
signal from the main spool LVDT. If the light flickers, this means there is a
loose connection.To check the proportional valve, there are two electrical
tests that can be made. The hydraulic supply should be off and any
pressurized fluid in the accumulator should be dumped to tank. Specific
instructions and terminals for your exact amplifier should be referenced.
1. Check the voltage to the pilot valve coil. If no voltage is present, then
there may be a broken or loose wire or no signal from the machine
controller.
2. Check the pilot valve and main spool LVDT’s. This is done by
checking the feedback signal from each LVDT with a voltmeter at the
amplifier. As the voltage to the pilot valve coil increases, so should
the feedback signal.

Linear Positioner
Cylinders used with servo valves have a
feedback device such as a Temposonic
transducer to indicate cylinder position.
The transducer tube fits down inside the
hollow rod of the cylinder. A magnet is
bolted onto the cylinder piston. Electrical
current pulses are sent through the
transducer tube. As the cylinder piston
moves, the magnet interacts with the
current pulses. This magnetic “strain”
electrically indicates to the transducer the
position of the piston. The transducer
then sends digital pulses back to the
machine controller indicating the precise
position of the cylinder.

Valve Amplifier
Most servo and proportional valves require valve amplifiers. The primary
purpose of the amplifier is to boost the signal from the computer to the servo
valve. There are adjustments in the amplifier that affect the D.C. voltage to the
servo or proportional.
• Gain is the amount that the voltage increases from the computer to the
servo or proportional valve. The gain should be adjusted so that the cylinder
moves at the desired speed. If the gain is too low, the operation will be
sluggish. Setting the gain too high will cause the valve to be unstable and
cause poor positioning of the cylinder.
• The ramping adjustment controls the amount of time that the valve spool
shifts. For example, if the gain is set to 10V and the ramp is set for ½ second
then the signal to the valve will gradually build to 10 volts in ½ of a second.
On amplifiers with a single ramp adjustment, the voltage will ramp down in
the same amount of time. Some amplifiers have separate adjustments for
ramping up and down. The ramps should be adjusted so that the cylinder
starts and stops smoothly.
• Dither is a 60Hz – 100Hz cycle A.C. signal that is applied to the valve coil.
The purpose of the dither is to maintain the valve spool in constant motion.

This prevents contaminants from building up between the valve spool and
housing. Any contamination would cause friction as the valve spool shifts.
The friction would affect the positioning of the spool. Many times the dither
is preset by the manufacturer and is non-adjustable. On systems where it is
adjustable, if it is set too high it could cause the cylinder or motor to rapidly
oscillate. Setting the dither too low could result in poor positioning.
Computer Control
Prior to positioning the linear positioner, an input signal is sent to the
computer. This is usually from a scanner of some type. When the scanned
information is fed into the computer, a comparison is made to the
pre-programmed data. A decision is then made to set the linear positioner to a
specific position. This is
known as the commanded
position. Whenever there
is a difference between the
commanded position and
the actual position of the
cylinder, a signal will be
sent to the valve amplifier.
The amplifier boosts the
signal to the servo, shifting
the valve spool.
As the cylinder extends,

the transducer sends
digital pulses back to the
computer. The number of
pulses represents the
position of the cylinder.
When the cylinder position
reaches the commanded
position, the computer
stops driving the valve
amplifier. With nothing to
amplify, 0 voltage is then
sent to the valve coil. The
valve spool returns to the
closed center position.

Troubleshooting and Adjusting the System
Nulling the Servo Valve

A valve that is out of null will allow
the cylinder to drift when there is
no voltage to the valve coil. The
main spool will be either in the “A”
or “B” position. This occurs
because there is a higher pilot
pressure on one end of the valve
spool.
The system should be at normal

temperature when nulling the valve.
To null the valve, the electrics should
first be disconnected. Remove the
null access screw to get to the allen
head null adjustment. On some
servos the null adjustment is located
on the main spool.

The null is usually a 1/8” or 3/16” allen head. If possible use a brass wrench as
it won’t interfere with the magnetism in the coils. Observe the cylinder drift
while nulling. The adjustment should not be turned more than 1 or 2 turns
maximum. When the cylinder stops drifting, the valve is nulled.
The null should not have to be continually adjusted once set. The valve can
get out of null if the temperature or pressure changes are more than
approximately 5%. Coolers and heaters on the reservoir should be set to turn
on and off to maintain a constant temperature.
Nulling the Proportional Valve

Depending on the type of valve that is used, the null or “bias” adjustment may
be in the amplifier or on the valve itself. On many valves made by Moog, the
null is located on the end of the LVDT housing. A threaded pan screw has to
be removed to access the allen head adjustment. The electrical cable should
remain connected when nulling the valve. Whether on the valve or in the
amplifier, the adjustment should be made in small increments until the drifting
of the cylinder or motor stops.
Servo and Proportional Valve Troubleshooting

When a problem occurs in a system, the first thought many times is to change
the servo or proportional valve. There are two problems with indiscriminately
changing these valves:
1. Servo and proportional valves are expensive! Of servos used in mills

today, the starting price is $1500.00 and it goes up from there.
2. When a servo or proportional valve is removed, the hydraulic lines

are immediately opened to airborne contaminates.

One of the first things that should

be done when a problem occurs is
to determine if it is electrical or
hydraulic. The best way to test this
is to unplug the electrical
connector to the servo valve and
plug a battery box in. If a battery
box is not available, a 1.5 volt
battery can be connected to the
wires.
A battery box will normally have an

on/off switch, a method for
selecting a positive or negative
voltage and an adjustment for On/Off
increasing and decreasing the Switch
signal. On the box shown, the Milliamp
position of the knob marked Selector
“Balance” determines the polarity
and strength of the signal supplied
to the valve coil. The box also
Polarity Selector -
contains a milliamp selector
Potentiometer
switch. Most servo valves operate
on a 10 - 80 milliamp current
signal. The switch should be set to
the “Lo” setting initially to prevent
overdriving the valve.
With the On/Off switch depressed and the “Balance” knob at 0, gradually
rotate the adjustment in one direction until the cylinder or motor starts to move.
As the signal is increased, the actuator should speed up. Once the On/Off
switch is released, the actuator should stop. Repeat the test by rotating the
Balnce pot in the opposite direction. The actuator should move in the opposite
direction and speed up as the signal is increased. Test boxes are also
available specifically for proportional valves. A box can be purchased from the
manufacturer of the valve. Proportional valve testers have the added feature
of reading the feedback signals from the valve LVDT’s.
If the cylinder operates correctly when driving the valve with the battery box
but moved erratically or not at all when it was operated normally, then the

problem is probably electronic. Keep in mind that you have broken the closed
electrical loop, so the cylinder will not move to a specific position. If the
cylinder operates OK when driving with the battery box, the linear positioner
should then be checked.
Checking The Linear Positioner

The feedback signal can be checked with an oscilloscope. Some machine
electrical controllers have built in diagnostics, which indicate the feedback
signal. If the transducer is bad, the cylinder will usually fully extend or retract.
One method of verifying that the transducer is operating is to remove the
probe from the cylinder, then run a magnetic device along the tube. If the
signal changes on the scope or computer screen, then the transducer is
operating.
The oil temperature in the hydraulic system should not exceed 1400F. Above
this temperature oil starts breaking down. Varnish or oil silting on the
transducer tube will cause erratic positioning.
Check the electrical plug where the transducer plugs into the electrical box.
Oil on this plug can cause transducer feedback problems. If the magnet is
loose or cracked on the piston, then erratic positioning can also occur. If the
cylinder is taken apart, the servo valve should be replaced with a flushing
valve prior to operating. If the transducer is sending the proper signal back to
the PLC then the problem would have to be in the PLC or valve amplifier.

If the problem still exists when driving with the battery box, then the problem is
in the servo or proportional valve, the hydraulic system or the mechanical
linkage. To isolate the problem, remove the valve and place it in a clean,
plastic bag. Do not put a new valve on at this time.
The next step is to install a manually

operated valve. Ideally a three position,
tandem center valve will make it easier
to test and flush the system. An adapter
block may need to be used to mount the
manual valve. If a three position valve
is not available, use a two position
flushing valve made specifically for this
purpose.
Three Position Valve
Operate the cylinder in both directions

by shifting the manual valve. If the
cylinder still moves erratically or not at
all, then the problem is elsewhere in the
hydraulic system or mechanical linkage.
The hydraulic power supply should be
checked as outlined in the hydraulic
pump section of this manual. The
mechanical linkage should be checked
for jamming or binding.
Flushing Valve

Flushing Valve
If operating the positioner with the

manual valve solves the problem, then
the servo valve is bad. The inclination
now is to install a new servo, but most
servo valves fail because of
contamination. Installing a new valve at
this time could result in immediate
failure.
The system should be flushed prior to

putting a new valve on. Some
manufacturers recommend installing a
low pressure flushing filter. The system
pressure should be turned down when
using this filter. If a flushing filter is not
available then the existing pressure filter
element should be replaced.
Operate the manual valve several times

once the filter element is replaced. This Flush System and Replace Filter
flushes the contaminants in the linear
positioner back to the tank. If a three position valve is used, return the spool
back to the center position. If a two position valve was used, replace it with a
flushing block.
The oil needs to be re-circulated for an hour or more if possible, although this is
not always the real world. After flushing replace the filter element with a new
one.

Hydrostatic Drive
Hydrostatic Drive
The Hydrostatic drive is used to drive a hydraulic motor at variable speed. A
bi-directional variable displacement pump controls the direction and speed of
the hydraulic motor. This type of drive is commonly called a “closed loop”
drive. The two ports of the hydraulic pump are hydraulically connected to the
two ports on the hydraulic motor forming the closed loop.
1. Main Pump
A piston pump is used in a
hydrostatic drive. The pump
volume can be varied from 0 to
maximum. In the illustration
shown, the pump swashplate is in
the vertical position, which means
that the pump output is now 0
GPM. To drive the hydraulic motor
forward, the swashplate will angle
and deliver fluid out of the “A” port.
Port B will act as the suction port.
To drive the motor in reverse, the
swashplate will angle in the
opposite direction. The “B” port
will then be the pressure port, and
the “A” port will be the suction. The
amount the swashplate angles in
each direction determines the flow
from the pump.
Basic Hydrostatic Drive

Hydrostatic Drive
2. Charge Pump
This is also sometimes known as the replenishing pump. The pump is usually
mounted on the back end of the main pump. The charge pump volume is
normally 10-15% of the main pump. The purpose of the charge pump is to
provide make up fluid to the system. On systems that use hydraulic cylinders
to stroke the main pump, the charge pump supplies the fluid to the cylinders.
Because of leakage at the pump and motor case drains, less oil flows out of
the motor than what the main pump is actually calling for. Let’s look at a typical
example.

Hydrostatic Drive
3. Charge Pump Relief

The charge pump relief provides a flow path for the excess charge pump
volume to return to tank. The relief is normally mounted on or near the charge
pump. The outlet flow of this relief is usually ported into the pump case. In the
system shown, the charge pump relief setting determines the pressure on the
low pressure side of the loop. This pressure is usually 180-300 PSI. On
systems with shuttle valves, the shuttle valve relief determines the pressure
on the low side of the loop. The shuttle valve is discussed later in this section.
4. Make Up Check Valves

The specific check valve permits free flow from the charge pump to the low
pressure side of the loop. At the same time oil in the high pressure side is
blocked to the low pressure side by the opposite check valve. The check
valves are usually accessed by removing the charge pump.

Hydrostatic Drive
Servo Case Drain
Stroking Cylinder
Charge Pump Relief
Charge Pump
5. Crossport Relief Valves

The crossport relief valves limit the maximum pressure in the system. If the
motor should stall, the relief on the high pressure side would open and dump
the fluid back to the suction side of the loop. The valves also absorb shock
spikes in the hydraulic system. To best absorb the pressure spikes, the valve
should be mounted as close to the motor as possible. The valves are
frequently mounted on the hydraulic motor. Set the valves 200 – 400 PSI
above the maximum operating pressure. Some drives may have a pressure
override, which operates similar to a pump compensator. On those systems
the pressure override should be set below the crossport settings.

Hydrostatic Drive
6. Hydraulic Motor
The speed and direction of the motor is determined by the hydraulic pump.
Maximum pressure to the motor is determined by the crossport relief valve
settings. The motor case drain flow should be checked (if a piston type motor)
and recorded for future troubleshooting purposes. On systems with shuttle
valves, the tank port of the shuttle valve relief is sometimes ported into the
motor case. On those systems, checking the case flow would not give an
accurate indication of bypassing.
Motor Stalled

Hydrostatic Drive
Pump Control
Mechanical Control
The two most common methods of varying the hydrostatic pump volume is
either by a mechanical connection or a servo valve. The mechanical control is
by a cable or other mechanical linkage. An operator moves a joystick or foot
pedal to stroke the pump. The GPM the pump delivers is directly proportional
to the amount the joystick or pedal is moved. If the pump is delivering fluid
when the joystick or pedal is centered, then the mechanical linkage may need
to be adjusted. The mechanical control is normally found on mobile
equipment and knucklebooms.

Hydrostatic Drive
Servo Control
Most hydrostatic drives operating in mills today use a servo valve to control the
pump. Servo valves are explained in detail earlier in this manual. A variable
D.C. voltage controls the direction and amount of flow the pump delivers.
Normally a positive D.C. voltage will shift the servo spool into the “A” position.
The amount the spool shifts is directly proportional to the strength of the
voltage. The charge pump fluid is then ported out the servo valve “A” port and
to the “A” cylinder. As the “A” cylinder extends to stroke the pump a
mechanical feedback from the swashplate exerts a force on the servo valve
torque motor. When the feedback force is slightly higher than the electrical
force on the torque motor, the servo valve spool returns back toward center,
allowing only enough oil to hold the piston in position. The fluid in the cylinder
holds the pump on stroke. Oil is now delivered out of the pump “A” port.

Hydrostatic Drive
The higher the voltage to the servo valve coil, the more volume the pump
delivers. To reverse the flow direction out the pump, a negative voltage is
applied to the servo valve coil. The pump will again stroke proportional to the
voltage and deliver fluid out of the “B” port.
When there is no electrical signal to the servo valve, the pump volume output
should be 0 GPM. If the hydraulic motor is drifting either the centering springs
on the cylinders need adjusting or the servo valve needs to be nulled. Nulling
the servo valve is discussed in detail in the servo valve section.
The oil flow to the servo valve is filtered by a non-bypassing element. The filter
can be found external to the servo valve or inside the valve block. If the filter
plugs then the pump will stroke very slowly or not at all.
Shuttle Valve and Relief

Although all systems do not have shuttle valves, it provides for cooling part of
the inline fluid. The purpose of the shuttle valve is to direct a portion of the flow
exhausting out of the motor back to tank. The oil is then ported back through a
cooler prior to returning to the reservoir. This permits a small volume of oil in
the main system to be cooled. In
the previous example, the
excess charge pump oil was
dumped to tank over the charge
pump relief. On systems with
shuttle valves, the shuttle relief is
set at a lower pressure than the
charge pump relief. The setting
of the shuttle relief determines
the pressure on the low pressure
side of the loop.
It is important that the pressure of the shuttle relief is set below the charge
pump relief. If set above, then the excess charge pump fluid will dump over the
charge pump relief.

Hydrostatic Drive
The shuttle valve and relief are many times bolted onto the hydraulic motor. It
may also be in the same block as the crossport relief valves.
Forward Operation

Hydrostatic Drive
Filtration
The fluid in the hydrostatic loop constantly re-circulates except for the oil flow
through the shuttle valve relief. The best filter arrangement is to filter the fluid
in both directions on each side of the loop.
If filtering is not done in both directions then when the pump tears up, the
contamination from the pump can go directly into the motor or vice-versa. The
filters should have visual or electrical indicators to indicate when the elements
are contaminated.

Hydrostatic Drive
Checking the Hydrostatic Drive
To effectively troubleshoot the drive some preliminary checks should be made

when operating properly to establish a reference.
• Charge pump relief valve setting. When the main pump is off stroke,
the charge pump relief setting will be indicated on all gauges in the
system. (The exception is where a two position shuttle valve is used).
• Shuttle valve relief setting. Check on the low pressure side of the
loop when driving the hydraulic motor.
• Operating pressure. Check when the drive has the heaviest load on
the machine. Check in both the forward and reverse direction.
• Crossport relief settings. The lines to the hydraulic motor will have to
be plugged or the motor stalled. If a pressure override is used, it’s
pressure setting should also be recorded. The crossports should be
200-400 PSI above the pressure override setting. Be careful not to
exceed the maximum pressure of the system components when
setting the crossports and pressure override.
• Check the current to the servo valve (if used). The RPM of the
hydraulic motor should be recorded for a specific D.C. signal to
the servo valve. Speed problems in hydrostatic drives are usually
related to either the incoming D.C. signal or the servo valve itself.
Some pumps have a displacement indicator: The indicator position
should also be recorded for a specific current to the servo valve.
• Motor case drain flow (if the motor is a piston type). As the motor
wears, more oil will bypass. Be sure to check when driving the motor as
excessive bypassing occurs when the pressure is at maximum. This
will not be an effective check if the shuttle relief tank line is ported back
through the motor case.
• Filter indicators. Filters usually have a color coded or other visual

indicator to show the element condition. If the elements are partially
plugged, the drive will slow down. The filters should be checked and
changed as necessary on a regularly scheduled basis.

Fluid Maintenance
Fluid Maintenance
The hydraulic oil performs four functions in the hydraulic system:
• Transmits Energy
• Coolant
• Lubricant
• Sealant
Viscosity
Viscosity is the rating of the
oil thickness or resistance
to flow. Viscosity is rated in
SUS (Sabolt Universal
Seconds). To measure
viscosity, the oil is heated to
a specific temperature
(usually 1000F) and then
poured through an orifice
into a container of known
size. The time required to
fill the container is the SUS
rating or number. Most
hydraulic oils have a
viscosity of approximately
150 SUS at 1000F.
The important fact for you to know about viscosity is that it changes with
temperature.
• Hot Oil - Low Viscosity
• Cold Oil - High Viscosity

Fluid Maintenance
Oil that is too hot will more readily bypass in pumps, valves and cylinders. The
bypassing causes additional heat and a slow down of the system.
The major problem with cold oil is pump cavitation. Cavitation is discussed
earlier in the pump section however, basically air is pulled out of the oil. The air
is compressed inside the pump causing eventual pump failure. Cold oil will
also cause the system to operate sluggish or erratic.

Fluid Maintenance
1. Reservoir
The reservoir has four primary functions in the hydraulic system:
• Allows the contaminants to settle.
• Oil Storage – It requires more oil to extend a cylinder than to retract

it. Presses that use hydraulic rams require a large reservoir to hold
the fluid when the press is fully open.
• Air Purging – Any air in the hydraulic oil will be dispersed to the
atmosphere at the reservoir through the breather cap.

Fluid Maintenance
• Oil Cooling – The reservoir acts as a heat sink by dissipating the

heat in the oil to the surrounding air.
The reservoir should be cleaned on a regularly scheduled basis. A thick layer

of sludge can form on the bottom of the tank and on the reservoir walls. The
sludge will prevent the heat from dissipating to the atmosphere.
2. Heater
In many mills, particularly in the South, the heaters are not wired up or
defective. The purpose of the heater is to keep the oil warm when the system
is shut down. Heaters normally have a thermostat for setting the temperature
range. The heater should normally come on at 700F and turn off at 1050F. The
heater is a high current device that is rated in kilowatts. Because of the high
current flow, the heater contacts can fail closed and continuously heat the oil.
The heater should be located relatively near the pump suction line or strainer.
3. Clean Out Plates

There are normally two plates, one on each end of the reservoir. These doors
permit access for cleaning out the reservoir. The plate gasket is normally
reusable.
4. Sight Glass
Oil should always be visible in the sight glass between the high and low marks.
The glass should be mounted so that when the oil is at the “low” mark, the level
is 3” above the suction strainer. Whenever the reservoir is drained for
cleaning, the sight glass should also be cleaned. It can become dark and
discolored over a long period of time.
5. Suction Access Plate

The suction line and access plate can be removed to easily pull the suction
strainer out of the reservoir. Although this plate is not a standard component
on all reservoirs, it allows easy inspection of the suction strainer. If this plate is
not included, then the oil has to be drained to check and clean the strainer.
6. Suction Strainer
The purpose of the suction strainer is to keep the “large” particles of
contamination out of the pump. “Large” in this case are particles above 74
microns in size. Some strainers may have a 149 micron rating. The strainer
should be removed and cleaned a minimum of once a year. It can be cleaned
by taking an air hose and blowing from the inside out. Some strainers have

Fluid Maintenance
internal check valves, which open and allow contaminated oil to the pump
when the strainer wire mesh is plugged. Those strainers without check valves
will cause the hydraulic pump to cavitate (pull the air out of the oil) when
contaminated. The problem with the strainer is that it is out of sight and out of
mind. Although more expensive, an external suction filter mounted outside
the reservoir is a better method of filtering. These external filters usually have
visual or electrical indicators to tell when the element is becoming
contaminated.
7. Level Switches
On many reservoirs two level switches are used, a low level warning and an
electrical motor cut off. The low level warning usually illuminates a light on the
operator’s panel.
8. Air Breather
The reservoir fluid level constantly changes as cylinders extend and retract.
The air breather is the first line of defense against contamination. The
breather element should have a 40 micron minimum rating. Breathers are
often ignored and not changed or cleaned. If the breather element is
contaminated then the air will come in the reservoir through a bad gasket or
rusty mounting bolt. The breather cap should be replaced at least once a year.
9. Temperature Gauge
The oil temperature of a well designed system should be between 1000 –
1200F. This will vary of course, with the season and reservoir location. The
operating temperature of a system should be recorded as a reference for
future troubleshooting purposes.
10. High Temperature Switch

This switch may be preset from the manufacturer anywhere from 1400 – 1600F.
Hydraulic oil starts breaking down at 1400F. for every 150 above 1400 the life of
the oil is cut in half. Usually when the high temperature switch actuates, the
unit is shut down. Sometimes a decision is then made to jumper it out. It
should never be jumpered out! Maximum setting of the switch should be
1600F.

Fluid Maintenance
11. Drain Valve

All reservoirs have a drain plug located near the bottom of the tank. On
systems where water enters by rain or washdown the reservoir can be slightly
tilted and drained by this valve.
12. Coolers
Two types of coolers are normally used in the industry, water and air.
• Water Coolers – The heat in the oil is

transferred to the water flowing in the tubes.
Water flow is usually 1/4 - 1/3 of the oil flow
through the cooler. A modulating valve should
be connected in the inlet water line to control the
water flow relative to the oil temperature. The
time of year to check a water cooler is in the
winter. A significant temperature difference
should be felt between the inlet and outlet water
lines. Water coolers are normally more efficient
than air cooled units.
• Air Coolers – The oil flow is directed through

tubes that are bonded to fins. An electric motor
driven fans blows air over the tubes and fins,
transferring the heat to the air. The cooler fins
should be checked and cleaned regularly. The
cooler should be located, if possible, where cool
inlet air is available.
• Bypass Check Valve – A 65 PSI check valve should be provided to protect

the cooler from becoming over pressurized. If the oil viscosity is too high
(cold oil) or the cooler stops up, then the oil will bypass through the check
valve. The check valve will also prevent damage to the cooler when high
flow surges exist in the system.

Fluid Maintenance
Cooler Locations
When installing a cooler in the line, the question that should be answered is
“Where is the heat generated?”. Since coolers are low pressure devices
(150 – 200 PSI) they must be installed in the low pressure lines in the system.
They may be in the following locations:
• In the case drain line of a variable displacement pump. There is

always a small amount of flow in this line. A low pressure check
valve (5 PSI) should be installed as a bypass to prevent the pump
shaft seal from blowing out.

Fluid Maintenance
• In the tank line of a relief valve. This is only an effective location if

there is flow through the relief valve while the system is operating.
On pressure compensating pump systems oil only flows through
the relief when the compensator fails closed.

Fluid Maintenance
• In the tank line of a directional valve. When the directional valve is

de-energized, the pump volume will recirculate through the cooler.
Energizing either of the the valve solenoids will direct the pump
flow to the system.
• In a dedicated filtering and cooling circuit supplied by a separate

pump.

Fluid Maintenance
Contamination
Particles of contamination in a hydraulic system are measured in microns. 1
micron equals 1 millionth of a meter. The table below compares microns to
inches.
The tolerances inside valves and pumps are very close requiring good system
filtration.
• Hydraulic Pumps and Valves – 5 microns (.0002) – 8 micron

(.0003).
• Servo Valves – 3 micron (.0001)
Sources of Contamination
New Oil
New oil leaving the refinery is relatively clean. It is transported through a
variety of pipes and hoses when transported to storage drums or the plant bulk
storage tank. During this process it picks up metal particles, rubber and other

Fluid Maintenance
particles of contamination. Condensate inside drums and tanks can cause

rust. When storing drums lay them on the side to prevent water from seeping
through and causing rust.
Oil should always be filtered prior to putting it into the reservoir. New oil meets
a 50 – 200 micron standard. A portable filter cart should be used when
transferring oil from the drum to the reservoir. The filter cart element should
have a 10 micron rating when filling non servo valve systems. Systems with
servo valves should be filled through a 3 micron element.
Built In Contamination
When a system is first built and installed contamination can be in the form of:
• Metal Chips • Burrs
• Dirt • Dust
• Sand • Weld Splatter
• Pipe Sealant • Paint
The way to remove these contaminants is through system flushing. Prior to

starting a new system, it should be flushed for 24-48 hours. The filters should
be monitored during this time period and changed as necessary.
Ingressed Contamination
There are four ways that contamination can enter the system from the outside:
• Breather
• Access Plate
• Hose and Component Replacement
• Cylinder Seals

Fluid Maintenance
The number one way that dirt gets in the system is in hoses. When hoses are
made, pieces of metal, rubber, dust and dirt can remain in the hose. The hose
should be flushed or, at a minimum, blown out with clean, dry, air.
Generated Contamination
As the system operates, contamination can lodge between the tight
tolerances of pumps and valves. System filters must be checked and
changed on a regularly scheduled basis to control the contamination.
Fluid Sampling
The biggest problem in hydraulic
systems is CONTAMINATION!
The key to controlling
contamination is through an
effective fluid sampling and filter
maintenance program. Fluid
contamination, viscosity, and
water content can be determined
by fluid analysis. One place to
sample the fluid is immediately
downstream of the pump.
Sampling from this location on a
regular schedule will indicate
pump wear caused by
contamination. In some cases
the sample may be taken
upstream of the return filter.
A tee with a quick disconnect can be permanently installed in the outlet line of
the pump to sample the fluid. The sample should be taken while the system is
running or immediately after shutdown so contaminants do not have time to
settle. The quick coupler on the sampler hose can then be attached to the
disconnect to run the fluid into the sample bottle. After the sample has been
taken the hose should be removed. The disconnect can also be used to attach
a gauge when necessary to check the system pressure.

Fluid Maintenance
Once the sample is taken, 1 ml from the sample is usually tested. The size and
number of particles are then determined by an automatic particle counter.
Let’s take a look at the contamination level of two servo valve systems. In the
table below, the particles 5 micron and larger and 15 micron and larger are
listed for the two systems:
These two systems can be charted on the Cleanliness Code graph to

determine the ISO cleanliness level. This is simply an international standard
for determining the cleanliness of the hydraulic fluid.
You can see that in System No. 1 the number of 5 micron particles and larger
(44) falls in the code 13 range. The number of 15 micron particles and larger
(13) falls within the code 11 range. Therefore, the ISO cleanliness level for this
system is 13/11. The recommended ISO code for a system with servo valves
is normally 14/11. A 3-5 micron absolute level will be achieved by meeting this
code. The absolute level indicates the largest spherical particle that will flow
through the filter. Since the 14 indicates a higher number of 5 micron particles,
this system exceeds the cleanliness standard.

Fluid Maintenance
System No. 2, however, does not meet the ISO 14/11 standard. The number
of 5 micron particles and larger (469) falls in the code16 range. The number of
15 micron particles and larger (94) falls in the code 14 range. The ISO
cleanliness code for this system is therefore 16/14.
Standard systems without servo valves do not require the cleanliness level
that servo systems do. The recommended ISO standard for non servo
systems is 17/13. This number may vary depending upon the type pump and
maximum system pressure. This equates to a 10 micron absolute rating.
The ISO code, in some cases, also counts the number of particles in 1 ml that
are two micron and larger. Servo systems should meet a 16/14/11 rating. Non
servo type circuits should meet a 19/17/13 standard.

Fluid Maintenance
Filter Selection
Hydraulic filters today are selected by what is known as the Beta rating or Beta
ratio. The Beta rating of a filter is the ratio of the number of particles above a
specific size upstream of the filter compared with the downstream particles.
For example, a Beta Rating of β3 = 2 means that for every 2 particles above 3
micron and above that enters the filter, 1 particle will pass through to the
system. This filter is said to be 50% efficient.
Filters in hydraulic systems should have a Beta rating of 75 to 100. The 75

rated filter is 98.7% efficient. For every 75 particles at and above the rated size
that enter the filter, only 1 will pass through. The 100 rated filter is 99%
efficient, which means that for every 100 particles at and above the rated size,
only one will pass through.
Filter Placement
There are primarily three locations for filters in the system (other than the
suction filter, which was previously discussed earlier in this section).
• Pressure Line
• Separate Recirculating System
• Return Line
Pressure Line
A pressure line filter should be installed if any one
of the following three conditions exist:
1. A servo or proportional valve is used in

the system. The filter should normally
be installed as close as possible to the
servo or proportional valve. The filter
should be a non bypassing type.

Fluid Maintenance
2. A fixed displacement pump is used and the

pressure exceeds 2250 PSI. At higher
pressures the pump may have more wear
and generate more contamination than at
low pressures.
3. A variable displacement pump that

operates in a system where pressure
exceeds 1500 PSI. As with the fixed
volume pump operating above 2250 PSI,
the higher pressure can increase the wear
inside the pump.

Fluid Maintenance
Return Line
The return filter is a low pressure filter. It
filters the return oil from the system just
prior to entering the reservoir. The return
line filter can be used as the main
contamination removal device as long as
20% of the system flow is ported through
it each minute. In some pressure
compensating pump systems the pump
may compensate more than 80% of the
time, making the return filter ineffective.
Separate Re-circulating System

One of the most desirable methods of
filtering is through the use of a
dedicated pump. The pump volume is
usually 10-25 GPM. This method is
essential if a pressure filter is not used
or the system volume does not pass
through the return filter at least 20% of
the time. In many cases a cooler is
also installed in the recirculating loop.

Fluid Maintenance
Maintaining Fluids and Filters

Once the ISO cleanliness
level has been established
and the filters are in the
proper location in the
system, the oil and filters
must be maintained. The
system filters should have
mechanical or electrical dirt
alarms to indicate when the
filters are contaminated.
The mechanical indicator

will usually indicate when the
filter is clean, near
bypassing, and totally
bypassing. These filters
should be checked on a
regular basis and changed
normally three or four times
a year.
The ideal method of monitoring the

filter condition is through the use of
a differential pressure switch.
In the example, the pressure

switch will actuate when the
difference in pressure between the
inlet and outlet of the filter reaches
20 PSI. An electrical signal is then
sent to activate a light, alarm or
other type of warning device. If the
element is not changed and the
pressure drop across the filter
reaches 25 PSI, the oil will flow
through the bypass check valve.

Fluid Maintenance
Oil sampling also should be done at regular intervals. This will indicate that the
filters are doing their job. If the cleanliness level is not being met, then a filter
may need to be added to the system. It may also mean that the elements may
need to be changed at shorter intervals.
Hydraulic Leakage Control

Leakage is one of the biggest problems in a hydraulic system. Many times
leaks are “accepted” and lived with instead of finding the cause of the leak.
Several problems exist when leaks occur:
• Expense – Hydraulic oil costs $3.00 per gallon. A leak that drips
once per second will total 1 1/8 gallons per day ($3.38/day at
$3/gallon). In a month’s time the loss will be 33 3/4 gallons
($102/month). In one year’s time the loss will be 405 gallons
($1225/year). Keep in mind the above figures are for a single leak.
• Safety – Dangerous conditions exist to mill personnel due to

leaked fluid.
• Environmentally Hazardous – The EPA is setting stricter

standards and penalties for oil that is lost through leakage.
Causes of Leaks
The main reason that a hydraulic system leaks is because of a bad
installation. We will examine several causes and cures for leaks.
System Piping
• Use Proper Schedule – schedule 80 or 160 should be used when

piping pressure lines. Schedule 80 has nearly twice the thread
thickness of schedule 40 pipe. Schedule 40 can be used in the low
pressure lines in the system (suction and return lines).
• Apply Sealant Properly – pipe dope or Teflon tape is not

recommended. A good hydraulic sealant should be used and
applied to the male end only. Start two threads from the end to
prevent contaminating the system.

Fluid Maintenance
• Proper Clamping – A beam or conduit clamp is not acceptable in

the pressure line of a hydraulic system. They are not built to hold
the pipe when pressure spikes occur in the system. A good
hydraulic clamp should be used with a wood or UHMW type insert.
The clamp can be bolted down, however a better mount is usually
achieved when it is welded down.
A good rule of thumb when

installing clamps is to space
them approximately 5 feet
apart. A clamp should also be
placed 6 inches from where the
pipe terminates. The pipe
should rarely terminate rigidly
into a valve manifold or
cylinder. A hose should always
be installed to absorb hydraulic
shock. The only exception is a
cylinder or motor that must
maintain a load in the raised
position.

Fluid Maintenance
• Use Pickled Pipe – pickled pipe is simply pipe that has been
chemically treated internally to flush out pipe scale and other
contaminants. Pipe scale, burrs, and thread flakes can cause
pump, cylinder and valve seals to leak. Although pickled pipe is not
always readily available it should be used whenever possible.
• Use Socket Weld Flanges – socket weld flanges are

recommended over threaded flanges. By eliminating the pipe
threads a leak path is prevented. Also, 4-bolt socket weld
connections are recommended for connecting pipe instead of pipe
unions.
Hose Installation
• Proper Crimping – Usually nearly everyone in the maintenance
department makes hoses. Hoses are many times made hurriedly
because the machine is down. A crimper should be used that
everyone understands and is easy to use. One of the main
reasons hoses fail is because of a bad crimp. The crimp ferrule
diameter should be measured and checked to ensure a good
crimp.

Fluid Maintenance
• Proper Length – Hose length should normally not exceed 3-4 feet.
Hoses that are too long end up rubbing on another hose, a catwalk,
or a beam. When a system pressure spike occurs, the hose will
absorb some of the shock. The length of the hose can change by
+2% or –6%. The hose should be made long enough so that the
hose has a slight bend to absorb these shock spikes. The hose
should not be twisted as this will tend to loosen the fittings.
• Protective Sleeves – When there are several hoses in close

proximity to one another, a protective sleeve should be installed to
prevent rubbing. Sleeves may also be required where the hose
may come in contact with a hot machine surface.

Fluid Maintenance
Drain Lines
• Hydraulic Pump and Motor Drains – Variable displacement pumps
usually have an external case drain line that should be piped
directly back to tank. Maximum pressure in the drain line is
normally 5-10 PSI. If this pressure is exceeded the pump shaft
seal will blow out causing leakage. On most variable displacement
pumps and hydraulic motors the case drain line should terminate
below the oil level. This prevents siphoning of the fluid out of the
case when the component is turned off and it coasts to a stop.
Pressure Settings and Shock
• Pressure settings in a hydraulic system that are set too high result
in excess force. This excessive force is taken up within the system
itself. It shows up as leaky O-Rings, cylinder seals, piping, and
valve bodies. Properly setting the system pressure is discussed in
detail in the pump section.
Contamination
• Cylinder rod seals are not 100% efficient. A cylinder rod that is
exposed to chips, bark, metal or other contaminants will eventually
have rod seal leakage. A protective cover or rod boot should be
installed to keep the contamination off the rod.

Name:
Optional
Hydraulic Course Evaluation
I. Please Circle your Overall Reaction to this course on a scale of 1-9:
Negative Positive
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(Continue comments on reverse side if necessary)
II. How will you personally benefit from this course?
III. How will your company benefit from this course?
IV. Could you have used the techniques taught in this program in the past? If so,
please give a brief description:
V. Note to your Company about the training:
VI. Note to the Instructor about the course:

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Maintenance Hydraulic Troubleshooting

Maintenance Hydraulic Troubleshooting

GPM Hydraulic Consulting, Inc. is dedicated to improving the

C.A. “AL” Smiley, Jr.

founded and organized “GPM” in

GPM’s Training Coordinator, joined the

entered GPM’s organization in January of

joined GPM’s team of hydraulic

Training and Consulting Services

Maintenance Hydraulic Troubleshooting

This workshop is similar to a “Basic Hydraulics”

Training and Consulting Services Page 1

Troubleshooting Board Mill Hydraulics

This program is designed and taught on your in-plant

Troubleshooting Injection Molding Hydraulics

This in-plant workshop is designed and taught on the

Page 2 Training and Consulting Services

Troubleshooting Papermill Hydraulics

This hands-on course is designed and taught on the

Troubleshooting Corrugated Hydraulics

This workshop is two (2) hydraulic courses combined

Training and Consulting Services Page 3

Troubleshooting Thermal Oil Systems

This is an in-plant program that is developed on your

1) The proper guidelines for changing a centrifugal pump.

2) The steps for bringing a stand by pump on line.

3) How to isolate and safely remove high temperature flexible lines.

4) How to vent and flush an expansion tank.

Time will then be spent in the plant to identify each

Page 4 Training and Consulting Services

Troubleshooting Sawmill Hydraulics

Troubleshooting Sawmill Hydraulics

This workshop is two (2) hydraulic courses

Training and Consulting Services Page 5

Troubleshooting Mill Hydraulics

This two, three, or four-day hydraulic workshop is

Page 6 Training and Consulting Services

1-Day and Management

The course is specifically designed for plant

This on site one day workshop is designed

Training and Consulting Services Page 7

Troubleshooting Servo Hydraulics

This one day workshop is designed for any

Troubleshooting Proportional Valves

This one day workshop will teach the student

Page 8 Training and Consulting Services

Maintenance Hydraulic Troubleshooting

This one day workshop is an abbreviated

Troubleshooting Sawmill Hydraulics

This one day course is designed and taught in

Training and Consulting Services Page 9

Page 10 Training and Consulting Services

It is often thought that a hydraulic system is

Training and Consulting Services Page 11

Page 12 Training and Consulting Services

Hydraulic Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1

Compressibility of Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1

Pascal’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1

Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 2

Hydraulic Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 4

Cylinder Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 6

Pressure Required to Move a Load . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 10

Cylinder Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 11

Hydraulic Motor Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 13