The Epochs

A quick guide to three English literary periods;

the Romantic era, the Victorian era and the 20th century (Modernism).

ENGLISH 6 and 7
Theo Goodwill/ Max Romell
The Purpose of this compendium:
This compendium is used as a means of introducing students to some of the historical
facts and events that have come to define the British culture and way of life. Since
English fictional works often explore themes, ideas, form and content which reflect
earlier norms and values, it becomes essential that students familiarize themselves with
some of the historical, political and socio-economic contexts that lend itself to various
literary works. For this reason, a good basic knowledge and understanding of the
literary periods presented in this compendium will not only help a student be able to
read and understand literary texts, but also help improve her/his ability to interpret,
evaluate and critically analyze both content and form in fictional works. Together with
this compendium, various films (documentary and fictional) will be used as references
when dealing with the three epochs: the Romantic era (roughly between 1785-1830),
the Victorian era (about 1830-1900) and the 20th century (from 1900 - ).
By the end of the course, students are expected to be able to:
• read, understand, interpret, give an account of, discuss, comment and draw
conclusions on contents and details of English spoken at a rapid pace and in
written English in various genres.
• to discuss and reflect on some features in different contexts and parts of the
world where English is used, and can also make simple comparisons with their
own experiences and knowledge.

To be able to achieve the abilities mentioned above, the core contents of this part of
the course include the following:
• Teachers must cover areas of the course dealing with concrete and abstract
subject areas related to students’ education, and societal and working life;
current issues; thoughts, opinions, ideas, experiences and feelings; ethical and
existential issues.

• Teachers must cover themes, ideas, form and content in film and literature;
authors and literary periods.

• Teachers must cover living conditions, attitudes, values, traditions, social

issues as well as cultural, historical, political and cultural conditions in
different contexts and parts of the world where English is used.

• Teachers must deal with works of contemporary and older literature and other
fiction in various genres such as poetry, drama and songs. Moreover, students
must be afforded the opportunity to evolve strategies to search for relevant
information in larger amounts of text or longer sequences of spoken language
and to understand implied meaning.

By the end of this phase of the course, students are required to participate in both oral
and written exams which are meant not only to show their basic knowledge on the
epochs, but also how well they are able to use writing as well as speaking to express
themselves and communicate their ideas.

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Introduction
Apocalyptic Expectations (background to the epochs)
The term apocalypse comes from the Greek word meaning "revelation". The term is
used in the Bible to refer to God's providential design for the end of human history.
An apocalypse is a prophetic vision that is highly symbolic of the forthcoming events
that will abruptly end the existing world order and replace it with a new and perfected
condition both of humanity and of the world.
The root elements of apocalypse are the concern of the Hebrew prophets with the
catastrophic punishments to be visited upon Israel and its enemies in "the latter end of
the days," as well as with the expectation of a Messiah, a deliverer from suffering in
this disaster-ridden world.
The phenomenon is of great literary importance because, during their formative
period in the early 1790s, the first generation of Romantic poets incorporated in their
poems a vision of the French Revolution as the early stage of the abrupt end of
history, in which there will emerge a new humanity on a new earth that is equivalent
to a restored paradise.

What is expected to create a new world

order/era?
A new era is informed by a new way of seeing
the world in terms of:
- norms
- values
- forms of expression
- ideals

The French Revolution influencing romantic

ideals
The French Revolution (1789) is a time when all Europe was thrilled with joy. France
is seen to be standing on the top of golden hours and human nature seems to be born
again. The fundamental credo of the French Revolution is

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LIBERTY
EQUALITY
FRATERNITY

The French Revolution had an important influence on the fictional and non-fictional
writing of the Romantic period, inspiring writers to address themes of democracy and
human rights and to consider the function of revolution as a form of apocalyptic
change. In the beginning, the French Revolution was supported by writers because of
the opportunities it seemed to offer for political and social change. When those
expectations were frustrated in later years, Romantic poets used the spirit of revolution
to help characterize their poetic philosophies. The Industrial Revolution, while
bringing about changes in manufacturing and thus improving the efficiency of
production, brought about a different and related reaction in literature that addressed
the rights of the labouring classes and improved labour conditions. This revolutionary
spirit prompted Romantic poets to put forward new theories about the function and
form of poetry.

Liberty Leading the People (French: La Liberté guidant le peuple) by Eugène Delacroix

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The Romantic Era
(1785 – 1830)

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Introduction to the Romantic Era
The Romantic era is a period that is recognized by the breaking away from earlier
norms to seek new forms of expression. Romantic poets and writers reacted against
highly regulated Enlightenment styles which they regard are responsible for strict
restrictions on human experiences. The Romantic writer often consider the so called
elites (bourgeois) who believe in social stability to be his enemy. Some of the ideals
that Romanticism stands for are looked upon as utopian. These ideals include the
empowerment of the individual over and above any authority.
The Romantic poet believes that changes can occur in his or her desire to identify with
a spiritual force. The typical Romantic poet believes that man is perfectible and that
moral as well as mechanical progress is possible. The Romantic period not only evoked
feelings of pleasure, it also expresses melancholy. Unlike the previous era,
(Enlightenment) Romantic poets embraced all forms of expressions, and feeling is
considered to be more important than reason.
Interestingly, these young idealists did not consider themselves as Romantics; they
were seen as independent individuals and it was English historians who labelled them
Romantics after their era had passed. Romantic poets and writers would not have
considered themselves as romantics since they were not popular until later in their
careers or after their deaths. This period, nonetheless, is a time in which many writers
were responding to similar events and ideas about the form and function of literature.
The period was socially turbulent and imported revolutionary ideas created social
conflict, often along class lines.
The main form of literature during the Romantic era was poetry, however, the era also
saw the introduction of the novel as another form of entertainment. Unlike drama, the
novel increased in popularity and prominence with two new genres: the gothic novel
and the novel of purpose. While the latter sought to discuss the social and political
theories of the day, the former was less educational and more interested in terror,
perversion, and mystery. An example of a gothic novel would be Frankenstein by
Mary Shelley.
The main objective of the writer during this era is the desire to provide a different
picture of the world and to provide insight into the unlimited resources of human
imagination, self-revelation, entertainment and carefreeness. The style of writing used
is unrestricted and often expressing subjective feelings which is recognizable in the
use of the first person narration (I form) – poetry is the ultimate, and the writer is a
genius.

Eight characteristic features of the Romantic period

• the beauty of the untamed, natural world
• attractiveness to rural life
• freedom
• imagination
• emotion

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 • lack of authority
• rights of the individual
• the gothic experience

The beauty of the untamed natural world

About 200 years ago, monarchy was falling to the power of people’s revolution.
Industries and commerce were becoming the driving forces of existence and advances
in science were changing the way life itself was understood. Artists all over the world
were inspired by these times of dramatic change. In Britain, a group of poets and
novelists pioneered an alternative way of living and of looking at the world; among
them were William Wordsworth, Mary Shelley and William Blake. Their writings
inspire us today with visions of nature. As a reaction to commerce, industries and
mechanisation of the time, Romantics saw an intense relationship with the natural world
and by so doing they would revolutionise our perception of life itself.
The Romantics in Britain noticed that the natural pulse and rhythm of life is being
overtaken by an imposed system of synchronised time. Public clocks were dictating
the daily life and activities of people, cities were being taken over by huge machines
of trade and they were forcing order and discipline into the lives of people. Their
homes, schools and workplaces were run according to clock time and obedience to
strict rules of human conduct. Romantics dream of a different world; therefore, they
emphasize the beauty that is inspired by untamed nature. Romantic poets are inspired
by the world of nature and that of spirits. The interaction with nature has for many of
the Romantic poets, mystical overtones. Nature is perceived not only as an example
and source of vivid physical beauty, but equally as a manifestation of spirit in the
universe. Romantic poets celebrate both the beautiful and the temperamental sides of
nature. For them, nature serves as an inspiration for thinking.
Examples of the way that the concept of an untamed nature is used in a literary work
can be seen in William Wordsworth’s poem I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud where he
continuously compares the narrator with different aspects of nature. Another Romantic
writer who emphasizes the beauty of untamed natural world in his excerpt from
Walden is Henry David Thoreau. In this excerpt the narrator chooses to live in the
forest in order to use all the influences of nature as a source of inspiration and growth
regardless of the pleasure or challenge it might provide. The wild unchartered
landscape is looked upon as a place of contemplation and healing for the Romantics.

Attractiveness to rural life

Rural life provides solace for Romantic writers. To wander without destination, to seek
out new territories, looking for new direction to pursue their new visions are acts that
are revolutionary in themselves. Romantic poets often glorify the ordinary and the
outcast. The encounter with ordinary people in the landscape may restore one’s faith
in human nature. The lonely road becomes schools for the Romantics. Ultimately, they
idealize humble and simplistic life-style. The Romantics propose a world where the
downtrodden must also be heard – they hope to relocate dignity in common place by
restoring grace and significance to ordinary lives where saints and heroes walk
unannounced and unknown. Their poems are to create a democratic world where the
ordinary and the outcasts have as much right to be heard as anyone else – in which
children and women also have a voice. They write poems on individual conscience and
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individual consciousness – everyone is different and everyone is unique. Rural life is
seen to be serene, gentle and natural. More than that, rural life is pure and allows for
spiritual ecstatic contemplation of nature. According to Romantic writers, a poet is a
reflective man who recollects his emotions “in tranquillity”.
The typical Romantic poem/film/novel might emphasize and glorify the simple way of
life that is often connected to the countryside. Focus in such work will be placed on
the importance of living an ordinary, humble and peaceful life rather than noisy and
superficial environment associated to urban life. An example of this can be seen in
William Blake’s poem London where he criticizes some of the ills connected to
industrialised London.

Freedom/rights of the individual

Freedom is very important to Romantic poets. A poet’s creativity is solely dependent
on the limitless possibilities of the world. Freedom is one of the main ideals from the
French Revolution and the Romantic poets holds it very dearly. The freedom of the
individual is one of the foremost credos in the idea of liberty/equality/fraternity that
symbolises the French Revolution. Taking inspiration from their poetic counterparts,
Romantic essayists prized a subjective viewpoint and often took on an
autobiographical tone. Individualism, infinite striving and nonconformity are strong
ideals and values of the Romantic era.
A poem/film/novel that tries to depict the concepts of freedom and the rights of the
individual may choose to explore a character who is constantly trying to do things his
or her own way, deliberately not conforming to rules, norms and popular conventions.
A good example of a character who seeks independence is the protagonist Neil Perry
in Dead Poet’s Society.

Imagination/ Gothic experience

For the Romantics, there is a belief in the instinctive, intuitive and mysterious rather
than the calculated and intellectual. Romantic poems and other romantic texts often
explore these aspects of human relationships, both the natural and the supernatural
(gothic). The Romantics believe that spontaneous childhood vision were the source of
adult inspiration. A child that is allowed to play and dream will become an imaginative
adult. Therefore, Romantic poets suggests that poetic inspiration is located not outside
in nature, but inside the poet's mind, in a "spontaneous" emotional response. With the
help of his imagination, he is able to come up with poetic expression in representing
the condition of the outcast, delinquent, and the supernatural.
In literary works, the gothic experience can be explained by emotions that writers
arouse in scenes that are connected to unusual, irregular and paranormal phenomena.
Romantic writers often question sets of values that relate to Enlightenment’s notion of
scientific, logical and rational explanation of the world and human experience. In
dealing with human experiences and feelings, Romantic writers prefer to dramatize
sensational and unexpected themes like incest, diabolism and horror. Romanticism
seeks to contradict the idea that human experiences can be pinned down to a set of
rules and category for them to be accepted. Rather, Romanticism forces upon the
reader the reality of all experiences regardless if they are logical and can be
scientifically proven (Enlightenment) or irrational and non-explanatory

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(Romanticism) – there is no clear distinction between the natural and the supernatural
world.
Examples of imaginative Romantic stories may focus on Gothic novels’ passionate
wild tales of mystery and terror, involving dark forces and ghosts. Mary Shelley’s
Frankenstein is one such gothic novel. An imaginative/gothic novel or film may also
choose to explore themes that seek to mystify and glorify medieval distant pasts by
making them exotic and ideal. Vampires as characters tend to possess supernatural
abilities and mystique in the way they are perceived – hence, they resonate dark force
and terror.

Emotion
Romantic poets are committed to strong emotions. Most of the poems of the period
often depict very strong emotions and passions. The beautiful aspects of the untamed
natural world that we read about in Romantic texts are often expressed in strong
emotions. Wordsworth writes, “all good poetry is the spontaneous overflow of
powerful feelings”. The Romantic writer uses everyday language to express
imagination and overflowing emotions often inspired by untamed nature. Examples of
untamed nature includes the portrayal of exotic locations, Medieval tales of Knights,
folk traditions etc.
Most singing artists and actors often use powerful emotions when they perform. The
idea behind this is to create a certain degree of authenticity that makes people relate to
the content of the song they sing or the character they portray. Since it is very important
for Romantics to express feelings and emotions rather than reason, they believe that
the overflow of emotion and imagination is at the core of an authentic life.

Lack of authority
Enlightenment brought with it a strong belief in knowledge and reason. To the
Romantic writer, the scientific Revolution and the Age of Reason that the
Enlightenment stood for created institutions which recognise only certain intellectual
and literary abilities. For that reason, individual experiences, rights and creativity were
not recognized by the bourgeois of the society. The French revolution changed all that.
For Romantic poets, the individual can create his/her subjective truth and a strong
belief that he or she is capable of attaining self-realisation and therefore does not
depend on any authority outside of “the self”. He or she has infinite striving and
yearning often for the unattainable.
A writer may choose to portray this characteristic feature by emphasizing a critical
questioning of institutions and custom driven ideas. A film producer may choose to
create a character who appears to be a lone-wolf where he or she deliberately chooses
to follow his or her own impulses rather than subjecting himself or herself to the norms
and values of the time. Into the Wild is a film that depicts a protagonist who chooses
to take risks by living in the wild (forest). This action seems to be instinctively against
our general notion of a dwelling place – most teenagers often choose to stay within the
safety and security of the modern home. A second example of a literary work that
portrays the same characteristic feature is the novel Catcher in the Rye by J. D.
Salinger. In the novel, the protagonist struggles to conform to the norms and rules of
the school he attends until he is eventually expelled.

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List of names of some Romantic writers and poets:

Anne Radcliffe - Gothic novelist, The Mysteries of Udolpho,

Percy B Shelley - Ode to the West Wind
Mary Shelley - Frankenstein
William Wordsworth - I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud
Samuel Taylor Coleridge - Kubla Khan, The Rime of the Ancient Mariner
Lord Byron - She walks in Beauty
John Keats - Ode on a Grecian Urn, Ode on Melancholy
Henry David Thoreau - Walden
William Blake - London
Edgar Allan Poe - The Raven, The Black Cat

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The Victorian era
(1830-1901)

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Introduction to the Victorian Era
The Victorian era was an age of contradictions. Embracing elaborate rituals and
conventions, many Victorians concerned themselves with the appearance of their
realities which means that they perceive themselves as progressive, morally superior
and tolerant. Yet the actual realities of Victorian England--child exploitation and
discrimination--were harsh and ugly. These contradictions produced some of the best
literature ever written in the English language, from the works of Charles Dickens to
the poetry of Robert Browning.
The term Victorian is associated to the period in history when Queen Victoria was the
Queen of England. During this time, a strict set of moral standards are applied on the
people by the aristocracy. The reason for this strict attitude for high moral standards is
because of the image of Queen Victoria and her husband Prince Albert, who were both
known to have very high moral values. On account of that, the British Society was
ruled by very strict moral standard.
Under a strict code of conduct, peoples’ behaviours were governed by certain rules and
etiquettes. Consequently, different members of society were expected to act and
behave in certain ways depending on the social class and gender they belong to. An
example to illustrate the differences in gender is the role that women were subjected
to. Women were expected to be home taking care of the house while men were
supposed to go out and work in order to provide for the family. Men from the
upperclass were supposed to act as gentlemen and women were expected to be
beautiful and “ladylike”.
One important thing that characterized the Victorian era was the emphasis on set of
values that support sexual repression, low tolerance of crime, and a strong social ethic.
The Victorian era is full of contradictions and it is also referred to as the period of
realism.

Seven characteristic features of the Victorian Era

• morality
• politics
• optimism for science, technology, philosophy and discovery
• social conditions
• literature
• women’s situation
• children’s situation

Victorian morality
For the Victorians, morality was very important in terms of the laws, rules, regulations,
norms, values and attitudes that govern the lives of the people. They saw the Romantic
era as a period of decadence (lack of boundaries and limitations regarding people’s
behaviour). In reaction to that, Victorians were expected to be law-abiding, honest and
respectful of the rules and regulations that govern the society - everybody is expected

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to know his or her place. People of the upper-class were expected to be role models
and set good standards that reflect a morally sound leadership. This is a period in which
England experienced many reforms as regard public and private behaviours.
While the laws that governed England were based on very strong moral standards, the
upper-class who were supposed to set good examples and enforce the law were often
dishonest and corrupt – this becomes one of the inherent contradictions about the era.
One way that Victorian morality is recognizable in a film/poem/novel is when
characters are expected to be polite, do the right thing and respect their own position
as well as understand the manner of behaviour that is required in both public and
private settings. In Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, Mr Darcy thinks too highly of
himself in terms of his position as a wealthy man to dance with people he considers to
be of lower class. A typical Victorian poem might promote themes and messages that
are connected to strong moral values. By the same token, a poet may depict characters
who represent honesty, decency and fairness in her or his poem.

Politics
The Victorian era is mainly characterized as a long period of peace. England enjoyed
the roll of a strong political, economic, colonial and industrial power. The period was
a time of dramatic change the world over, especially in England, with rapid extension
of colonialism through large portions of Africa, Asia, and the West Indies. Literary
works of the period portray England as a country booming. Most written novels show
that while Britain enjoyed a lot of successes in the world, a large number of its
population suffered under hardship and poverty. Novelists such as Dickens explored
some of the difficulties that everyday people endured during the Victorian era.
The later period (1870–1901) was a time of changing attitudes about colonialism,
industrialization, and the possibility of making scientific advancements. Some novels
of this period have stories with themes that show the cruelty of colonialism- Heart of
Darkness by Joseph Conrad is one example. Conrad explores some of the exploitations
and the general negative view that Europeans have towards the African continent and
its people. It is not uncommon that films and novels have English characters going to
serve in one of the colonies - this shows that England ruled over its colonies by having
officials over there.

Optimism for Science, Technology, Philosophy and Discovery

During the Victorian era, science grew into the discipline it is today. In addition to the
increasing professionalism of university, many Victorian gentlemen devoted their time
to the study of natural history.
Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published in 1859 and had a
tremendous effect on the popular mindset. The theory of evolution contained within
the work shook many of the ideas the Victorians had about themselves and their place
in the world and although it took a long time to be widely accepted it would change,
dramatically, subsequent thought and literature.
One other monumental work that began in this era was the production of the Oxford
English Dictionary which would eventually become the most important historical
dictionary of the English language.

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The industrial revolution led to the invention of electricity and electric lights were
introduced to the streets of London – however, it took many long years before they
were installed everywhere. The installation of electricity helped to improve literacy
and many developed the idea of reading novels as a past-time. This is of course in line
with the introduction of the printing press which helped in the publication of novels
and other literary works.

Social conditions (industrial revolution)

Industrial revolution led to a situation where many people moved from the countryside
into big cities to look for jobs. This led to urban problems like criminality, crowded
living conditions and a collapse in family structure. Sicknesses and diseases were
everywhere and people died very young. Pollution of the environment was caused by
the construction of industries and factories all around England. Exhaust fumes and
other forms of industrial wastes filled both the atmosphere as well as waterways. The
average life of the people was cut short, especially on account of atmospheric and
transmitted diseases.
The great social changes which happened in Britain during Victoria's reign as a result
of the latter part of the Industrial Revolution lead to changes in most literature. For
much of its history, reading literature had been the past-time of the aristocratic or the
learned; those who had the time and money to engage in the hobby or even to learn the
basic skills necessary. Many factors including the growth of universal education, the
affluence of Victorian society and the gas light served to make reading both more
accessible and desirable. Although it would still take a long time, British society was
slowly becoming literate.
One way to recognize this feature (social conditions) in a film or novel is when
characters migrate from rural areas to urban cities looking for fortune. Another
example of how this feature is recognizable is when a writer chooses as his or her main
focus a criticism of the social conditions that the people endured during the Victorian
era.

Literature
Victorian literature refers to the body of writing produced during the reign of Queen
Victoria (1837—1901) and corresponds to the Victorian era. It forms a link and
transition between the writers of the romantic period and the very different literature
of the 20th century. The 19th century saw the novel become the leading form of
literature in English as a result of the invention of the printing press. Most novels depict
the everyday life of people working in harsh conditions and struggling to make ends
meet. At the same time, people of the noble class are depicted as having fulfilling easy
lives.
Charles Dickens is still one of the best known English writers of any era. He
exemplifies the Victorian novel better than any other writer. Extraordinarily popular
in his day with his characters taking on a life of their own beyond the page, Dickens is
still the most popular and read author of the time. He was in effect a self-made- man
who worked diligently to produce exactly what the public wanted; often reacting to the
public taste and changing the plot direction of his stories. The writings of Dickens in
particular observe and record some of the social problems of the day. His novels also
deal with homelessness among a large number of the population as a result of mass

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movement of people from the countryside to big cities looking for jobs. Novels such
as Hard Times and Oliver Twist depict suspicious attitude toward the working class
people - furthermore, these novels also highlight some of the contradictions in
Victorian England.
Other contemporary writers of the time contributed through their writings to the urgent
demand for reformation. Their writings forced politicians and lawmakers to be aware
of the precarious situation that most people lived under. Therefore, many bills were
submitted to the House of Parliament forcing the establishments of social charities and
other philanthropic organisations as well as political movements (the Red Cross, the
Salvation Army and the Suffragettes). In this way, social justice and economic
conditions improved for the ordinary Englishman and woman.

Women’s situation
The Victorian era is symbolized by the reign of Queen Victoria and it was very difficult
on women because of the vision of the "ideal woman" shared by most in the society.
The legal rights of married women were similar to those of children. Women could not
vote or sue or even own property. They were seen as pure and clean and because of
this view, their bodies were seen as temples that should not be adorned with makeup
or used for such pleasurable things as sex. The role of women was to have children
and tend to the house. They could not hold jobs unless teaching young children. In
addition, women were not allowed to have their own checking accounts or savings
accounts. In the end, they were to be treated as saints, but saints that had no legal rights.
The status of women during the Victoria Era can be described as appalling due to the
norms, values, morals and cultural traditions that characterized the time.
During the Victoria era, the general public had a picture in their minds of the "ideal
woman". They were to be regenerators of society and must therefore be Christian
women, Christian wives and Christian mothers. Their influence on their children was
considered very important. They were considered the nurturer and more important
parent which is why women were very rarely allowed to work. The ideal home in
Victorian times was to be a place of peace - the shelter from all terror, doubt and
division. While men had to face danger and temptation in the public arena, the woman,
the 'Angel in the house', was protected against all of this in her private sphere. The
man's duty was to assist in the maintenance, in the advance and in the defence of the
state while the woman's duty was to ensure the ordering, the comforting and the beautiful
adornment of the home.
The physical body of the woman was seen as pure and clean except when she was
experiencing menstruation. A woman was not encouraged to wear any kind of
cosmetics or any other adornments, or wear clothing that showed her skin, or even
stockings or any other undergarment. Some believed that this was because a woman's
body was considered to be the property of her husband, and because of this, women
were not to advertise their bodies to other men. However, men were also discouraged
from wearing any kind of cosmetics or wear clothing that showed their skin or
undergarments – consequently, this was a part of the Victorian morals which affected
both males and females. There were other similar restrictions such as the use of the
word "leg" in the presence of the opposite gender. These restrictions also affected both
genders equally.

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Legally, married women had rights similar to the rights of children. The law regarded
a married couple as one person. The husband was responsible for his wife and bound
by law to protect her. The personal property the wife brought into the marriage was
then owned by the husband, even in case of a divorce. The income of the wife belonged
completely to her husband and the custody of children belonged to the father as well.
He was able to refuse any contact between the mother and her children. The wife was
not able to conclude a contract on her own, she needed her husband's agreement. In
addition, a married woman could not be punished for certain offences, such as theft or
burglary if she acted under the command of her husband. It was impossible to charge
the wife for not revealing her husband in the case of a lawsuit and for stealing from
her husband as they were one person in law.
Women had no legal say in how many children they want to have nor can they get
custody of the children if the marriage ended in divorce. However, claims that wives
were legally "property" of their husbands are bluntly exaggerated. Murder of a wife by
her husband was punishable by death just like murder of any other person. Beating
somebody else's wife was a serious crime, much more serious than damaging a
property. In case of disaster or other danger, women (including married women) were
supposed to be saved before men, which is also inconsistent with their purported
"property" status.
Women were supposed to know the things necessary to bring up their children and to
keep the house which is why subjects such as history, geography and general literature
were of extreme importance, whereas Latin and Greek were of little importance.
Women who wanted to study disciplines like law, physics, engineering, science or art
were satirized and dismissed. People thought that it was unnecessary that women went
to university since it is assumed that studying was against their nature and that it could
make them ill. They should stay more or less an "Ornament of Society" and be
subordinate to their husbands. Obedience was the only requirement.
Women’s situation during the Victorian Era is recognizable in the way that women are
generally depicted in films/novels/poems. A documentary film which deals with
gender issues may focus on some of the contradictions and inequality that characterise
the Victorian Era. They may be critical of the treatment of female characters in the
way male characters’ actions are superior. A documentary film on the life of Jane
Austen explains some of the difficulties that most women had to endure during the
Victorian era. In Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, women are paraded at balls (parties)
in search of good husbands who can provide for them. In that way, marriage during
the Victorian era is looked upon as a “business”. Poets explore themes that discuss
some of the difficulties of the period and they include: dangers women face during
child birth, the social oppression of women, sexual repression and unequal
opportunities in achieving professional careers.

Children’s situation
In Victorian times, many families had 10 or more children. Sadly, many children died
as babies, or from diseases such as smallpox and tuberculosis. Child-death struck rich
and poor families – and it is often said that “babies delivered themselves”! Children
from richer homes were well fed, they wore warm clothes and had shoes on their feet
and they did not work, but went to school or had lessons at home. In the light of this, it
is worth noting that not all children were allowed to go to school.

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Children from poor families worked while only children from rich families (boys) went
to what is known as public schools. For children of wealthy families, there was an
overwhelming sense of boredom and the constant prodding to be proper and polite
with very little parent to child communication. Children were mostly raised by a nanny
who would teach the child what was proper and what was not.
Many Victorian children were poor and worked to help their families and few people
thought this strange or cruel at the time. The Industrial Revolution created new jobs in
factories and mines and many of these jobs were at first done by children because they
were cheap labour. A child was paid less than adults (just a few pennies for a week's
work). Many children started work at the age of 5, the same age as children start school
today. They went to work as soon as they were big enough. Children often did jobs
that required small body size and nimble fingers such as sweeping chimneys, but they
also pushed heavy coal trucks along tunnels in coal mines. Boys went to sea, as boy-
sailors, and girls went 'into service' as housemaids. Children worked on city streets,
selling things such as flowers, matches and ribbons. Crossing boys swept the roads
clean of horse-dung and rubbish left by the horses that pulled carts and carriages.
Some children become orphans at an early age and are sent to orphanages or relatives
to be raised and some end up on the streets where they are used and abused. Charles
Dickens’ Oliver Twist is an example of a novel that discusses children’s situation in a
Victorian setting – in a fictional way, he explores what life was for Oliver and the rest
of the children being orphans.

List of names of some Victorian authors and their works

Jane Austen – Emma, Pride and Prejudice and Sense and Sensibility
Charles Dickens - Hard Times, Oliver Twist, David Copperfield
Emily Brontë – Wuthering Heights
Charlotte Brontë – Jane Eyre
Elizabeth Browning - The Cry of the Children
Emily Dickinson – Because I Could Not Stop for Death and This is My Letter to the
World
George Eliot - Silas Marner, Middlemarch and The Mill on the Floss
Joseph Conrad – Heart of Darkness
Mark Twain - The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and The Adventures of Huckleberry
Finn
Oscar Wilde - The Importance of Being Earnest and An Ideal Husband.
Lewis Carroll – Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland

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The 20th century
(1900 - )

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Introduction to the 20th century
During the 20th century, socio-political and aesthetic changes were already marking
the passing of the Victorian era. Literature in the beginning of the century rejects the
Victorian way of life and becomes critical to the political structure as well as the dogma
that characterised it. The Russian revolution inspired ideas about the possibility of new
political structures, and new anti-colonial movements were testing the dominance of
the British Empire both at home and in the colonies. In the social sciences, Freud
developed the revolutionary idea about the workings of the human mind (the
unconscious) while Einstein introduced new understanding about the nature of time.
The two World Wars shook not only the conception of political power and empire but
also ideas of gender, psychology, violence and morality. A new wave of writers
emerged and literature moved away from its Victorian fixed patterns of understanding
the purpose and function of literature.
With the aesthetic movement of "art for art's sake" challenging middle-class
assumptions about the nature and function of art, and with educational reforms
increasing literacy, the periodical press experienced rapid growth, and literature
became a more pessimistic and sceptical mode of expression. The last decades of
Victoria’s reign also saw the emergence of a mass literate population. Modernity
disrupted the old order, casting into doubt previously stable assumptions about the self,
community and the divine. There was no common system of values, norms or ways of
looking at the world – “truth” became relative. The 20th century “man” is bound to react
against 19th century traditions which relied on Realism and Naturalism. Instead,
“Doubt” becomes the buzzword, and the previous scientific ways of looking at things
as they appear on the outside is met with scepticism – the modern man becomes
interested in looking for what is concealed beneath the surface.

Six characteristic features of the 20th century (1901- )

• The effects of the First and Second World War
• The end of colonialism and imperialism
• The three major shifts of the 20th century literature
• A wider range of writers
• The introduction of television
• The abolition of state censorship

The effects of the First and Second World War

The world experienced the First World War with devastating consequences globally.
Not long after, the Second World War shook the myth of Western civilisation and
progress. As a result of these wars, there is a shift in attitudes among the English and
the world in general. Doubts and mistrusts in the prevailing political structure led to
the questioning of the establishment. The war years make way for a large body of war
poetry which worsened the scepticism and pessimism that were part of the reaction to
Victorian securities. Consequently, there is a strong desire for social and cultural
changes. The 1930s in Britain were called the ‘red decade’ because it is believed that
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the only solution to economic disorder seem to lie in socialism or communism. Victory
in World War II was accompanied by decrease in British political power - modern
people begin to develop a new look on society and push for the end of colonialism and
imperialism.
A good novel that depicts some of the ills and negative effects of the Second World
War on soldiers is Joseph Heller’s Catch 22. The novel explores the dangerous
situation that individual soldiers are exposed to during the war. Soldiers are forced to
keep flying combat missions even though they realise that the missions are useless.
This is one of the military/political bureaucracies Heller criticises in his novel.

The end of colonialism and imperialism

Prior to the end of the Victorian era, anti-colonial sentiments are raised by the general
population in Britain. They see the dominance and control of the British government
as cruel and non-progressive toward their colonies. People in the colonies were
inspired by the Russian revolution to demand self-determination and control over their
own lives. During the First World War, Britain recruited soldiers from their colonies
who fought alongside British army and contributed to the success of the Western allies.
On their return home, these soldiers begin to understand that the white man is not
immortal. The myth of British and Western progress and civilisation is shattered.
Anti-imperialist sentiment found its way into fiction and essays. From the 1960s
onward, postcolonial literature of non-British writers living and writing in Britain,
appeared as part of the decentralizing of England. This was accompanied by other acts
of decentralization, such as the appearance of regional dialects in public radio and
increased support for regional arts.
An example of a novel with anti-imperialist theme is The Heart of Darkness by Joseph
Conrad in which he criticises British superior attitude towards the indigenous Africans.
Conrad creates a character that represents the cruelty of the British government in the
way that he treats the native. This character sees both the Africans and the continent
itself as savaged and primitive. Another writer that criticises the domination of English
values is Chinua Achebe. In his book, Things Fall Apart, he emphasizes the validity
and importance of African languages by using many words and proverbs from local
dialects. In doing so, he argues that African cultures cannot be understood through
Western colonialist values. Consequently, Africans and African culture should be
approached on its own merit rather than being subordinate to British imperialistic
interpretation.

The three major shifts of the 20th century literature

The twentieth-century novel experienced three major movements. High modernism,
lasting through the 1920s celebrated personal and textual inwardness, complexity, and
difficulties. Contrary to the beliefs of the Victorian era that emphasises single reality
that everybody should abide by, Modernism promotes a relativist approach to seeing
the world. Pioneers of modernist literature begin to focus their narrative technique by
twisting time and no longer presenting a story in chronological order but in fragments.
They experimented with multiple points of view – having more than one character tell
the same story in very different ways and moving from the external to the internal by
portraying characters looking inside the mind rather than depicting outward physical
appearance in detail. It is this relativist view of the world which High Modernism
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stands for that leads to some of the chaotic, pessimistic and confusing of identity which
characterises the earliest part of the 20th century. In conclusion, High Modernism
emphasises the idea, that there are no objective values – norms and attitudes are
informed by subjective interpretation of experience.
As a reaction to the uncertainties, doubts and mistrusts that is represented in High
Modernism there was a brief return to Social Realism in the 1930s. Social Realism,
refers to the work of painters, printmakers, photographers and filmmakers who draw
attention to the everyday conditions of the working classes and the poor, and who are
critical of the social structures that maintain these conditions. While the movement's
artistic styles vary from nation to nation, it almost always utilizes a form of descriptive
or critical realism. In the same way that Dickens’ works reflect the Victorian social-
economic conditions that ordinary people experienced, Social Realism does the same.
For example, writers and journalists focus their reports on first-hand accounts of
horrific carnage that soldiers experienced in wars in contrast to the official stories of
bravery and heroism that are told by the establishment.
The third shift which is known as Postmodernism was triggered by the Second World
War at a time when there was no common system of values and where truth was
relative. It draws on many of Modernism’s narrative techniques such as fragmentation,
twisting time and chronology, and telling a story from multiple points of view.
Postmodernist literature is generally characterised by playful experimentation of
norms, values and expectations that people have on literature, language and ideas. For
this reason, the author flips and spins and turns the reader’s expectations inside out.
Patterns are abandoned, characters do not behave as they are expected to and endings
are twisted. Consequently, Postmodernists believe that the world is meaningless and
that literature cannot, or should not even try to make sense of it – a notion which
strongly stand in opposition to Victorian ideals of uniform set of norms, values and
morals.

A wider range of writers

20th century literature marks the introduction of many diverse literary scholars to the
scene. On the whole, the reading public was getting to hear from a wider range of
voices: women, regional writers, gay men and women, writers challenging
assumptions about legitimate literary genres, and postcolonial writers. The previously
accepted notion of a middle-class white male presenting the views of people from the
colonies is overthrown by the emergence of indigenous writers in the 1950s. As a result
of decentralisation in England, regional writers begin to explore characters that are
representative of their surroundings. Gay men and women writers begin to explore the
everyday experiences of the gay community in the writings they produce.
Subsequently, 20th century is a period where literature expands and gives voices to the
multiplicity of different experiences that have come to characterise the era. Works
written by the Kenyan writer Ngugi wa Thiongo, Weep Not Child depicts the
relationship between Africans and the British colonists in Africa, and is heavily critical
of British colonial rule. Adeline Virginia Woolf is arguably one of the foremost women
to emerge as a modernist novelist. Through her works, she represents one of the several
female voices that explore the stream of consciousness as a narrative device and her
novels: To the Lighthouse, Mrs. Dalloway and the book-length essay, A Room of One’s
Own are sources of inspiration for feminists and feminist literary theory and criticism.

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The introduction of television.
Television, with its ready public access, and technicolour cinema forced theatre to
carve out a unique niche for itself as a visual art. Political critique also played a large
role in post-war theatre, especially with such writers as Harold Pinter and John Arden.
Rather than having the novel and theatre as the main outlet of information and
education, television provides an alternative form of entertainment. Soap operas, talk
shows and news discussing current affairs and social conditions of the time become
the new pass time for ordinary people. The nature of television as a visual media
attracts a wider audience in that people begin to have strong emotional connection and
opinion about what is going on not only in England but all over the world. Topics
dealing with racial and gender issues as well as non-mainstream activities (subculture)
find their way into the living room of the average family. American influence is
noticeable all over the world through Hollywood films. British English loses its
dominance to American accent as the standard way of expression. Young audience
fashion their language after their role-models and other film stars that they see on
television.

The main Theme: Womens poor situation & Gender inequality during the Victorian Era;
First and foremost, in the short story, Charlotte Perkins Gilman highlights and brings into
focus the unequal relationship between the males and females in society. The main theme of
the story can therefore arguably be the poor situation of women, and the gender inequality
during the Victorian Era. The male gender was perceived to have dominated society, while
the female gender was not given enough space to make decisions independently of men.

John is a perfect textbook example of this inequality. John was depicted by Gilman to show
the superiority of men during the victorian era, as well as showing the inequality between
men and women. John can be perceived as a husband who holds absolute control over his
wife. The narrator has absolutely no say in even the smallest details of her life. “But John
says if i feel so, i shall neglect proper self-control; so i take paints to control myself--before
him”. (TYWP P2). Moreover, John also treats the narrator as an inferior, which can be seen in
the short story, “John laughs at me, of course, but one expects that in marriage”. This was one
of gilmans attempts to accurately try and depict the situation in society in which men were
treating women as inferior.

The Main Message of the story The subordination and marginalization of women in
marriage;

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Secondly, the narrator in the short story is ultimately reduced to acting like a child, unable to
stand up for herself without seeming completely unreasonable or disloyal. John, The
Husband, speaks of her as he would to a child, calling her his “little girl” (TYWP P6) and
saying “Bless her little heart” (TYWP P6) (Which gives the assumption that he’s speaking to
someone with a little heart, a child). This is one of Gilman’s attempts to depict the inferiority
of women in marriage as legally, married women had rights similar to the rights of children.

Specific laws regarded as married couple as one person, where the husband played the
superior role. Therefore, the main message of the story would be the subordination and
marginalization of women in marriage.

For the people during the victorian era, it was said that norms, values and attitudes govern the
lives of people. (TE P11). Norms that meant women were expected to uphold this stereotype
of a well behaved wife, and be content in their existence as nothing more. (TE P14). This
created a clear conflict in the short story, as the unnamed narrator’s desire to have more in life
than solely her husband and child, does not match the social expectations of women during
that era.

The role of language and other symbols

Charlotte Perkins Gilman conveys her message and opinions through the use of well-
constructed words and sentences that contain both hidden and symbolic meaning. Where
others would see this story that is about a woman gradually going insane while in the
confinements of her own home, it is clear that upon further analysis of the short story and
recognizing the hidden and symbolic meaning behind the short story itself, that it deals with
the oppression and marginalization of women during the Victorian Era, and perhaps even the
authors personal struggles and hardships with a society run solely by males.

When the narrator recognizes that there is more than one trapped, creeping woman, Gilman
indicates that the meaning of her story extends beyond an isolated, individual situation.

The narrator’s lack of a name also reinforces the notion that she is speaking as the voice of
women collectively, rather than as an individual.

Just as the nameless protagonist of the story was trapped in a nursery, women were trapped in
patronizing roles that did not allow them to fully explore their creativity and intelligence.
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The abolition of state censorship

A turning point came in Britain when in 1968 state censorship of plays was abolished;
from that point on, theatres could commission and perform plays that addressed
controversial political, social, and sexual issues. This also encouraged the emergence
of new theatrical groups addressing specific political agendas and further coincided
with the appearance of important contributions by women playwrights. The strict moral
values, sexual repression as well as intolerance toward criticism of authority that came
to characterise Victorian England is replaced by a more relaxed social cultural and
political condition of the 20th century. Political satires that criticise governments and
politicians find their way into newspapers and television as a result of the removal of
state censorship. It can be argued that some of the explicit contents that we read about
or listen to in rap music stem from the abolition of state censorship of the 1960s.

Examples of the literature from the period include:

Paul Auster - The New York Trilogy
Joseph Conrad - The Heart of Darkness
Arthur Miller - Death of a Salesman
Chinua Achebe - Things Fall apart
Virginia Woolf - To the Lighthouse
Harold Pinter – The Hothouse
James Joyce - Ulysses
George Orwell – Animal Farm, 1984
Samuel Beckett – Waiting for Godot
Ernest Hemingway - A Farewell to Arms
Joseph Heller – Catch 22
Doris Lessing - The Golden Notebook
Sylvia Plath – Ariel

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