Cooling Effects of Water Body in Hot and Humid Climate

COOLING EFFECTS OF WATER BODY IN HOT AND HUMID CLIMATE
ANDRITA DYAH SINTA NINDYANI
(BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE, GADJAH MADA UNIVERSITY)
A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE

(BUILDING)
DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE
2012
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this thesis is my original work and it has been written by me in its
entirety.
I have duly acknowledged all the sources of information which have been used in the
thesis.
This thesis has also not been submitted for any degree in any university previously.
_________________________
Andrita Dyah Sinta Nindyani
7 December 2012
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
“I can do all things through Christ who strengthen me” (Phillipians 4:13).
Thank you dear Father Jesus Christ for my life. Thank you for the faith. I am able to finish
this thesis through You who gives me strength. I love you.
I owe an enormous debt of gratitude to Professor Wong Nyuk Hien, whose depth of
knowledge and immense wisdom greatly aided my scholarly development. He provided a
patient and critical eye on my ideas, analyses and writing – I am very thankful for that, and
more. Many thanks are also due for Steve Kardinal Jusuf, for his comments and critiques
while I was planning and writing up my research for this thesis.
During my time in NUS, I received support, encouragement and assistance of various kinds
from very many friends and colleagues in graduate school. To me, you guys have been
fantastic sounding boards for ideas. Unfortunately, naming all of you is an impossible task;
but do know that I would have never been able to complete this demanding and time-
consuming thesis without your help. I have to specifically mention that Nedyomukti Imam
Syafii, Erna Tan, Rosita Samsudin, Religiana Hendarti, Enrica Rinintya, Leni Sagita
Supriadi, and Bayu Aditiya Firmansyah were all directly involved in assisting my research
at one point or another, for which I am deeply grateful.
The final words of gratitude are for the people who know me best, and who have stuck with
me throughout my academic accomplishments in a foreign land. To my dear parent, Papi
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Nindyo Suwarno, and Mami Dewi Rindjani – thank you for all the pray, support, help,
patience, and believe despite being thousands miles away. I am gratefully proud to be your
daughter. I love you both. Lastly, to my Husband Antonius Aditiyo Wibisono and Son
Dominik Jonathan Pratama – thank you for keeping me grounded, and for giving me a
reason to believe. I love you both.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION…………..………………………………………………………………..ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...………………………………………………………………..iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................................... v
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY................................................................................................. viii
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................. x
LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. xi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background ............................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Research Questions ................................................................................................. 4
1.3 Research Objectives ................................................................................................ 4
1.4 Scope of the Study and General Methodology ........................................................ 4
1.5 Contributions of the Study ...................................................................................... 7
1.6 Organization of the Study........................................................................................ 7
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................ 9

2.1 Climate of Singapore ............................................................................................... 9
2.2 Solar Radiation ...................................................................................................... 10
2.3 The Hydrologic Cycle (Water Cycle): Evaporation .............................................. 11
2.4 Wind ...................................................................................................................... 12
2.5 Water Bodies and Their Effect on Air Temperatures in Sub-Tropic Areas .......... 14
2.6 Water Facilities and Their Effect on the Surrounding Microclimate .................... 16
2.6.1 Water Facilities and Their Effect in Sub-Tropic Areas ................................. 16
2.6.2 Water Facilities and Their Effect in Singapore .............................................. 18
2.6.3 Water Facilities and Their Effect through Simulation Study ......................... 20
2.7 Green Area Studies in Singapore .......................................................................... 21
2.8 ENVI-met Simulation............................................................................................ 23
2.9 Validation and Sensitive Analysis of ENVI-met Simulation ................................ 24
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2.10 Simulation Limitations .......................................................................................... 24
2.11 Knowledge Gap ..................................................................................................... 25
2.12 Hypothesis Development ...................................................................................... 27
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .................................................................. 29

3.1 Research Design .................................................................................................... 29
3.2 Selection of Water Bodies ..................................................................................... 29
3.2.1 Kallang River ................................................................................................. 29
3.2.2 Sungei Api-api River...................................................................................... 30
3.2.3 Marina Bay ..................................................................................................... 31
3.2.4 Bedok Reservoir ............................................................................................. 32
3.3 Instruments Used ................................................................................................... 33
3.4 Data selection ........................................................................................................ 35
3.5 Method of Data Collection .................................................................................... 37
3.6 Data Processing ..................................................................................................... 37
3.7 Method of Analysis ............................................................................................... 38
3.8 Point Location of Experiment ............................................................................... 39
3.8.1 Kallang River ................................................................................................. 39
3.8.3 Marina Bay Promenade and Marina Bay Promontory ................................... 40
3.8.4 Bedok Reservoir ............................................................................................. 41
3.9 ENVI-met Simulation............................................................................................ 42
3.9.1 Simulation Procedure in ENVI-met ............................................................... 43
3.9.2 Simulation Boundary Condition .................................................................... 44
CHAPTER 4 OBJECTIVE DATA ANALYSIS ................................................................. 45

4.1 A Comparison of Four Measurements in Regard to the Distance ......................... 45
4.1.1 Away from the Water Bodies (Clear Days) ................................................... 46
4.1.2 Away from the Water Bodies (Cloudy Days) ................................................ 49
4.1.3 Along the Water Bodies (Clear Days) ........................................................... 50
4.1.4 Distance Effect with Polynomial Regression ................................................. 52
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4.1.4.1 Kallang River and Sungei Api-api River ................................................. 52
4.1.4.2 Marina Bay and Bedok Reservoir ............................................................ 54
4.2 Solar Radiation Effect on Water Bodies Cooling Performance ............................ 56
4.2.1 Kallang River ................................................................................................. 56
4.2.3 Bedok Reservoir ............................................................................................. 63
4.2.4 Marina Bay ..................................................................................................... 65
4.2.5 Solar Radiation Effect with Linear Regression .............................................. 69
4.3 Overall Field Measurement Findings .................................................................... 70
4.3.1 Additional Findings ........................................................................................ 71
CHAPTER 5 ENVI-met SIMULATION ANAYLSIS ........................................................ 75

5.1 Simulation Validation............................................................................................ 75
5.2 Scenario 1: Kallang River Real Condition ............................................................ 76
5.3 Scenario 2: Kallang River with a Wider Waterway .............................................. 84
5.4 Scenario 3: Kallang River with Wind Speed of 2m/s ........................................... 89
5.5 Scenario 4: Kallang River with All Grass Covered Microclimate ........................ 95
5.6 Scenario 5: Kallang River with All Pavement Covered Microclimate ................. 99
5.7 Overall Simulation Findings ............................................................................... 105
CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ............................................................ 108

6.1 Summary and Conclusion ................................................................................... 108
6.2 Limitations of the Study ...................................................................................... 112
6.3 Recommendations for Future Work .................................................................... 113
BIBILOGRAPHY .............................................................................................................. 115
APPENDIX A .................................................................................................................... 122
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Water bodies are known to be about the best absorbers of radiation, yet they exhibit very
little thermal response. A study in sub-tropic regions found a difference of approximately
3–5°C in air temperature between the river and the city area. The water bodies of the river
operate as a cooling source on the microclimate of the surrounding area. Air temperature
near or over bodies of water is much different from that over land due to differences in the
way water heats and cools. In Singapore, water features within an urban area have a
positive effect on the microclimate of the surrounding areas when natural cooling from the
evaporative process is needed on a hot sunny day. The increased availability of water
usually enhances evaporation, and the associated uptake of latent heat provides a daytime
cooling effect. Many other researchers have argued that evaporative cooling from water
bodies or water features is one of the most efficient ways to ensure the passive cooling of
building and urban spaces. However, evaporative cooling might not work optimally in a
hot, humid tropical country as it has high relative humidity. Research on the mitigation
plans has been widespread, demonstrating that having more greenery is an efficient
measure for curbing urban heat islands. Although studies have also mentioned that having
more water surfaces could improve the urban heat island effect, this possibility has received
comparatively less attention.
In this research, four water bodies in Singapore, the Kallang River, Sungei Api-Api River,
Marina Bay, and Bedok Reservoir, were looked into as an effective measurement of the
waterways’ evaporative cooling performance fort the surrounding microclimate, especially
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in hot and humid climates. Air temperature, relative humidity, wind velocity, and solar
radiation are continuously measured for the collective data and analyzed for the clearest
day of the measurement. A field measurement was conducted for five months, from May to
September 2010, for Kallang and Sungei Api-api Rivers and for another five months,
February to June 2012, for Marina Bay and Bedok Reservoir. Based on solar radiation
performance during the daytime, in order to observe the extent of its cooling effect from the
waterway, there are measurement points for each location. Some points of measurement are
located along the waterway while other points are located moving away from the waterway.
In order to study the water bodies’ cooling effect unable to be investigated using the field
measurements, an ENVI-met simulation study was conducted. Five scenarios are simulated
to investigate the temperature profile of each scenario. A parametric study, which cross
references the results obtained from the investigation and boundary data, was performed to
observe the impact of the cooling effect for each scenario.
These research results support the hypothesis that the four water bodies in Singapore and
the simulation study have similar results. On a clear day with enough solar radiation,
temperatures in surrounding area increase by 0.15 to 0.20oC approximately 20–30 meters
away from the water bodies.
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Data selection ......................................................................................................... 36

Table 2: Basic input parameters to the ENVI-met model .................................................... 44
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Research Methodologies...................................................................................... 6

Figure 2.1: Illustration of the hydrologic cycle .................................................................... 11
Figure 3.1: Kallang Basin .................................................................................................... 30
Figure 3.2: Sungei Api-api River ......................................................................................... 31
Figure 3.3: Marina Bay ........................................................................................................ 31
Figure 3.4: Bedok Reservoir ................................................................................................ 32
Figure 3.5: Weather station .................................................................................................. 34
Figure 3.6: Hobo Data Logger ............................................................................................. 35
Figure 3.7: Points located along the Kallang waterway....................................................... 39
Figure 3.8: Points located along the Sungei Api-api waterway ........................................... 39
Figure 3.9: Points located along the Marina Bay Promenade points MP1 – MP5 .............. 40
Figure 3.10: Points located along the Marina Bay Promenade points MP6 – MP8 ............ 40
Figure 3.11: Points located away the Marina Bay Promontory ........................................... 41
Figure 3.12: Points located away the Bedok Reservoir ....................................................... 41
Figure 4.1: Comparison of daytime average temperature (clear days) at points at a distance
from the four water bodies .............................................................................. 46
Figure 4.2: Comparison of daytime average temperature (cloudy days) at points at a
distance from the four water bodies ................................................................ 50
Figure 4.3: Comparison of daytime average temperature (clear days) at points along the
water bodies ................................................................................................... 51
Figure 4.4: Correlation between temperature reduction and distance at Kallang ................ 53
Figure 4.5: Correlation between temperature reduction and distance at Sungei Api-api .... 53
Figure 4.6: Correlation between temperature reduction and distance at Marina Bay .......... 54
Figure 4.7: Correlation between temperature reduction and distance at Bedok Reservoir .. 55
Figure 4.8: Comparison of diurnal average temperatures (clear days) at points away from
the Kallang waterway ..................................................................................... 56
Figure 4.9: Diurnal average temperatures (clear days) at points along the Kallang waterway
........................................................................................................................ 56
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Figure 4.10: Comparison of diurnal average temperatures (cloudy days) at points away
from the Kallang waterway............................................................................. 57
Figure 4.11: Comparison of diurnal average temperature (clear days) at points along the
Kallang waterway with solar radiation ........................................................... 58
the Sungei Api-api River ................................................................................ 60
Figure 4.13: Comparison of diurnal average temperatures (cloudy days) at points away
from the Sungei Api-api River........................................................................ 60
Figure 4.14: Diurnal average temperatures (clear days) at points along the Sungei Api-api
waterway and the beach .................................................................................. 61
Sungei Api-api waterway with solar radiation ............................................... 62
Bedok Reservoir with solar radiation ............................................................. 63
Figure 4.17: Diurnal average temperatures (cloudy days) at points away from the Bedok
Reservoir ......................................................................................................... 64
the Marina Bay................................................................................................ 65
Figure 4.19: Comparison of diurnal average temperatures (clear days) at points along
Marina Bay ..................................................................................................... 66
Figure 4.20: Diurnal average temperatures (cloudy days) at points away from Marina Bay
........................................................................................................................ 67
Figure 4.21: Comparison of diurnal average temperature (clear days) at points along Marina
Bay with solar radiation .................................................................................. 68
Figure 4.22: Correlation between temperature reduction and solar radiation ...................... 70
Figure 4.23: Comparison between temperature and relative humidity along the waterway 72
Figure 4.24: Comparison between temperature and relative humidity away from the
waterway ......................................................................................................... 73
Figure 4.25: Correlation between avverage relative humidity and average temperature on
clear days in Kallang....................................................................................... 73
xii
Figure 5.1: Comparison of diurnal average temperature of field measurement and
simulation on Kallang River ........................................................................... 75
Figure 5.2: Temperature profile of Kallang River at 10:00 a.m .......................................... 78
Figure 5.3: Temperature profile in Kallang River at 1:00 p.m ............................................ 79
Figure 5.4: Temperature profile in Kallang River at 5:00 p.m ............................................ 81
Figure 5.5: Comparison of diurnal average temperatures of Kallang River at three times . 82
Figure 5.6: Temperature profile of Kallang River with a wider river width at 10:00 a.m ... 85
Figure 5.7: Temperature profile of Kallang River with a wider river width at 1:00 p.m .... 86
Figure 5.8: Temperature profile of Kallang River with a wider river width at 5:00 p.m .... 87
Figure 5.9: Comparison of diurnal average temperature of real condition and wider river on
Kallang ............................................................................................................ 88
Figure 5.10: Temperature profile of Kallang River with wind speed 2m/s at 10:00 a.m .... 90
Figure 5.11: Temperature profile of Kallang River with wind speed 2m/s at 1:00 p.m ...... 91
Figure 5.12: Temperature profile of Kallang River with wind speed 2m/s at 5:00 p.m ...... 93
Figure 5.13: Comparison of diurnal average temperature of Kallang real condition with
2m/s wind speed.............................................................................................. 94
Figure 5.14: Temperature profile of Kallang River with all grass surrounding cover at 10:00
a.m................................................................................................................... 96
p.m .................................................................................................................. 97
p.m .................................................................................................................. 98
Figure 5.17: Temperature profile of Kallang River with all pavement surrounding cover at
10:00 a.m ...................................................................................................... 100
1:00 p.m ........................................................................................................ 101
5:00 p.m ........................................................................................................ 102
Figure 5.20: Comparison of diurnal average temperature of Kallang River with different
surrounding cover at 10:00 a.m .................................................................... 103
xiii
surrounding cover at 1:00 p.m ...................................................................... 104
surrounding cover at 5:00 p.m ...................................................................... 105
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Urban heat islands (UHIs) have created serious environmental problems all over the world,
where differential heating is registered in urban areas unlike rural surroundings. The
concept of UHI, proposed by Manley (1958), stated that—when a city has expanded
enough to change the properties of the underlying surface to suffer from serious air
pollution and release substantial waste heat—the urban temperature is considerably higher
compared to the rural system, thereby generating the thermal isolated island. The
occurrence of UHI can be attributed to mainly manmade surroundings; however, the
amount of heat released is dependable on the prevailing natural environmental conditions
(Memon et al., 2008).
The phenomenon of the UHI effect is has affected the long-term trends of mean
temperature and the rise of both day- and night-time temperatures (Memon et al., 2008).
According to Santamouris et al. (2001), the heat island’s intensity can result in up to 10 K
temperature differences between dense urban areas and the surrounding rural zones. The
negative effect in especially hot and humid countries has resulted in an increase of energy
consumption associated with the need for air conditioning (Ca et al., 1998), elevation in
ground-level ozone (Rosenfeld et al., 1998), deterioration in the quality of living
environments with a significant increase of pollutant emissions and smog production
(Santamouris and Mihalakakou, 2000), decrease in human comfort, and even an increase in
mortality rates (Changnon et al., 1996; Ichinose et al., 2008).
1
Many studies have shown that the mitigation of UHI measures, such as increasing the
quantity of vegetation cover, might alter the severe impact of urbanization. The vegetation
provides a cooling effect, mainly through its shadowing effect and evapotranspiration
process. The process is basically a natural mechanism in which heat is removed by
changing the heat from sensible heat to latent heat. A similar process happens over water
bodies with the help of solar radiation. This process is known as evaporative cooling. When
solar radiation from the sun reaches the water’s surface, the water will vaporize and remove
the heat, thereby cooling the surrounding air.
Water features within an urban area have a positive effect on the microclimate of the
surrounding areas when natural cooling from the evaporative process is needed on hot
sunny days. The increased availability of water usually enhances evaporation, and the
related uptake of latent heat provides an additional daytime cooling effect. The air
temperature near or over bodies of water is much different from that over land due to
differences in the way water heats and cools. Water bodies are noted to be about the best
absorbers of radiation; on the other hand, they exhibit very little thermal response. Many
other researchers have argued that evaporative cooling from water bodies or water features
is one of the most efficient ways to passively cool building and urban spaces. However,
evaporative cooling might not work optimally in a hot, humid tropical country with high
relative humidity.
The lack of response can be attributed to four characteristics (Oke, 1987):
2
 Penetration: as water allows short-wave radiation transmission to considerable
depths, energy absorption is diffused through a large volume.
 Mixing: the existence of convection and mass transport by fluid motion also permits
the heat gains/losses to be spread throughout a large volume.
 Evaporation: unlimited water availability provides an efficient latent heat sink, and
evaporative cooling tends to destabilize the surface layer and further enhance
mixing.
 Thermal capacity: the thermal capacity of water is exceptionally large; therefore, it
requires about three times as much heat to raise a unit volume of water through the
same temperature interval as most soil.
These properties make the surface temperature of water bodies cooler than that over the
land. A cooler surface results in a cooler air temperature above the water. A study by
Murakawa (1990) showed a difference of approximately 3–5°C in air temperature between
the river and the city area in Japan. The water bodies of the river operate as a cooling
source on the microclimate of the surrounding area. Many other researchers have argued
that evaporative cooling from water bodies or water features is one of the most efficient
ways to provide passive cooling for building and urban spaces (Krüger, 2008; Adebayo,
1991). Thus, the current study examines this evaporative cooling performance of water
bodies for the surrounding microclimate of Singapore. Ambient air temperatures are
measured to make a clear distinction of the influence of cooling from the water bodies
horizontally.
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1.2 Research Question
1. How is solar radiation affecting the cooling effect of water bodies in the tropics,
especially Singapore?
2. How do water bodies in hot and humid climates extend the cooling effect to the
surrounding area in terms of distance?
3. How does the surrounding area impact the cooling effect performance of water bodies,
as determined using a simulation model?
1.3 Research Objectives
The objectives of the study are as follows:
1. To determine the cooling effect and benefit of water bodies to their surrounding
microclimate in hot and humid climates (field measurement study).
2. To determine the possible impact of water bodies’ cooling effect on the air
temperature on a hot sunny day (field measurement study).
3. To identify different types of surrounding areas near the water bodies in order to
investigate their impacts on the water bodies’ cooling effect (parametric study
using an ENVI-met simulation).
1.4 Scope of the Study and General Methodology
The scope of this research is focused on:
1. Water bodies’ cooling effect performance in terms of distance in several
locations in Singapore based on solar radiation performance; and
4
2. The use of field measurement method and ENVI-met simulations to study the
effect of a water body’s surrounding area cover on the cooling performance on a
hot sunny day; but
3. No mean radiant temperature (MRT) reading was used as this research is not
focused on human thermal comfort.
Figure 1.1 shows the general methodology of this study. The process started with a
preliminary literature review, focusing on UHI, the water cycle, and the variables that affect
the water’s evaporation process to create a cooling performance on its surroundings. Water
bodies in sub-tropic areas seem to have a significant cooling effect amount. On the other
hand, Singapore, with its hot and humid climate, seeks to achieve the same effect. Some
researchers in Singapore have measured water facilities such as water walls, fountains, and
ponds. They found that evaporation from the water facilities could help reduce the
surrounding heat. Hence, the aim of the study is to determine the cooling effect of water
bodies (rivers, bays, and reservoirs) on a larger scale in Singapore. Field measurements and
an ENVI-met simulation were conducted to determine the water bodies’ cooling effect
performance.
5
Preliminary literature review
Formulation of research problem
Generate
In-depth literature review
hypothesis
Design of research
Field Measurement Simulation study with

study ENVI-met
Data measurement and Modeling and running

collection simulation
Data analysis using Extract data for ENVI-

EXCEL met using LEONARDO
Research findings Simulation findings
Recommendations
Thesis report
Figure 1.1 Research Methodologies
6
1.5 Contribution of the Study
These findings could be used to understand the extent of water bodies’ cooling effect on the
surroundings area in hot and humid climates based on solar radiation performance. In
addition, through simulation study, the findings could be used to determine how the
surroundings near the water bodies affect the water bodies’ cooling effect performance.
1.6 Organization of Study
This thesis paper will be organized as follows:
Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the background and rationale of this study. A brief
outline of the research paper is provided.
Chapter 2 presents an extensive literature review on past research and papers done in
relation to the cooling effect of water features in Singapore (a hot and humid climate). The
literature on the water evaporation process and factors that affect it to produce water
bodies’ cooling effect, such as solar radiation and wind speed, are also described.
Chapter 3 introduces the research methodology used in this study. An account of the
measurement instruments deployed and the parameters measured will be included in the
chapter. It also covers the methodology of the ENVI-met simulation program to conduct
simulations in water bodies’ areas in Singapore regions.
Chapter 4 delivers the analyses of water bodies’ cooling effect based on solar radiation
performance using data collected from four field measurements in Singapore’s water
bodies’ areas. It further discusses the distance effect based on clear days at the study cases.
7
Chapter 5 produces the simulation outcome of the water bodies by conducting an ENVI-
met simulation on the Kallang River in Singapore to analyze how much the water cooling
effect might vary on a hot sunny day in the region as it refers to real conditions on site.
Chapter 6 puts forward a summary of the issues, in which the conclusions from the
analyses will be established. It also discusses the limitations of this study and suggests
recommendations for future works.
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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Climate of Singapore
Based on National Environmental Agency (NEA) Meteorological Services, Singapore, with
an area of approximately 710.2 km2, is located in the tropics surrounded by sea (lies at 15
meters sea level) and has fairly high humidity. The climate is characterized by a uniformity
of temperature, pressure, high relative humidity (RH), and heavy rainfall. Singapore is
influenced by the sea based on its geographical location and maritime exposure. The sea
breeze is a steady wind that blows inland during the day from the sea, carrying humidity.
Singapore has a stable climate condition, with temperatures varying from 22°C to 34°C and
average RH of 85%–90% in the morning and 55%– 60% during the daytime. On a rainy
day, the RH could easily reach 100%. June and July are the hottest months of the year, and
November and December are considered as the rainy season. Generally, due to Singapore's
geographic location (i.e., close to the equator), Singapore has warm weather conditions
with relatively high RH.
Located between latitudes 1 degree 09’N and 1 degree 29’N and longitudes 103 degree
36’E and 104 degree 25’E, Singapore can be classified as having a hot humid climate.
Uniform high temperatures, humidity, and rainfall throughout the year characterize the
climate. The diurnal temperature variations are small, ranging from 23 to 26°C and 31 to
34°C. The mean annual temperature was 27.4oC between 1982 and 2001.
Relative humidity is generally high and, although it invariably exceeds 90% in the early
hours of the morning just before sunrise, it frequently falls to 60% during the afternoons
9
when there is no rain. During prolonged heavy rains, relative humidity often reaches 100%.
The mean annual relative humidity is 84.2%.
There are two main seasons in Singapore, the northeast (NE) monsoon and the southwest
(SW) monsoon seasons. The NE monsoon occurs between November and early March,
with the prevailing wind blowing from the north to northeast. Meanwhile, the SW monsoon
occurs between June and September, with the prevailing wind blowing from the south to
southwest. Two short inter-monsoon periods lasting two months separate the main seasons.
There is no clear distinct wet or dry season as rainfall occurs throughout the year. However,
the NE monsoon season is considered to be wet weather as the wind is generally cool and
brings frequent spells of wet weather, accounting for about 48% of the total annual rainfall.
On the other hand, the SW monsoon wind brings about 36% of the total annual rainfall.
2.2 Solar Radiation
Solar radiation is a radiant energy derived from thermonuclear processes occurring in the
sun. Solar radiation controls the climate conditions on earth and varies at different latitudes
(Kiehl, 1992). This is mainly due to differences in solar radiation that reaches the surface.
The distribution of solar radiation is generally larger at low altitudes and much less nearer
the poles. This imbalance in the net radiation for the surface and the atmosphere system as
a whole (positive in lower altitudes and negative in higher altitudes) combined with the
effect of the earth’s rotation on its axis produces the dynamic circulation system of the
atmosphere (Henderson-Sellers and McGuffie, 1987).
As previously mentioned, the most influential factor for determining the climatic conditions
on earth is solar radiation. According to an earth energy budget by Schneider (1992), 45%
10
of incoming solar radiation is absorbed by the surface of the planet, 25% by the
atmosphere, and 23% is reflected by the atmosphere.
2.3 The Hydrologic Cycle (Water Cycle): Evaporation
Figure 2.1 Illustration of the hydrologic cycle.

Source: National Weather Service, NOAA (www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream//atmos/hydrocycle_max.htm)
The hydrologic cycle, or the water cycle, as seen in figure 2.1 is the continuous cycling of
water through the atmosphere, ocean, land surface, and biosphere. The hydrologic cycle is
mainly driven by energy from the sun. The major reservoirs of water on Earth include
oceans, lakes, rivers, wetlands, land, and seas. Water can move through several different
processes—namely, evaporation, precipitation, melting, and running downhill in rivers or
underground. Evaporation is the process by which water gradually changes from a liquid to
a gas or vapor at a significant volume. Evaporation is the primary pathway that water
11
moves from the liquid state back into the water cycle as atmospheric water vapor. Studies
have shown that the oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers provide nearly 90% of the moisture in
the atmosphere via evaporation. A lower wind speed is one factor that could decrease the
amount of evaporation from the earth’s surface.
Evaporation requires heat for the water to transition from a liquid to a gas. Once in the
atmosphere, the water vapor rises and condenses (the process of changing from water vapor
to liquid water and releasing heat). The wind can blow this cloud over land, and the water
can precipitate as rain or snow. The water might then run over the Earth’s surface into a
river or lake or seep into the ground to become groundwater. From the lake, river, or
groundwater, the water could flow into the ocean again. At any point in this process, the
water can take a different path. Much of the water that evaporates from the ocean
precipitates right back into the ocean. Evaporation from the oceans is the primary
mechanism supporting the surface-to-atmosphere portion of the water cycle. After all, the
large surface area of the oceans (over 70% of the Earth's surface is covered by the oceans)
provides the opportunity for large-scale evaporation to occur. On a global scale, the amount
of water evaporating is about the same as the amount of water delivered to the Earth as
precipitation.
2.4 Wind
Wind is an overlooked resource and plays an important role in ameliorating the urban
environment. At a fundamental level, wind behavior addresses issues concerning pedestrian
12
comfort in urban areas in general with respect to how people feel while relaxing or walking
in the present or future urban environment. On the other hand, the wind behaviors can be
observed through the identification of wind patterns that illustrate local circulation. Such an
approach has some relevance in different contexts. Taseiko (2008) and Oke (1987),
examining air quality studies, found that some wind patterns can transport pollutants/heat
into an urban environment, while others can bring clean and cooler air. In the sustainable
design context, understanding wind patterns is mainly important for modeling the
efficiency and performance of the natural ventilation design (Croome and Roberts, 1980).
In addition, the highest intensity of wind over an area usually presents some advantage
directions and, for this reason, wind pattern classifications can help understand which flow
direction has the possibility to risk or improve microclimate conditions. Another factor of
the wind is that, in the afternoon, the wind moves faster than at night.
In Singapore, surface winds generally blow from north or northeast during the NE monsoon
season (December to March) and from south or southeast during the SW monsoon season
(June to September). Mean wind speeds are usually light, below 20 km/hr, although mean
wind speeds of up to 40 km/hr can occur during a NE monsoon surge. Winds during the
inter-monsoon months are mostly light and variable.
The characteristics of the wind flow pattern at low levels in the urban environment are
influenced more by the local geometry, such as street geometry, trees, and building height
distribution and less affected by the characteristics of the flow in the upper layer
(Ricciardelli, 2006).
13
2.5 Water Bodies and Their Effect on Air Temperature in Sub-Tropic Areas
Santamouris and Asimakopoulos (1996) pointed out that a space area can be cooled by
passive evaporation, a process where evaporation occurs naturally from standing or moving
water (such as basins or fountains). According to Munn et al. (1969) and Naot et al. (1991),
the evaporation and transfer of sensible heat result in lowering air temperature at the water
bodies. Evaporation decreases air temperature due to the latent heat of absorption and
increase in specific humidity. Meanwhile, the transfer of sensible heat between air and the
underlying water (water is cooler than air) also reduces air temperature, especially under
hot weather conditions.
In sub-tropic regions, Huang et al. (2008) conducted a fieldwork study in Nanjing on the
effect of different types of ground cover on temperature. The results revealed that lawn,
water areas, and woods or the shade from tress have the potential to decrease air
temperatures between 0.2 and 2.9°C when compared to bare concrete cover. In terms of the
potential cooling effect brought about by the different ground covers, usually lawns and
woods or shade from trees contribute significant cooling effects during both days and
nights. In addition, water bodies were shown to be cooler than concrete areas in the day, but
the study also showed the probability of these large water areas contributing heat at night
and, in some instances, being even warmer than the concrete surfaces by about 0.4 to 1.0oC.
Other literature focused on the restoration of Cheong-Gye Stream in Seoul to determine the
evaporative cooling effect of the water surfaces. The stream, running 5.8 km eastward
through a central region of Seoul, was expected to help mitigate Seoul’s thermal stress and
change hydrology as well as street-level wind fields (Kim et al., 2009). From the 13 points
studied along the stream, restoration reflected a near-surface average temperature decrease
14
of 0.4°C over the stream area, with the largest local temperature drop being 0.9°C. Near the
middle of the stream, the restoration’s mitigation effects on the UHI were quantified as
0.13°C (Kim et al., 2009). Althought Kim et al. (2008) acknowledged that the decline in
temperature cannot be fully attributed to the effect of stream due to distinct weather
conditions before and after the restoration, it was mentioned that the Cheong-Gye stream
was principally responsible for the temperature distribution along a sheet traversing the
stream, with temperatures decreasing as one moves southwards along the stream. In
addition, following the restoration, the ratio of sensible heat flux to net irradiative flux
dramatically decreased from 0.63 to 0.18 in the daytime (Kim et al., 2008), which could be
explained by the absorptive of the surfaces as well as the high heat capacity of the water.
However, before and after the stream restoration (2003–2007), it was found that the
restoration affected the local environment, resulting in changes in sensible heat flux and
temperature mitigation (Ichinose et al., 2009).
Other studies have found that city park characteristics have strong impacts on the urban
cooling island intensity (Cao et al., 2010; Chang et al., 2007). Recent research in China
revealed that the environmental temperature can be reduced by narrow built-up land and
rounded shapes in water and green landscapes (Shi, Deng, Wang, Luo, & Qiu, 2011).
Consistent with these results, the urban water body area and geometry were also found to
significantly influence the urban cooling island (UCI) effects in Beijing. The area of the
water body had the greatest effects on variations in the UCI intensity. However, the UCI
efficiency had a significantly negative correlation with water body area. This means that,
given the same total area of water bodies, more small water bodies can offer more
beneficial effects. The water body’s geometry had a negative impact on UCI intensity and
15
efficiency, meaning that square or round water bodies can intensify their cooling effects.
The water body’s location and surrounding built-up land were important for the cooling
island effects. Dense built-up areas substantially increase the land surface temperature
(LST) around water bodies, resulting in higher cooling intensity and efficiency. Moreover,
water bodies with the same characteristics in different spatial locations had varying abilities
to cool the surrounding thermal environments (Ranhao Sun and Liding Chen, 2012).
2.6 Water Facilities and Their Effect on the Surrounding Microclimate
Land cover change can have a significant impact on climate (Sagan et al., 1979; Myers,
1992). On the other hand, the use of water features in a city offers an alternative to
vegetation as a method of alleviating high urban temperatures by increasing the latent heat
flux from the surface to provide cooler air (Smith and Levermore, 2008).
2.6.1 Water Facilities and Their Effect in Sub Tropic Area
In Osaka City, N. Nishimura et al. (1998) conducted a field measurement on existing water
facilities, including a pond, waterfall, and spray fountain in a park located in an urban area.
The temperature decline effects of waterfalls and spray-type water facilities in urban areas
were measured. The results indicated that, even when the spray facility was not in
operation, the air temperature was 1o to 2oK lower than the average air temperature in the
park. This suggests considerable a potential cooling effect brought about by the water pond
and waterfall, which could be amplified with the spray facility function.
The presence of water facilities can bring about a positive impact on the microclimate as it
was also observed from the results indicating that the closer the measuring points are to the
16
water features, the greater the effect of temperature fall. On the other hand, humidity was
noted to be higher when the water sprays were operated, indicating the possibility of
thermal discomfort for people. N. Nishimura et al. (1998) analyzed the results and noticed
that the temperature fall area induced by the evaporation of water from the spray and water
fall operation at the water feature in focus spreads out to a distance of nearly 35 m away
from the location. The studies demonstrated that the degree of temperature decline is
dependent on the types of water facilities, and water spray facilities were shown to be
effective for providing a cooling environment.
In a study in Japan, He and Hoyano (2008) examined surface temperature distributions in
the mid-day temperatures of the walls with water and found a 2–7oC reduction to near-
ambient air temperature; the walls were several degrees cooler than those without water.
The decreased surface temperature is due to the evaporative cooling effect as the film of
water evaporates. In addition, the mean radiant temperature (MRT) near walls with water
was slightly lower compared to those without water, with a maximum reduction of
approximately 6°C. Furthermore, the heat island potential (HIP) was found to have
decreased in areas with watering as compared to values attained from those without
watering.
Another development in Tokyo, Japan (2003), revived by The Tokyo Metropolitan
Government at four different places, was the "Sidewalk Sprinkling Campaign in Tokyo"
movement. The results revealed an average decrease of 1°C in temperature before and after
sprinkling water as measured by researchers and elementary school pupils (Japan for
Sustainability, 2003). In addition, a simulation study by the Public Works Research
Institute in Tokyo, Japan, also revealed that the temperature at noon could be reduced a
17
maximum of 2 to 2.5°C, with the assumption that water would be sprinkled concurrently
over an area of about 265 square kilometers, using one liter of water per square meter
(Yagi, 2009).
Furthermore, to enhance the amount of evaporative cooling from the sprinkling of water,
some studies (Gartland, 2008; Asawa et al., 2000; Yamagata et al., 2008) explored the use
of water retentive and water permeable pavement. Together with this material, water stored
in the pavement can evaporate slowly and lower the temperature by vaporization. It was
assessed that sprinkling-reclaimed wastewater decreased the road surface temperature by
8°C during the daytime and 3°C at night as measured using thermographs. The lowered
temperatures were found to be equal to those on planting zones, and the effect continued
overnight due to the use of the material (Yamagata et al., 2008). These results suggest that
the cooling effect was provided by the sprinkling of water. In addition, sprinkling on water-
retentive pavement is able to adequately mitigate the UHI phenomenon.
2.6.2 Water Facilities and Their Effect in Singapore
In hot and arid climates, raising the humidity of the air has brought welcome relief in
traditional architecture through different devices, such as fountains, pools, or just splashing
the floor of the courtyard with water several times a day. However, as Singapore is humid,
it might not find the same benefits. Choo (2008) studied three different water features
within a garden area in Biopolis, Singapore. The study concluded that weak relationships
existed between air temperature and water features and justified that the water wall had the
largest cooling potential. The studies justify the cooling potential of water features, with
18
Jusuf et al. (2009) and Choo (2008) further analyzing their effect in hot and humid
Singapore.
Field measurements conducted by Jusuf et al. (2009) on a water wall at One North Park,
Singapore, further substantiate the cooling benefits brought about by the wall based on air
temperatures measured at nearly 1.7-1.8oK cooler than the surroundings. These results
showed that the temperature drop is induced by the evaporation of water from the water
wall. It was asserted that the presence of the water-wall at One North Park improves the
thermal environment by cooling the air via the cooler air temperature near the water wall,
resulting in a lower air temperature for the nearby environment (Jusuf et al., 2009). Both
studies on the water wall were conducted in the park, where the cooling effect could be
enhanced with evapotranspiration from the greenery in the surrounding area. The
evaporative effect of water features located in the vicinity of buildings, with comparatively
lesser greenery than the park, was not considered. In addition, water fountains that have
water sprinkling in the air with an increased surface area, thereby increasing the
evaporation rate leading to an added cooling effect, should be considered as a feature just as
capable of cooling the air as a water wall (Energy and Resources Institute et al., 2004). In
addition to being able to reduce heat load, as previously mentioned, the sprinkling of water
into the air can clean dust particles from the air.
Hui (2009) found that “moving” water features displayed the potential cooling in both the
day and evening. Water fountains showed a higher capability of reducing air temperature
than the water wall, with temperature variations of 4.0oC in the day and 1.3oC in the
evening. However, the “still” water feature (i.e., water pond) recorded a higher temperature
than the reference point in both the day and evening. This result conflicted with the existing
19
literature as ponds are believed to have a cooling potential. The disparity could be
attributed to the large surface area and depth of the pond, which acts as a heat sink during
the day and releasing the absorbed heat in the night. The high heat capacity of water was
another underlying reason for the water being warmer in the evening. The results generally
inform the cooling potential of “moving” water features, with the water fountain and water
wall producing a better cooling effect and thermal comfort acceptance. Perhaps an
integration of both these water facilities could better facilitate the improvement of the
thermal environment. People will continue to use the space under some tolerable level of
discomfort, even if it lacks their preferred environmental diversity. The extent of this
discomfort can only be assessed by considering people’s expectations, preferences, and
acceptability thresholds.
2.6.3 Water Facilities and Their Effect through Simulation Study
Kinouchi and Yoshitani (2001) did a simulation that modeled the urban environment in
central Tokyo to project the cooling impact brought about by the employment of roof
vegetation and the increase in water surfaces by 2015. Their results revealed that the
maximum reduction in air temperature is estimated to be 0.5°C should the area of water
surface increase by twofold. Comparatively, this reduced surface air temperature per unit
area increase of water surface is greater than the double of that of roof vegetation,
indicating that water surfaces might be substantially more effective in alleviating UHI than
roof vegetation.
20
A simulation from another study comparing the surface temperatures of a water pond and
asphalt revealed that, when the maximum surface temperatures were recorded (33.2°C for
the water surface and 58.3°C for the asphalt surface), large differences from 4°C at 6:00
a.m. to 25°C at 1:00 p.m. were registered between the two surfaces (Robitu et al., 2003).
This difference is due to water evaporation, as well as the materials properties of the two
surfaces. Asphalt surfaces have very low reflectivity with an absorptive rate of 0.9,
meaning it absorbs almost all the solar radiation to which it is exposed (Santamouris and
Asimakopoulos, 1996; Robitu et al., 2003 ). On the other hand, the water surface has a
lower value, with an absorptive rate of 0.7 (Bolz, 1973; Robitu et al., 2003). This could be
the underlying reason for the water bodies giving out a substantial amount of heat at night
as they absorb a sizeable amount of solar radiation in the day. However, water bodies
(rivers, lakes, and ponds) do have the potential to cool the urban atmosphere as much as
vegetation does (He & Hoyano, 2008).
2.7 Green Area Studies in Singapore
In 2004, Wong and Yu studied green areas and an UHI for a tropical city. They observed a
maximum difference of 4.01oC between the well-planted area and the CBD area. In 2005,
they also observed that UHI mitigation measures had largely concentrated on the
employment of primarily plants and green spaces to encourage evapotranspiration so as to
curb the rising air temperatures in the urban areas.
Chen and Wong (2006) observed that large urban parks could extend the positive effect to
the surrounding built environment. Through the field measurement, the built environment,
21
which is close to park, has a lower temperature at an average 1.3oC. Thus, the more parks
are built in an urban area, the lower the urban temperature will be. The air temperatures
measured within parks have a strong relationship with the density of plants, as plants with
higher leaf area indexes (LAIs) might cause a lower ambient temperature. The ENVI-met
simulation indicated that a park has a significant cooling effect on surroundings during both
the day and night.
Wong and Jusuf (2007) conducted an ENVI-met simulation and observed that the ambient
temperature of the NUS Master Plan 2005 could increase by about 1oC when it is
completed, due to the reduction of the greenery rate from 55.1% in the current condition to
52.31%. The bare pavement between buildings without any greenery also contributes to the
increase of ambient temperature. In 2008, Rajagopalan and Wong also studied on the
microclimatic modelling of Singapore’s urban thermal environment to mitigate the UHI.
The study verified the existence of the UHI effect in the present context of Singapore. The
central building district (CBD) area showed the highest temperatures. The maximum
temperature difference of 4oC was observed between the vegetated area and the CBD area.
However, despite the promising measure to improve microclimatic conditions in urban
areas through greenery contribution, the benefits of other alternatives should be considered,
such as efficient water surface arrangement (Ichinose et al., 2008). This alternative, which
has not received much attention compared to vegetation, points to the use of the
evaporative effect of water as an alternative to cool the environment. Water ponds favoring
the evaporative cooling were identified as one of the potential mitigations for UHI
(Nishimura et al., 1998; Givoni and La Roche, 2000).
22
2.8 ENVI-met Simulation
Environmental modeling has been a major component of the scientific approach in
understanding and solving problems in complex environmental settings at the meso-scale
simulations of climate change (e.g., Jacob, 2008). With resolutions of several kilometers,
these simulations only display the climate within the city, which creates its own distinct
urban climate very coarsely. Due to their specific albedo, roughness length, and soil
sealing, cities create their own micro climate, mostly referred to as the UHI effect
(Grimmond, 2006). As regional climate models predict heat waves to occur more often and
are more intensive and longer lasting (e.g., Meehl and Tebaldi, 2004), it is necessary to
study the effect of cities on heat waves in order to identify possible countermeasures.
The environmental modeling system serves a purpose and has certain characteristics that
are useful in understanding the micro-scale climatic behavior of building structures and
landscape elements in the environment for this study. Beck et al. (….) offers three
objectives for constructing and evaluating environmental models that are useful in
understanding the micro-scale climatic behavior of building structures and landscape
elements in the environment for this study:
1. Prediction of future behavior under various courses of action—namely, in the
service of informing a decision (project development/evaluation, impact analysis
building design regulation, planning regulations)
2. Identification of those constituent mechanisms of behavior that are crucial to the
generation of a given pattern of future behavior but insufficiently secure in their
23
theoretical and empirical basis—namely, in designing the collection of further
observations (future planning, development/redevelopment decisions)
3. Reconciliation of the observations of the past behavior with the set of concepts
embodied in the model—namely, in the modification of theory and in explaining
why a particular input disturbance of the system gives rise to a particular output
response (the impact of different structural modifications in the environment)
2.9 Validation and Sensitive Analysis of ENVI-met Simulation
ENVI-met software is a three-dimensional non-hydrostatic model for the simulation of
surface–plant–air interactions in the urban environment. It has been widely used in the
computer-aided design and evaluation of various urban planning cases (Bruse, 1998).
However, in order to ensure that this software can be applied to the future sensitive analysis
and other studies in a hot and humid climate, a validation assessment was carried out.
Zhuolun et al. (2009) conducted a validation assessment of both the iterative and grid
convergence. Thus, the ENVI-met results were compared to the previously discussed
experimental data, demonstrating that, within the uncertainties of experimental data (more
or less 0.7°C in air temperature, more or less 5% in relative humidity), the simulation
results can meet the measured data of most spots.
2.10 Simulation Limitations
ENVI-met has certain limitations. The tools to create the urban environment are limited to
buildings, soils, water area, pavement materials, and trees or other vegetation. The albedo
and thermal resistance of the building surfaces are constant and cannot be varied
24
(Emmanuel and Fernando, 2007). There are no tools to create any other objects, such as
shade structures independent of the building blocks. Another significant limitation is that
the building blocks have no thermal mass and only a single constant indoor temperature.
ENVI-met cannot simulate water turbulence mixing so the use of water strategies is limited
to still water bodies. Therefore, ENVI-met is unable to simulate fountains or water spray
types of systems. Water bodies are inputted as a type of soil, and the processes are limited
to the transmission and absorption of shortwave radiation (Bruse, 2007).
2.11 Knowledge Gap
The literature indicate that UHI mitigation has been studied. It has been the most widely
applied mitigation measure for achieving extensive energy savings through the temperature
reduction of an area (Konopacki and Akbari, 2002).
Water features have not received much attention compared to vegetation in tropical areas
whereas the evaporative effect of water is seen as an alternative for cooling the
environment. Some researchers have argued the need to aid in the cooling of the water
bodies more than in the cooling effect produced by the greenery. Past studies have found
that, in sub-tropical areas, water bodies can provide a significant cooling effect by lowering
the ambient temperature by 4oC compared to areas without water bodies. In addition, water
ponds favoring the evaporative cooling were identified as one of the potential mitigations
for UHI (Nishimura et al., 1998; Givoni and La Roche, 2000). Yet Ken-Ichi (1991) and
Givoni (1991) mentioned that evaporative cooling is arguably one of the most efficient
ways of passive cooling for buildings and urban spaces in hot regions. Based on the
25
literature review, water bodies’ cooling effect might work better at a low temperature and
in low humidity, as in the sub-tropical climate.
In Singapore, some researchers have only studied the cooling effect of the water feature,
showing a significant temperature reduction near water facility areas. This might suggest
that, in Singapore, water can be one of the potential cooling factors on its surrounding
environment. However, Singapore might not find the same result due to its humid
conditions. In a very humid environment, the water does not evaporate very fast at all. In
hot and arid climates, raising the humidity of the air has brought welcome relief through
water bodies’ water cooling effect.
Hence, the aim of the thesis is to first establish a relationship between water bodies’ cooling
effect on a larger scale—namely, rivers, reservoirs, and bays—with the surrounding air
temperature on a hot sunny day. Second, it evaluates the effectiveness of the different types
of surrounding areas in helping the water bodies reduce heat from the thermal environment
around it. Whilst evaporative cooling has been one of the most effective ways of passive
cooling for architecture and urban spaces in hot regions since ancient times, it is more
effective in hot and dry regions in terms of total amount of cooling, as the increase in
humidity gives additional comfort. However, it can be equally effective in hot and humid
regions in terms of the enhanced level in a thermal environment compared to severe
summer conditions (Kimura, 1991).
26
2.12 Hypothesis Development
Based on the experiments that have been conducted (further analyzing its effect) in a hot
and humid climate like Singapore, which justifies the cooling potential of water features,
Choo (2008), Jusuf et al. (2009), and Hui (2009) all looked at artificial water features on a
smaller scale. In addition, studies of sub-tropical areas have demonstrated significant
environmental cooling. Hence, this study focused on water bodies in Singapore, which has
a larger scope of water area. Water bodies provide an efficient channel for evaporative
cooling in tropical climates, which might suggest that a greater possible cooling effect level
on the outdoor air temperature and could extend performance in tropical areas where it is
hot and humid. This study will help further substantiate the existence of the water bodies in
the design of the surrounding microclimate in outdoor places.
Based on literature review, it has been found that:
1. Evaporative cooling is hypothesized to be especially well suited for climates where
the air is hot and humidity is low. In highly humid climates, evaporative cooling
might have a limited thermal comfort benefit beyond the increased ventilation and
air movement it provides;
2. The evaporation process primarily depends on solar radiation performance;
3. Water features have a cooling effect on the surrounding environment regarding the
distance to the outdoor air temperature compared to that in the absence of water
features; and
4. The surrounding condition affects the performance of water bodies to produce the
cooling effect to the surrounding air temperature.
27
The hypothesis of the study is that water bodies’ cooling effect stemming from the
evaporation process could provide a cooling effect for the surrounding. It can lead to a
reduction in the temperature of the surroundings.
Dependent variables:
1. Air temperature
2. Distance from the area of the water bodies
3. Wind speed
4. Size/width of the water bodies
5. Surrounding area near the water bodies
Independent variable:
1. Solar radiation
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CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design
The research strategy consists of collecting primary and secondary data. Primary data will
be obtained from the results acquired from a field experiment and simulation conducted
based on the ENVI-met results. Field-based research allows for a highly randomized
sampling of subjects in changing urban conditions, thereby widening the scope of results
for better understanding. Relevant information attained from books, journal articles,
publications, press reports, and conference articles, together with internet websites, will be
used as a secondary source of data.
3.2 Selection of Water Bodies
A five-month period of field measurement was conducted in four water bodies in
Singapore: Kallang River, Sungei Api-api River, Marina Bay, and Bedok Reservoir.
3.2.1 Kallang River
The Kallang River is an urban planning area and subdivision located in the southeastern
part of Singapore. The first measurement location is located within the vicinity of the
Kallang MRT Station (north site of the MRT, along the Kallang Park Connector). The
Kallang Park Connector is part of the Park Connector Network managed by the National
Parks Board. The measurement location is also near the Kallang riverside park, which is
famous for its water sports and serves the urban planning area of Kallang.
29
The measurement was conducted in an open space along the Kallang River, between Boon
Keng Road and Kallang Road. The Kallang River’s open space is surrounded by a common
green area and a few trees. Dense trees are located near the Kallang MRT (Mass Rapid
Transport).
Figure 3.1 Kallang Basin (Source: Author’s photo)
3.2.2 Sungei Api-api River
A 5-hectare patch of mature mangrove forest was preserved during reclamation and
development by maintaining tidal inundation: A rivulet was dug to connect the patch with
Sungei Tampines. With its massive scale and mature shady trees surrounding it, the 14-
hectare marine pond is undoubtedly the main focal point of Pasir Ris Town Park (National
Park, 2009). The park can be said to be located in a relatively rural area in the eastern part
of Singapore. Wong (2000) stated that Pasir Ris registered a lower temperature compared to
the densely populated or industrialized areas, which recorded a relatively higher
temperature. Complications can be realized by studying this water feature with reference to
its location.
30
Figure 3.2 Sungei Api-api river (Source: Author’s photo)
3.2.3 Marina Bay
Figure 3.3 Marina Bay (Source: Author’s photo)
Marina Bay is a bay near the Central Building District (CBD) area in the southern part of
Singapore. The area is a 360-hectare development designed to seamlessly extend
Singapore's downtown district and further support the city-state's continuing growth as a
major business and financial hub in Asia.
Reclaimed from the sea since the 1970s to provide room for the long-term expansion of the
city, Marina Bay is planned to seamlessly extend from the existing CBD at Raffles Place.
The development parcels at Marina Bay are based on an urban grid pattern and extended
from the existing city grid network to ensure good connectivity. This grid framework has
been developed to allow for the flexible amalgamation or subdivision of land parcels into
31
plots of different sizes, including larger land parcels to cater to buildings with large floor
plates and offer maximum flexibility and efficiency for financial institutions.
The 3.5-km long waterfront promenade linking the string of attractions at the Marina
Centre, Collyer Quay, and Bayfront areas was completed in 2010. There are experiential
strolls along the promenade around the bay. The promenade forms part of the 11.7-km
waterfront route around Marina Reservoir, linking Gardens by the Bay, Marina Barrage,
and the new Sports Hub. Walking along the Bayfront and into the Mist Walk brings down
the ambient temperature, making a stroll along this stretch a breeze in the equatorial heat.
3.2.4 Bedok Reservoir
Figure 3.4 Bedok Reservoir (Source : Wikipedia)
Bedok Reservoir was constructed under the Sungei Seletar/Bedok Water Scheme,
completed in 1986. The scheme involved the damming of Sungei Seletar to form a
reservoir (Lower Seletar Reservoir), the creation of Bedok Reservoir from a former sand
quarry between 1966 and 1972, and the construction of Bedok Waterworks. The earth
excavated was used for East Coast Reclamation in the 1970s (HDB Annual Reports). Its
unique feature was the construction of nine storm water collection stations to tap the storm
32
runoffs of the surrounding urbanized catchments. Eight of these collection stations are
ponds in the new towns Yishun, Tampines, Bedok, and Yan Kit.
3.3 Instruments Used
The major instruments used in the measurement were the HOBO data logger and weather
station. The HOBO was used to measure relative humidity and ambient temperature for
every particular location designated in the measurement. A weather station was used to
measure wind speed and solar radiation for a reference measurement. To prevent the
interference of solar radiation and obtain accurate ambient air temperature and relative
humidity, every sensor was protected in a white painted wooden box with ventilation holes
on both sides. These boxes were secured at a height of 2 m on lamp posts or trees nearby.
The data loggers were pre-programmed to record the data continuously every 10 min.
Localized weather data are good reference for the measurement. Therefore, a HOBO
weather station was employed to monitor the weather condition. It was set up on a rooftop
of HDB near to the Kallang River. The sensors were installed at the edge of the rooftop to
avoid any possible influence from either the surrounding buildings or landscapes. Six
weather parameters were measured:
 Ambient temperature
 Relative humidity
 Wind velocity
 Wind direction
 Rain fall
33
 Solar radiation
1. Weather station
Figure 3.5 Weather station
The weather station was used as the reference point. The weather data were logged
into the HOBO Weather Station H21-001 with the following specifications:
- Memory: 512K non-volatile data storage
- Logging interval: 1 sec to 18 hours, user-selectable
- Operating range: -20oC to 50oC
- 10 sensor inputs, expandable to 15 with optional 1-to-2 sensor adapters
- Built-in weatherproof communication port
The station measured the following parameters:
- Solar radiation (W/m2)
- Ambient air temperature (C)
- Relative humidity (%)
- Wind direction (Degree)
- Wind speed (m/s)
34
- Rainfall (mm)
2. H08-003-02 HOBO temperature / RH data logger and solar cover
H08-003-02 was the main instrument used to measure the air temperature across the
sites installed at the height of 2 meters above the ground. The specifications are as
follows:
- Temperature measurement range: -20C to +70C
- Temperature accuracy: +- 0.2 at 21C
- RH measurement range: 0-95% RH non-condensing
- RH accuracy: +-3% RH; +-4% RH in condensing environments
Figure 3.6 Hobo Data Logger
3.4 Data Selection
The selected data for the study were chosen by analyzing climate data from the weather
station. As can be seen from Table 1, eight typical hot day (clear days) and 12 typical
cloudy/rainy day (cloudy days) for the Kallang study case area as well as nine clear days
35
and 13 cloudy days for the Sungei Api-api study case area were investigated to have a
better understanding of the cooling effect of the water way.
Table 1 Data selection
Clear days Cloudy/ rainy days
Kallang waterway 23rd and 24th of May; 19th, 22nd and 31st of May; 22nd
1st and 3rd of June; and 25th of June; 17th,
11th, 19thand 29th of July; 18th, 22nd and 26th of July; 7th,
24th of August 2010 10th and 20th of August 2010
Sungei Api-api 23rd of May; 31st of May; 8th, 10th and 25th of
11th, 15th,25th and 29th of July; June; 8th, 16th, 18th, 22nd and 26th
12th, 25th and 28th of August; of July; 20th and 27th of August;
9th of September 2010 8th and 10th of September 2010
Marina Bay 8th, 16th, 22nd , 23rd of of March ; 2nd, 3rd, 5th, 9th, 14th, 19th, 20th,
1st, 13th, 18th, 20th, 23rd, 26th, 27th 28th of March ; 19th, 21st, 24th of
of April ; 3rd, 19th, 21st, 22nd of April ; 7th, 17th of May 2012
May 2012
Bedok Reservoir 23rd, 25th, 27th of March ; 1st, 13th, 6th, 11th, 19th, 21st of April ; 4th,
18th, 23rd, 27th of April ; 9th, 10th, 7th, 15th, 17th, 27th of May 2012
16th, 22nd, 30th of May 2012
36
3.5 Method of Data Collection
The readings were collected between 7:30 a.m. and 7:30 p.m. The two time intervals were
chosen so that the effect of water bodies can be examined during the noon period. The
experiment was conducted over five months in each location during the stipulated time for
data collection. Two measurement locations were conducted from May to September 2010
and the rest from February to June 2012.
Ten-point measurement concurrent readings were taken during the time frame and at five
points along the water bodies; the remaining readings were taken at a location 30m in each
direction. One point was chosen as the reference point to determine if there are any
differences in air temperature due to the presence of the water bodies. Readings of the
environmental variables were recorded at ten-minute intervals. The reference points chosen
were closely characteristic of the area of water bodies.
Every 20 to 30 m away from the water bodies, tests were conducted at an average height of
2 m from the ground. This height was chosen for recording the air temperature as it is what
individuals experience. Temperature readings were only recorded when the wind speed is
below 2 m/s in order to eliminate and minimize the cooling effect brought about by the
wind.
3.6 Data Processing
The result from this experiment is expected to reveal the benefit of water bodies’ cooling
effect on the surrounding air temperature for both clear and cloudy days. Therefore, the
following steps were conducted before the analysis:
37
- Data selection: The data from rainy days are not included in the analysis.
- Data classification: The data are classified according to clear and cloudy days.
3.7 Method of Analysis
The analyses only consider the data during the day time on clear and cloudy days. A clear
day is defined as an irradiance level above 900 W/m2 and a cloudy day is defined as an
irradiance level of below 500 W/m2.
The parameters for the collection of objective data include the air temperature, wind
velocity, and solar radiation. The analyses, using Microsoft Office Excel software, were
performed to calculate whether the samples come from the normal population.
Furthermore, linear and polynomial regressions are applied to analyze the correlation of the
variables. The dependent variables are air temperature and solar radiation performance. The
independent variables are distance and variances in the surrounding microclimate near the
water bodies. Correlation and regression analyses are conducted in order to determine to
what extent water bodies have a beneficial cooling effect on the reduction of surrounding
air temperature.
Air temperature helps to register the impact the presence of the water bodies can bring to
the microclimate (Boussoualim, 2000). Wind influences the air temperature by bringing
about convective heat loss and evaporation. It can also help remove the humid air to
improve comfort as well. This study also used rainfall data records to determine hot sunny
days within the measurement period. Solar radiation influences individuals’ visual
38
perception and tactile senses. It is characterized by the received, emitted, and reflected
light. Its effect is perceived independently of air temperature.
3.8 Point Location of Experiment
The measuring points were chosen in order to determine the relative extent of the influence
of the cooling effect from the nearby water bodies. Five to six measurement points along
the waterway and five to six other points lined up away from the waterway were included.
3.8.1 Kallang River
Figure 3.7 Points located along the Kallang waterway
Figure 3.8 Points located along the Sungei Api-api waterway
39
3.8.3 Marina Bay Promenade and Marina Bay Promontory
Figure 3.9 Points located along the Marina Bay Promenade, points MP1 – MP5
Figure 3.10 Points located along the Marina Bay Promenade, points MP6 – MP8
40
Figure 3.11 Points located away the Marina Bay Promontory
Figure 3.12 Points located away the Bedok Reservoir
41
3.9 ENVI-met Simulation
ENVI-met is a three-dimensional non-hydrostatic model for the simulation of surface–
plant–air interactions within urban environments. It is designed for a micro scale with a
typical horizontal resolution of 0.5–10 m and a typical time frame of 24 to 48 hours. This
resolution allows for analyzing small-scale interactions among individual buildings,
surfaces, and plants. In this research, ENVI-met was employed to compare the temperature
profile conditions in Kallang, which cannot be observed in fieldwork study. The wider the
river, the higher the wind speed, changing surrounding cover with or without vegetation
(replaced with pavement cover) in the surrounding environment.
The basic aim of this study is to evaluate the practical applications of the model and
generate an innovative framework for its use. The research discusses the detailed constructs
of a simulation modeling procedure in order to see how the water bodies’ cooling effect
from the scenarios vary and to help urban planners in considering their open spaces,
especially in water bodies’ areas, and planning strategies in advance. The methodology will
follow the model’s own procedures, from establishing an information base to developing
criteria for the design of the micro-scale (and macro-scale) environments.
The initial boundary parameters were set according to real site conditions in the Kallang
waterway, where the field measurement was conducted. Based on the preliminary analyses
of weather data obtained from the field measurement, a clear sunny day was chosen: 29
July 2010. The air temperature, wind speed, and relative humidity settings are based on the
42
mean values of the weather data. The wind direction was set from the southwest to the
northeast.
Eighteen hours of simulation time were employed to allow the model to spin up and obtain
the optimum data. Setting sections were determined based on the material properties of the
water and grass park. The temperature was set similar to the outdoor air temperature in
order to fully investigate the cooling effects of the water bodies.
3.9.1 Simulation Procedure in ENVI-met
ENVI-met will be used to make a simulation based on the actual conditions in the Kallang
River area for a comparison with existing measurement results. The scenarios with the
water body area in Singapore, with a temperature profile of a normal summer day in
Singapore (i.e., temperatures up to 30°C), representing a clear day in Singapore, were used
for this study.
Based on the situation in the Kallang waterway, the experiment replaced the actual width of
the river to determine if an additional cooling effect occurs if the width of the river is
enlarged. In order to identify the wind velocity effect on the water bodies’ cooling effect,
the experiment enhanced the wind speed to be two times faster than the actual speed (1
m/s). The boundary conditions were further divided into more surrounding scenario
profiles. Two more surrounding scenarios were used to simulate river environs with grass
only and a river surrounded with pavement, regardless of the real condition, where the river
is surrounded with a 3-meter foot path along the waterway, grass area, and some trees.
43
For those simulations, the 29th of July 2010 was selected as the simulation day due to its
maximum solar radiation from the field measurement in the Kallang and Sungei Api-api
Rivers, Singapore. For each case, westerly winds at 3 m/s 10 m above ground level were
assumed to determine the effect of wind speed in the cooling performance.
3.9.2 Simulation Boundary Condition
A hot day was chosen for the analysis because small increases in comfort deliver the
greatest health benefits in thermally stressful conditions.
Table 2 Basic input parameters to the ENVI-met model
Location Tropic climate area (Singapore)
Date, time of simulation 29th July 2010; 1800 simulation hours
Initial wind 1 m/s and 2 m/s at 10 m above the ground from
350 deg. (slightly southwest to northwest)
Boundary conditions Temperature (at 2500m) = 293K
Specific humidity (at 2500m) = 3g/Kg
Grid size 100 x 100 x 20; X-Y grid spacing, 6 m; Z grid
spacing, 6 m
Plants Trees: 10 to 15 m high, dense foliage, deciduous
Grass: 5-cm grass covering
Surfaces/soil profiles Pavement profile: 60 cm depth, then loam down
to 2m.
Main road cover: asphalt
Soil initial conditions Temperature (-2m) = 290K
44
CHAPTER 4 OBJECTIVE DATA ANALYSIS
This chapter discusses the general cooling capacity of four bodies of water in Singapore
and investigates the capability of the different types of surrounding microclimates, which
might improve the cooling effect of the water through a simulation study. In order to
analyze the effect of water bodies on air temperature in a hot and humid climate, all the
data collected were normalized and compared with the reference point stipulated at
approximately 20–30 m away from the water bodies.
Data collected from the experiments were processed in a Microsoft Excel worksheet and
represented with graphs. The correlation tests revealed a positive relationship between air
temperature and solar radiation; the air temperature increased with regard to distance. Wind
was found to have a minimal effect on air temperature as data collection was restricted to
when wind velocity was 1 m/s and below; hence, for the analysis, wind velocity as an
influencing factor was eliminated. Temperature fluctuations can be attributed to humidity
and/or solar radiation, as humidity has a significant impact on air temperature.
4.1 A Comparison of Four Measurements in Regards to the Distance
In order to investigate the evaporative cooling effect of the four waterways, the average
temperatures from different points were obtained and compared. The average daytime
diurnal temperature was determined from a clear day, with an assumption of about 12 hours
of daytime, from 7:30 a.m. to 7:30 p.m. Figure 4.1 shows a comparison of daytime average
temperature (clear days) of points among the four water bodies investigated in this research.
Each point in the simulation result represents one point in the field measurement study in
four measurement locations. R represents point K8 along the Kallang waterway, A6 along
45
the Sungei Api-api waterway, point MP 9 along the Marina Bay, and point BC 9 along the
Bedok Reservoir. P1 represents point K1 in Kallang, A1 in Sungei Api-api, MP 11 in
Marina Bay, and BC 10 in Bedok. P2 represents point K2 in Kallang, A2 in Sungei Api-
api, MP 12 in Marina Bay, and BC 11 in Bedok. P3 represents point K3 in Kallang, A3 in
Sungei Api-api, MP 13 in Marina Bay, and BC 12 in Bedok.
4.1.1 Away from the Water Bodies (Clear Days)
Figure 4.1 Comparison of daytime average temperature (clear days) at points at a distance from the four
water bodies
Figure 4.1 shows that generally in the four waterways the average temperature near the
water bodies in a tropic area is quite high, at about 28.6oC to 30.3oC. As can be seen, the
four waterways showed an increase at point P1, which is located 20 to 30 m away from the
water bodies. This suggests that, during the day, the closer the measurement is to the
46
waterway, the cooler the temperature of the area is and that temperature variations are
relative to the distance. The diurnal difference in average temperature from the reference
point and P1 was found in range from 0.2oC up to 0.4°C.
Data collected in Kallang revealed that air temperature increases the further one moves
from the reference points; hence, one can expect the water bodies to bring about a possible
cooling effect in hot and humid climates, with enough solar radiation for the evaporation
process. Furthermore, point P2 in Kallang, Sungei Api-api, and Bedok showed an
increasing average temperature, whereas in Marina it showed a decreasing value. Air
temperature are expected to be cooler closer to waterways; as such, the average temperature
profile at the Marina Bay study case area seems to have unexpected trends. The result from
most of the points in this case show an inconsistency compared to the average temperature
profile at points near the other three waterways, although points P2 and P3 at Marina Bay
are closer to the CBD area. These findings suggest that, at Marina Bay, the surrounding
condition are likely to have more impact on the sensors’ readings, which cover up the
cooling effect from the waterway.
Point P3, located about 30 m beyond P2 (about 60 m away from the water bodies) also
shows an increasing value for the three waterways, compared to P2. In Sungei Api-api
River, the first three points are likely the only points that show a fairly evaporative cooling
effect from the waterway. There is a slight increase in average temperature at the points
further from the waterway. Looking at point R (a6-in Sungei Api-api) as the closest point to
the waterway, the temperature difference at the two nearest points from the waterway is
only 0.20˚C.
47
The Marina Bay case study shows a similar trend to the prior case studies: The further one
moves from the water bodies, the higher the temperature increase becomes, although the
temperature increase in Marina Bay overall is quite small. Figure 4.1 shows that Marina
Bay’s diurnal average temperature recorded near water bodies (point R) experienced a
cooling effect by an average air temperature of up to 0.15oC lower than further points (point
MP11). This insight suggests that the cooling effect occurred along the Marina Bay,
although some factors (e.g., high-rise buildings and other materials) might have affected the
data-recording process. Point MP9, the closest measurement point to the waterway, shows
29.30oC as the average temperature; point MP11, which is 20 meters from the border of the
waterway, showed an average temperature of 29.40oC; and at point MP12, the average
temperature decreased to 29.20oC—lower than average temperature at MP9. Prior findings
have suggested that a possible cooling effect caused by the wind near the road could have
affected the temperature decrease at point MP12. At MP13, the average temperature
decreased to 29.03oC—lower than point MP9, which is closer to water bodies. The possible
cause for this is the high-rise buildings, which create wind tunnels that allow winds to blow
at high velocity, thereby resulting in lower average temperatures. The results from Marina
Bay differ from the other case studies, which affirmed the cooling potential of the water
bodies.
In Bedok Reservoir also shows a similar trend with prior case studies. The measurement
record shows that the microclimate near the water bodies (Point BC9) experienced a
cooling effect, with an average 0.25oC lower air temperature than the further point (Point
BC10). This indicates that the environment is cooler near the water bodies. The temperature
at Point BC10 increased by 0.25oC compared to Point BC9, which is also around 0.25oC
48
lower than Point BC11. The average temperature difference between the points is
approximated to be 0.25–0.30oC for every point further from the reservoir where maximum
solar radiation occurs. The temperature decreases at Point BC12; the possible cause could
be the vegetation coverage nearby as shading and cooling effects from the vegetation cause
temperature decreases lower than the other measurement points.
The temperature difference for the Kallang River was about 0.3–0.4oC. For the Sungei Api-
api River, it was about 0.2oC. For Marina Bay, it is only up to 0.15oC, and Bedok is about
0.25–0.30oC for every 30-meter span away from the waterway. These findings suggest that
evaporative cooling from water bodies could produce cooler air for the surrounding area,
based on the distance, in a hot and humid climate.
The next immediate points (point P4 and P5) show a decreasing value in all locations. This
suggests that this measurement was most likely already influenced by the surrounding
conditions. The pavement and mature trees nearby could be one possible reason for the
inconsistent profile. On the contrary, the possible cause of the disparity for the Marina Bay
study is its close proximity to a CBD (Commercial Building District) area in Marina Bay.
4.1.2 Away From the Water Bodies (Cloudy Days)
Compared to the cooling capacity on clear days, on cloudy days (figure 4.2) the
temperature profile for the four bodies of water show a fairly constant trend and do not
indicate temperature changes at each measurement point during the day. There is no
evaporative cooling effect found during these particular times. The temperature profile was
shown to be unpredictable, with some points near the waterway (point R) being warmer
49
than the nearby point P1 while others where the evaporative cooling effect should be
evident remaining constant. This suggests that the water bodies did not provide a cooling
effect in terms of distance. In addition, producing the evaporative cooling effect from the
water bodies seems to depend on the solar radiation exposure. On a rainy or cloudy day, the
solar radiation is relatively low compared to clear conditions during daytime hours.
Figure 4.2 Comparison of daytime average temperature (cloudy days) at points at a distance from the four
water bodies
4.1.3 Along the Water Bodies (Clear Days)
In addition to examining the cooling capacity at points away from the water bodies, the
field measurement also studied points along the water bodies, which were shown to have a
similar temperature profile during the day as the water bodies.
50
Figure 4.3 Comparison of daytime average temperature (clear days) of points along the water bodies
Figure 4.3 shows that the average temperatures along each of the three measurements are in
a similar range. Some points have higher temperatures than other measurement points,
which might be due to the surrounding materials near the points. The average temperature
in Sungei Api-api shows the lowest value of 27.5oC on a hot day. This temperature might
have been affected by the nearby sea. The sea breezes could cause cooler air along the
river. In Kallang, the average temperature was 28.7oC, 1.2oC higher than Sungei Api-api,
while Marina Bay shows an average temperature of 29.3oC, which is 0.6oC higher than in
Kallang. This difference in average temperature suggests that the width of the river as well
as the surrounding cover can affect the temperature conditions near bodies of water.
51
4.1.4 Distance Effect with Polynomial Regression
4.1.4.1 Kallang River and Sungei Api-api River
The polynomial regression approach is used to examine the extent to which combinations
of two predictor variables related to an outcome variable, particularly in the case when the
discrepancy (difference) between the two predictor variables is a central consideration
(Linda et al., 2010). In this research the independent variable is solar radiation, and the
dependent variables are temperature and distance. These variables are used to determine to
what extent they can enable bodies of water to cool their surroundings. The data suggest
that this approach has the potential to address the research objective related to reducing
temperatures at a distance from water bodies.
Three typical hot days were chosen (23rd of May, 11th and 29th of July 2010) from the list of
clear days at Kallang and Sungei Api-api Rivers to examine the distance effect. The point
nearest the waterways in both study case areas (points k8 and point a6) were used as the
reference point to find the temperature reduction, as shown in figure 4.4 and figure 4.5.
For the regression at both the Kallang River (figure 4.4) and the Sungei Api-api River
(figure 4.5), a simple mathematical calculation was used to suggest that a reduction of the
evaporative cooling impact occurs in the range of 0.2oC to 0.3oC for every 30 to 35 meters
from the waterway. This finding, however, only applies during the day, with clear, hot,
sunny conditions.
The polynomial regression is shown in figure 4.4. In Kallang, the maximum cooling effect
extends about 65–70 m away from the body of water. After that point, the cooling effect
52
decreases in value. In addition, the water cooling effect can further spread the cooling to
approximately 120 m away. The Kallang profile had very few trees and was covered mostly
with grass near the water. This environment might have affected the water cooling
performance, suggesting that water bodies near grass-covered areas with several trees can
allow for cooling performance to a significant distance.
Figure 4.4 Correlation between temperature reduction and distance at Kallang
Figure 4.5 Correlation between temperature reduction and distance in Sungei Api-api
53
For the Sungei Api-api River, the regression trend shown in figure 4.5 seems similar to that
of Kallang. The maximum cooling effect from the waterway can reach about 70 m. The
farther the cooling effect reaches is 135 m, which is further than at Kallang. Sungei Api-api
is located near the sea, which might affect the river’s cooling performance as the sea breeze
could create cooler air in the surroundings.
4.1.4.2 Marina Bay and Bedok Reservoir
Using the same method as in Kallang and Sungei Api-api, four typical hot days (23rd of
March, 18th of April, 23rd of April, and 22nd of May 2012) were chosen from the list of clear
days at Marina Bay and Bedok Reservoir study case areas for the distance effect discussion.
The point nearest the waterway in both study case areas (point MP 9 and point BC 9) was
used as the reference point to find the temperature reduction.
Figure 4.6 Correlation between temperature reduction and distance at Marina Bay
Using a simple mathematical calculation, figure 4.6 and figure 4.7 indicate a reduction of
about 0.1˚C to 0.3˚C in evaporative cooling as far as 35 m from Marina Bay and Bedok
54
Reservoir. However, this finding only applies during daytime and in clear conditions (i.e.,
solar radiation performance reaches above 900 W/m2). As shown in figure 4.7, in Bedok,
the difference in air temperature reaches 0.25–0.35oC. The area around Bedok Reservoir is
similar to that of Pasir Ris Park (Sungei Api-api), but it is not affected by a sea breeze like
in Sungei Api-api. This cooling performance suggests that it can support the previous (i.e.,
2010) measurement results in nearby greenery areas, meaning the cooling effect might have
a better performance. Interestingly, Marina Bay also showed an increase for the
temperature profile of the second point away from the waterway; however, it is a small
value, with a temperature difference of less than 0.1°C compared to the reference point, as
shown in figure 4.6.
Figure 4.7 Correlation between temperature reduction and distance at Bedok Reservoir
55
4.2 Solar Radiation Effect on Water Bodies Cooling Performance
4.2.1 Kallang River
Further investigation is needed to see the water bodies’ cooling performance due to the
evaporation process based on the presence of solar radiation on a hot day. In the water
cycle, as water evaporates, it cools the surrounding air temperature. Thus, if water bodies
are exposed to solar radiation, the evaporation process could produce a cooling effect on
the air.
Figure 4.8: Comparison of diurnal average temperatures (clear days) at points away from the Kallang
waterway
Diurnal Average Temperature (clear day)

34.0
33.0
32.0
Temperature (°C)
31.0
30.0
k6
29.0
k7
28.0
k8
27.0
k9
26.0
k10
25.0
0:00 3:00 6:00 9:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00
Hour
Figure 4.9: Diurnal average temperatures (clear days) at points along the Kallang waterway
56
Figure 4.8 shows that the temperature difference could easily reach 1.8°C at the hottest
hour of the day, with point k3 as the warmest point (32.5°C) and point k1 as the coolest
point (30.7°C). However, after point k3, the temperature profile shows a significant
declining trend. One possible reason for this is that these points are influenced by the
nearby trees and may not actually experience the cooling effect from the waterway. The
average temperature at the points near the waterway, on the other hand, shows similar
result. With a fairly constant trend, the average temperature difference is up to 0.1°C, as
shown in figure 4.9.
For a comparison with diurnal average temperature on clear days, figure 4.10 shows the
diurnal average temperature on cloudy days. As can be seen, the diurnal average
temperature shows is about 27.5oC. There is no difference among the points, which should
increase the diurnal average temperature the further away from the water bodies, as shown
in figure 4.8. On cloudy days, the humidity is higher. In addition, with less heat absorbed
by the water vapor, the atmosphere cools rapidly. Thus, without the presence of solar
radiation, water bodies do not produce a cooling effect due to the evaporation process.
Diurnal Average Temperature (cloudy days)

34
ave near
Temperature (°C)
32
30 K1
28 K2
26
K3
24
0.00 3.00 6.00 9.00 12.00 15.00 18.00 21.00 K4
Hour K5
Figure 4.10: Comparison of diurnal average temperatures (cloudy days) at points away from the Kallang
waterway
57
Diurnal Average Temperature (clear days)
34.0
33.0
32.0
Temperature (°C)
31.0
30.0
ave near
29.0
k1
28.0 k2
27.0 k3
26.0 k4
k5
25.0
0:00 3:00 6:00 9:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00
Hour
Diurnal Solar Radiation (clear days)

900.0
solar radiation (W/m²)
750.0
600.0
450.0
300.0
ave SR
150.0
0.0
0:00 3:00 6:00 9:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00
Hour
Figure 4.11: Comparison of diurnal average temperature (clear days) at points along the Kallang waterway
with solar radiation
Further, as can be seen in figure 4.11, in order to investigate temperature profiles at the
Kallang study case area, the diurnal average temperature for points near and away from the
waterway are compared with the average diurnal solar radiation from the nearby weather
station. The figure shows that, using the nearby points (points k1 – k4) as a reference, the
meeting point of the diurnal graph of point k1 with other points can be said to be the start
and end of the cooling effect of the waterway due to the intensity of the solar radiation. By
58
looking at the diurnal solar radiation figure, the cooling effect is likely start at around 8:30
a.m., when the solar radiation reaches around 150-200 W/m², and end at around 6:30 p.m.,
when the solar radiation is less than 100 W/m².
Looking further at the diurnal average temperature of points away from the waterway
(figure 4.12), points a3, a4, and a5 are found to be warmer compared to points a1, a2, and
a6 during most of the daytime. As mentioned earlier, the former points are closer to the
hard surface around the center of the park, which may influence the HOBO reading and
cover the effect of the evaporative cooling from the waterway. Using point a6 (the closest
point to the waterway, with relatively less influence from the beach and sea breezes) as the
reference point, points a1 and a2 tend to have warmer average temperatures during the
early part of the day and become slightly cooler toward the end of the day. The morning
solar radiation seems to have a greater impact on the evaporative cooling of the waterway
to start giving the cooling effect to its surrounding. Further analysis of the extent of
evaporative cooling with solar radiation performance is described later. The hottest point
during the day was found at point a3, with a maximum average temperature of 32°C.
During the night, when there is no solar radiation, most of the points are found within the
same range of average temperature (25°C–26°C).
59
33.0
32.0
Temperature (°C) 31.0

30.0
29.0
a6
28.0
a1
27.0 a2
26.0 a3
a4
25.0
a5
24.0
0:00 3:00 6:00 9:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00
Hour
Figure 4.12: Comparison of diurnal average temperatures (clear days) at points away the
Sungei Api-api River

34
Temperature (°C)
32 a6
30 a1
28 a2
26 a3
24 a4
0.00 3.00 6.00 9.00 12.00 15.00 18.00 21.00
a5
Hour
Figure 4.13: Comparison of diurnal average temperatures (cloudy days) at points away from the Sungei Api-
api River
From figure 4.13, the Sungei Api-api River’s diurnal average temperature on cloudy days
shows a similar trend as in Kallang (figure 4.10). The average temperature shows 26 oC.
There is no indication of increasing diurnal average value at Sungei Api-api on clear days
(figure 4.12). This result supports the previous finding from Kallang: Without the presence
of solar radiation, water bodies’ cooling effect does not occur.
60
33.0
32.0
31.0
Temperature (°C)
30.0
29.0
a6
28.0
a7
27.0
a8
26.0
a9
25.0
a10
24.0
0:00 3:00 6:00 9:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00
Hour
Figure 4.14: Diurnal average temperatures (clear days) at points along the Sungei Api-api waterway and the
beach
As can be seen in figure 4.14, a similar trend occurs at points a8, a9, and a10, with an
average of 32.5oC. On the other hand, point a7 shows a lower average temperature, about
31oC, than the same reference point (a6). The range in differences between these points
shows an inconsistent value, where the results were expected to have similar average
temperatures at all points. Points a7 to a10, however, are closer to the beach. It is believed
that they are affected by sea breezes. These findings suggest that in the Sungei Api-api
River area, the surrounding conditions are likely to have more impact on the sensor
readings, covering up the cooling effect from the waterway.
61
33.0
32.0
31.0
Temperature (°C)
30.0
29.0
28.0 a6
27.0
a1
26.0
25.0 a2
24.0
0:00 3:00 6:00 9:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00
Hour
Diurnal Solar Radiation (clear day)

900.0
750.0
600.0
450.0
300.0
ave SR
150.0
0.0
0:00 3:00 6:00 9:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00
Hour
Figure 4.15: Comparison of diurnal average temperature (clear days) at points along the Sungei Api-api
waterway with solar radiation
Figure 4.15 shows the relationships between the potential evaporative cooling from the
waterway and solar radiation. Using a similar analysis methods as with the Kallang
waterway, the figure suggests that the evaporative cooling in the Sungei Api-api area
started at around 8:30 a.m., when the solar radiation reached about 150 W/m², and ended
when the solar radiation was lower than 150 W/m² at 6:30 p.m.. This finding further
62
supports the earlier finding that evaporative cooling seems to depend on the availability of
solar radiation.

35
Temperature ((oC)
33
31 BC 9
29 bc 10
27 BC 11
BC 12
25
1.0 3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0 11.0 13.0 15.0 17.0 19.0 21.0 23.0
Hour
900
750
600
450
300 SR
150
0
1.00 4.00 7.00 10.00 13.00 16.00 19.00 22.00
Hour
Figure 4.16: Comparison of diurnal average temperature (clear days) at points along the Bedok Reservoir
with solar radiation
63
Similar to the prior results, Bedok Reservoir shows an increasing value from the diurnal
average temperature to points away from the reservoir on clear days (figure 4.16). As can
be seen, the cooling effect happens at about 8:30 a.m., when solar radiation is about 150–
200 W/m2. The air temperature in the Bedok Reservoir area gradually decreases after
reaching its peak at 3:00 p.m., with the average temperature decreasing by 0.25oC at point
BC 10 and 0.20oC at BC 11. The amount of decrease, however, diminishes as it neared 6:00
p.m. This decrease is related to the dissipated heat stored during daylight. Water generally
reflects an amount of solar radiation, but at the same time, it absorbs a substantial amount
as well (Robitu et al., 2003).

33
32
31
Temperature (°C)
30
29 BC 9
28 BC 10
27
BC 11
26
25 BC 12
24
1.00 6.00 11.00 16.00 21.00
Hour
Figure 4.17: Diurnal average temperatures (cloudy days) at points away from the Bedok Reservoir
During cloudy weather, the results from the Bedok Reservoir show a similar trend as
Kallang and Sungei Api-api measurements. As shown in figure 4.17, on a cloudy day, the
area has a low amount of solar radiation exposure and no cooling effect, resulting in no
64
differences in the diurnal average temperature between the points. This also suggests that,
in the absence of solar radiation, the evaporation is non-existent. This phenomenon seemed
to be in fair agreement with the conclusions of Huang et al. (2008).
4.2.4 Marina Bay
Figure 4.18: Comparison of diurnal average temperatures (clear days) at points away from the Marina Bay
Figure 4.18 shows the relationship between potential evaporative cooling from the
waterway and solar radiation. A similar trend occurred at Marina Bay waterway. Using the
same analysis methods as with the Kallang waterway, the data indicate that the evaporative
cooling at Marina Bay starts at around 8:30 a.m., when the solar radiation reaches about
150 W/m², and ends when the solar radiation falls below 150 W/m² at about 6:30 p.m. This
insight supports the prior finding that the evaporative cooling seems to depend on the
availability of solar radiation. Marina Bay showed some distinct differences from other
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cases. At the first point (MP 10) away from the reference (MP 9), the temperature increased
by 0.15oC. At further points, it significantly decreased. This difference likely stems from
the location in the CBD (Central Building District) area, which might affect the
performance of the water bodies’ cooling effect.
Further investigation, shown in figure 4.19, indicates inconsistencies in the diurnal average
temperature along the waterway, ranging from 31.5oC to 33oC (average of 32oC). The range
seems greater than at Kallang and Sungei Api-api, where similar diurnal average
temperatures were recorded at points along the water bodies. This suggests that, in the
Marina Bay case study, the surrounding conditions (i.e., pavement and building materials)
affect the water bodies’ cooling effect.

34
33
Temperature (oC)
32
31 MP 1
30 MP 2
29 MP 3
28
MP 4
27
26 MP 8
00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00
Hour
Figure 4.19: Comparison of diurnal average temperatures (clear days) at points along the Marina Bay
66
33
32
31
Temperature (°C) 30
29 MP 9
28
MP 11
27
26 MP 12
25 MP 13
24
1.00 4.00 7.00 10.00 13.00 16.00 19.00 22.00
Hour
Figure 4.20: Diurnal average temperatures (cloudy days) at points away from Marina Bay
Unlike diurnal average temperatures on clear days at points away from the water bodies, on
cloudy days (figure 4.20) the trend seems to be a lower average temperature and a similar
diurnal temperature at each point. In addition, the area has a low amount of solar radiation
exposure. This result supports the previous findings that, without the presence of solar
radiation, there is no occurrence of water bodies’ cooling effect.
67
900
750
600
450
300 SR
150
0
1.00 4.00 7.00 10.00 13.00 16.00 19.00 22.00
Hour
Figure 4.21: Comparison of diurnal average temperature (clear days) at points along Marina Bay with solar
radiation
Figure 4.21 shows the relationship between the potential evaporative cooling from the
Marina waterway and solar radiation performance. The cooling effect starts around 8:30
a.m., with 100–150 W/m2 of solar radiation. Solar radiation peaks at 3:00 p.m., with
radiation reaching 900–950 W/m2 and a temperature of 32oC. Evaporative cooling ends
68
when the solar radiation falls below 150 W/m2 at 6:30 p.m. This finding is similar to the
findings in 2010 from the Kallang and Sungei api-api waterway, indicating that evaporative
cooling depends on the availability of solar radiation.
Research has revealed that, in contrast to a shallow pond, a larger one will register higher
temperatures (Sugawara et al., 2009), suggesting that the water bodies in Marina Bay
should have a high temperature given its substantial breadth. In addition, Marina Bay might
be somewhat ineffective in cooling the environment given the high heat capacity of its
surroundings. Further, it could be a concern as the air temperature near the water could
eventually be the same or even higher than the surrounding air temperature in nearby urban
areas. This result supports Takahashi’s (2004) finding that increasing urban temperatures
by diminishing green areas, increasing building density, and changing the street surface
coating materials can lead to overheating due to the absorption of solar radiation on dark
surfaces and the surrounding environment.
4.2.5 Solar Radiation Effect with Linear Regression
Four typical hot days (23rd of March, 18th of April, 23rd of April, and 22nd of May 2012) and
four cloudy days (19th April, 21st April, 7th May, and 17th May) were chosen from the list of
clear days at Marina Bay and Bedok Reservoir to examine the correlation between solar
radiation and temperature differences.
69
Solar Radiation and Temperature difference
2
Temperature difference (oC)

1.5
y = 0.0009x + 0.1819
1 R² = 0.4758 cloudy day
clear day
0.5 Linear (cloudy day)
y = 0.0003x + 0.0983
R² = 0.36 Linear (clear day)
0
-200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
-0.5
Solar Radiation
Figure 4.22 Correlation between temperature reduction and solar radiation
It can be seen in figure 4.22, the correlation between solar radiation and temperature
reduction shows relative agreement between the experimentally measured data, suggesting
a relatively good estimation given the good correlation between solar radiation and water
bodies’ cooling effect on their surroundings.
4.3 Overall Field Measurement Findings
Based on the data collected and analyzed from the four field measurements, water bodies
can cool the air near the water bodies, lowering air temperatures in nearby environments.
The presence of water bodies obviously improves the thermal environment on hot sunny
days by cooling the air over a distance. The temperature decreases about 0.20–0.40oC for
every 30 meters moved away from the water bodies. However, the cooling effect is limited
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to its immediate surroundings. The regression results suggest that the water bodies’ cooling
effect could extend to approximately 100 meters in its surroundings.
Furthermore, the field measurements indicated that water begins to evaporate at about 9:30
to 10:00 a.m. as solar radiation increases. The highest temperature of the day occurred
between 1:00 and 3:00 p.m. caused by the highest solar radiation of the day. The
temperature subsequently dropped due to decreased solar radiation. The nearer to the water
bodies, the cooler the ambient air temperature was. The air temperatures near the water
bodies were found to be 1.7-1.8°K cooler than the further points. This result shows that the
temperature drop is induced by the evaporation of water from the water bodies. However,
the fourth study also found that solar radiation plays an important role. Evaporation is
always associated with the heat transfer between water and air, meaning solar radiation is
essential in the process as it provides the energy needed to change liquid water into water
vapor. The results support the hypothesis established in the beginning of the paper as it is
especially prevalent that water bodies provided a significant cooling effect in the day with
enough solar radiation performance.
4.3.1 Additional Findings
As already explained in the previous paragraph, solar radiation plays an important role in
water bodies’ cooling effect performance through evaporation. It affects the temperature
reduction over a distance. The drop in temperature shown in the results could be further
analyzed in correlation to relative humidity, which plays an important role in temperature
reduction. Solar radiation, which causes water evaporation, might result in increased
humidity in the area. A higher humidity level contributes to a lower temperature. This
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possibility might be used to assess the impact of what already appears to be very small
cooling margins in this research. The correlation between relative humidity and temperature
has the potential to fundamentally alter the conclusion that there is a small but significant
benefit. The average relative humidity graph has been analyzed from selection clear days
(Table 1) in Kallang and compared to the average temperature on clear days in Kallang
along and away from measurement points.
Water bodies’ evaporation during the day could increase the relative humidity amount in
nearby areas. As can be seen in figure 4.23 and figure 4.24, the increase of relative
humidity could produce a decrease of temperature near the water bodies and vice versa.
Comparison of average day time day temperature and relative

humidity along the waterway
31 80
Average temperature
30.5 78
30 76
29.5 74
29 72
28.5 70
28 68
K6 K7 K8 K9 K10
Location
Avg temp. tools along the river Avg humidity along the river
Figure 4.23 Comparison between temperature and relative humidity along the waterway
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Comparison of average day time day temperature and relative
humidity away the waterway
31 80
Average temperature 30.5
75
30
29.5 70
29
65
28.5
28 60
K8 K1 K2 K3 K4 K5
Location
Avg temp. tools away the river Avg humidity away the river
Figure 4.24 Comparison between temperature and relative humidity away from the waterway
Figure 4.25 Correlation between average relative humidity and average temperature on clear days in Kallang
Figure 4.25 shows that temperature and relative humidity have a negative correlation. This
suggests that relative humidity affects water’s cooling effect performance. However, this
research is most likely not focused on outdoor thermal comfort; hence, relative humidity
has not been investigated in depth in this research.
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CHAPTER 5 ENVI-MET SIMULATION ANAYLSIS
Operative temperature is the air temperature equivalent affected by radiation and
convection in the actual environment. It is technically defined as the uniform temperature
of an imaginary enclosure in which an individual exchanges the latent heat by radiation and
convection, as occurs in the actual environment (Turner, 2004). This chapter presents a
simulation analysis in order to study the water bodies’ cooling effect unable to be
investigated in the field measurement. Five scenarios are simulated to investigate the
temperature profile of each scenario. Therefore, a parametric study, which is the cross-
references between the results obtained from the investigation and boundary data, is
performed to observe the impact of the cooling effect for each scenario.
The numerical simulations have been carried out using ENVI-met version 3.1 Beta2 (Bruse
and Fleer, 1998). The field measurement area has been transformed in a 100 x 60 x 20-grid
model grid with a resolution of 6 m x 6 m x 6 m, resulting in total area of 480 m x 240 m
along the horizontal axis.
This investigation examines the effect of the water bodies’ cooling process on the
surrounding environment when exposed to different conditions. In addition, the study
investigates to what extent the surrounding environment affects the cooling effect
performance of the water bodies. According to the previous field measurement findings of
four different regions near water bodies in Singapore, the temperature increases the further
one moves from the water bodies, thereby proving the cooling effect from water bodies,
although the reduction of temperature is minor. The water cooling effect occurs when the
weather is clear and the solar radiation intensity is 900–1000 W/m2. Therefore, the
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boundary condition of the simulation study, which was conducted on 29th July 2010, is
based on the measurements from the Kallang waterway in Singapore.
5.1 Simulation Validation
Figure 5.1 Comparison of diurnal average temperature of field measurement and simulation on Kallang River
Figure 5.1 shows a comparison of diurnal temperatures on 29 July 2010 between field
measurement results and simulation results. R represents point K1 in the field measurement
study and point P5 in the simulation; both are reference points. A1 to A5 references K2 to
K6 in the Kallang field measurement and P6 to P10 in the simulation study. Generally, as
can be seen in figure 5.1, a similar trend occurs for both profiles. A1 shows a higher
average temperature compared to R, which is about 30 m from the waterway. A2, located
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60 m from the water, shows a higher average temperature than A1. A3 is the maximum
temperature profile that could be reached in both studies. Thus, from R to A3, which is
moving away from the waterway, shows the water bodies’ cooling effect on the
surrounding area. However, both studies show a decline in A4 and A5, which might happen
because green areas have their own cooling performance from trees’ shading; thus,
greenery might have a cooling effect as significant as water bodies.
A similar trend between both studies shows that the ENVI-met simulation could represent
almost all spots of field measurement. Thus, the ENVI-met simulation could help conduct a
parametric study in this research. The detailed study of each scenario is explained in the
following sections.
5.2 Scenario 1: Kallang River Real Condition
Figure 5.2 represents the condition at 10:00 a.m, which indicates the initial phase of the
cooling effect from the water bodies. Generally, the simulation results show a similar trend
as the field measurement. The evaporation of the water bodies has begun, thus the cooling
effect is produced and extended into the surrounding area. The temperature profile indicates
the water’s initial phase of cooling effect, ranging between 27oC and 28oC at this time.
Points P1 and P2 indicate the temperature profile before reaching the water bodies’ area. P1
seems the warmest point of the temperature profile: 27.80oC in the morning. Even closer to
the water bodies is P2 (20 m from the water bodies), which shows a lower temperature at
about 27.5oC. Thus, the temperature decreases closer to the water bodies (point P3), and the
heat from the surrounding area can be reduced in line with the presence of the water bodies.
P3 shows a lower profile compared to P2 and a 0.20oC temperature difference at 27.30oC.
As the wind blows from the southwest to the northeast, it brings some surrounding heat into
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the water bodies. P4 represents the other outer line of the river, which represents the
temperature of the cooling performance of the water bodies due to the evaporation process.
The temperature is the lowest in the surrounding area, at about 27.10oC at this time. P5 to
P10 represent the same point as Kallang field measurements (point K1 to K6), indicating
the water’s cooling effect through the simulation. P5 (point K1 in the field measurement
study) indicates the same temperature as the water bodies (P4). P6 (representing point K2)
is 30 m further away from the water bodies and has a temperature of 27.25oC, 0.15oC
higher than point P5. As can be seen in the section view, the temperature starts to increase
from point P7. P7 to P10 are all at about 27.30oC, which is slightly higher than P6. This
suggests that, in the morning, the evaporation of the water bodies has just begun, with the
solar radiation values ranging from 150 W/m2 to 250 W/m2; thus, the cooling effect has not
yet extending far into the surrounding still. The simulation result shows a similar
temperature profile as the field measurement findings.
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P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10
Figure 5.2 Temperature profile of Kallang River at 10.00 a.m.
The section viewed in figure 5.2 also shows that the heat extends 10 m above the ground in
the morning. Buildings and roads might produce significant heat in the surroundings. As
can be seen, the cooling of the water starts to have an effect on the surroundings at point
P5, as indicated by the lower height of the heat produced near the water bodies at about 4 m
above the ground, which increases every 30 meters moving away from the water bodies,
shown by points P6 to P9.
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P1 P2 P3 P4P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10
Figure 5.3 Temperature profile of Kallang River at 1.00 p.m.
Figure 5.3 represents the temperature profile condition of the Kallang River at 1:00 p.m.
The 1:00 p.m. profile was chosen because it represents the highest temperature value in the
field measurement study, when the solar radiation reaches its highest value (above 900
W/m2). Generally speaking, the simulation result indicates that the evaporation of the water
bodies generates a cooling effect, which is then carried by the wind into the surroundings.
The temperature profile indicates the initial phase of cooling effect performance of the
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water bodies, and the temperature shows a high range between 29oC to 30oC at this time. In
the afternoon, P1 and P2 indicates the highest temperature profile for surroundings at about
30oC, suggesting that buildings and roads produce a lot of heat due to their high value of
absorption of solar radiation. The section view also shows that the heat is reaching twice as
high as in the morning: It is about 20 m above the ground. At point P8, as in the field
measurement, the cooling effect from the water bodies seems lower. Nearby vegetation
may be the reason for this result. Points P8 to P10, as in the field measurement study,
interestingly show a similar trend in lower temperatures. Again, nearby vegetation might be
the cause of this. This point leads to an assumption that water bodies give a similar amount
of cooling effect compared to that produced by vegetation during clear weather.
Figure 5.4 shows the temperature profile condition of Kallang River in the evening time.
Namely, 5:00 p.m. was chosen as it represents the crossing diurnal temperature profile
when the water bodies’ cooling effect has stopped. The temperature profile indicates the
highest value of the initial phase of the cooling effect performance compared to morning
and afternoon time profiles. The temperature shows a range between 29.5oC and 30oC at
this time. As can be seen, points P1 and P2 are still the warmest points in the day (about
30oC). The section view shows that the heat is still reaching about 10 m above the ground,
as in the afternoon, suggesting that buildings and roads might be releasing their heat from
the solar radiation absorbed during the daytime. P3 shows a higher temperature value
compared to P3 in the afternoon, suggesting that water bodies are releasing the heat they
absorbed from the solar radiation during the day. Point P3, however, shows a lower
temperature profile (29.80oC) compared to point P2; the temperature difference is about
0.30oC. This suggests that the air temperature near the water bodies tends to be lower than
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the surroundings. Points P4 and P5 as references are 29.5oC, which is the highest air
temperature in the morning and afternoon profiles of the day.
P1 P2 P3 P4P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10
Figure 5.4 Temperature profile of Kallang River at 5:00 p.m.
The section view shows that heat released from the rural area at 5: 00 p.m. (figure 5.4), is
higher than at 1:00 p.m. (figure 5.3). Points P1, P2, and P3 indicate that the evening
temperatures are about 0.7oC–1oC higher than the afternoon ones. In the evening, rural
areas are releasing their heat absorbed during the day. The cooling of the water from
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evaporation is starting to lower due to the minimum presence of the solar radiation. P4
shows the temperature of 29.5oC, which is 0.7oC higher than the afternoon time at the same
point, indicating that water bodies are also releasing their heat from the solar radiation
gathered during the day. Thus, the cooling effect is continues at this time profile, as shown
by points P6 (29.65oC) and P7 (29.75oC), whose temperatures are still increasing. The
temperature profile starts to lower at point P7, 1 point closer to the water bodies, compared
to the afternoon (figure 5.3), which starts to lower the temperature at point P8. This
suggests that, in the evening, water bodies spread their cooling effect to about 60 m away,
about 30–50 m shorter than in the afternoon.
Figure 5.5 Comparison of diurnal average temperature of Kallang River at three times
Figure 5.5 shows the comparison of diurnal temperatures in Kallang for different times in
one day. Based on the three modeling profiles, the amount of the cooling effect can be
observed from the temperature difference between water bodies and the surroundings.
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Generally, the trend of the graph shows that the temperature of the air entering water bodies
is higher than the air leaving water bodies. The evaporation from the water bodies carries
the cooling effect from the water bodies and spreads it to the surrounding area. As can be
seen, the morning generally has lower temperatures (average of 27.5oC), with a presence of
about 200–250 W/m2 solar radiation recorded in the field measurement for this time. In the
afternoon, the average temperature is 29.30oC, almost a 2oC difference from the morning.
At this time, solar radiation reaches more than 900 W/m2. This suggests that solar radiation
plays an important role in the evaporation process that produces water bodies’ cooling
effect. In the evening time, the average temperature is slightly higher than in the afternoon,
with a lower solar radiation presence (250–300 W/m2) at this time. This suggests that the
cooling effect will not be produced without enough solar radiation performance. On the
other hand, a higher temperature profile at this time suggests that pavement material and
also the water bodies themselves are releasing heat from the solar radiation absorbed during
the day.
The result of this scenario provides important insights related to the solar radiation and
cooling performance of the water bodies from field measurement results. The three
simulation profiles have shown that the trend of cooling performance of the water bodies
depends on the amount of the solar radiation, which causes evaporation and produces the
cooling effect.
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5.3 Scenario 2: Kallang River with a Wider Waterway
This scenario is based on the three profiles in scenario 1, with a modification for a wider
waterway. This scenario tries to unravel the relationship between the size of water bodies
and the amount of the cooling effect. The waterway used in this scenario is twice as wide as
the original one. Basically, this scenario profile seems to have a similar pattern of the
spreading of the cooling effect compared to Kallang’s real condition scenario using the
original width of the Kallang River. The average temperature is lower for the wider river;
however, the distance that the water cooling effect spreads seems lower compared to the
original river width.
As can be seen in figure 5.6, in the morning, the water bodies seem to produce their
evaporation process, yet the cooling effect is not occurring at a distance from the water
area. In tropical areas, the humidity level in the morning is quite high; therefore, when the
water area is bigger, it produces more humidity, and the surrounding temperature tends to
be lower. As in the previous scenario, points P1 and P2 also indicate a higher temperature
profile. The temperature decreases as it nears the water bodies (point P3). This suggests that
the heat from the surrounding area can be reduced in the presence of water bodies. The
different pattern compared to the real condition scenario is that, in the morning, with a
wider river, the water bodies seem to have a minimum spreading of the cooling effect. The
area near the water is cooler than at about 30 meters away (P5 up to point P6), which
averages 27oC. Between points P6 and P10, the surrounding area seems to have a similar
temperature profile. Given Singapore’s high humidity level in the morning, adding water
areas could produce more humidity and cooler surrounding temperatures.
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P1 P2 P3 P4P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10
Figure 5.6 Temperature profile of Kallang River with a wider river width at 10.00 a.m.
Figure 5.7 shows in the 1:00 p.m. profile with the wider river scenario compared to real
condition in the same time profile; a similar trend profile emerges in terms of the spread of
the water cooling effect. The difference is in the average temperature profile as the wider
river is 0.5oC lower than the real condition. The cooling effect extends only 50 meters,
about 30 meters shorter compared to the real condition in the same timestamp.
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P1 P2 P3 P4P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10
Figure 5.7 Temperature profile of Kallang River with a wider river width at 1:00 p.m.
In figure 5.7, P4 represents the air temperature above the water (29.08oC). In the immediate
point (P5), the temperature increases by 0.15oC, which supports Sugawara et al.’s (2009)
claim that, in contrast to a shallow pond, a larger one registers higher temperatures. In
addition, in a tropical area, a larger water area could add to the humidity level of the
surroundings. Point P7 shows a decreasing average temperature, suggesting no significant
cooling effect spread by water bodies. Yet it could also signal that a larger water area might
lower the average temperature because water bodies produce more evaporative cooling. In
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addition, in the tropics, a larger water body area could produce more humidity, which cools
temperatures.
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10
Figure 5.8 Temperature profile of Kallang River with a wider river width at 5:00 p.m.
In figure 5.8, as in the real condition scenario, the average temperature is higher in the
evening than in the afternoon. In this case, the wider river seems to produce a significant
heat release after absorbing solar radiation during the day. The average temperature
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(29.60oC) is about 0.60oC higher than in the afternoon. Thus, in general, a larger river could
absorb a bigger amount of solar radiation exposure during the day and release a significant
amount of heat in the evening time. On the other hand, a larger water area could provide a
better cooling environment by increasing the humidity level in the evening time, as can be
seen that releasing heat from surrounding vegetation produces a cooler environment.
Figure 5.9 Comparison of diurnal average temperature of real condition and wider river on Kallang
According to figure 5.9, a wider river creates more evaporative water, thereby leading to
cooler average air temperatures. The average temperature of the wider Kallang could lower
the surrounding air temperature by about 1oC compared to the actual river size. This
suggests that, in hot and humid climates, more water could provide more evaporation and
higher humidity levels, resulting in cooler air in the surrounding area. Therefore, a bigger
area of water bodies (related to the bigger amount of evaporated water) increases the
cooling effect from the water bodies.
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5.4 Scenario 3 : Kallang River with Wind Speed of 2m/s
The added parameter applied in this scenario model is the wind speed. As a lower wind
speed decreases the amount of evaporation from the earth’s surface, in this scenario, the
velocity of the wind increases to 2 m/s—twice as fast as the average velocity in the field
measurement (about 1 m/s).
In the morning (figure 5.10), generally the average temperature for the Kallang wind speed
scenario is very low: on average, 25.20oC, which is 3oC lower than the real condition
scenario. It is assumed that the evaporation process is lower due to the lower solar radiation
exposure, yet the velocity of the wind itself could produce a cooler environment. As shown
in points P5 to P10, the cooling of the water bodies is also assumed to have a minimum
effect on the surroundings in the morning. As the wind speed blows from the southwest to
the northeast, a higher wind speed in this model brings much of the rural areas’ heat from
the southwest to the water bodies, shown in point P3 in each time profile in this scenario.
P4 represents the water bodies, showing a temperature of 25oC. As mentioned before, in
Singapore, the humidity level is very high, thus the temperature is low. Increased wind
speed could reduce air temperatures to create a much lower temperature profile. This might
be the reason for the average temperature at the reference point in the morning with a
higher wind speed being a very low value compared to all scenarios.
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P1 P2 P3 P4P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10
Figure 5.10 Temperature profile of Kallang River with wind speed 2m/s at 10.00 a.m.
In the afternoon (figure 5.11), generally the average temperature for the Kallang wind
speed scenario increases to an average of 28.10oC, up to 3oC higher than the morning
profile. This suggests that, in the afternoon, the surface material’s absorption during this
time increases the average temperature, even when a higher wind speed occurs.
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P1 P2 P3 P4P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10
Figure 5.11 Temperature profile of Kallang River with wind speed 2m/s at 1:00 p.m.
In addition, wind velocity influences the water bodies’ cooling effect when enough solar
energy is provided, as shown in figure 5.11. Points P1 and P2 in this scenario also have a
higher temperature, as they are influenced more by the urban area. P3 has a lower
temperature. P4 as the reference point is 28oC in the afternoon with a higher wind speed.
Compared to the real condition, it is about 1oC lower at the same time profile. Thus, with
the same amount of solar radiation, the air temperature could be lower with a higher
velocity of wind. In addition, with a higher wind speed, the cooling effect from the water
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bodies extends to about 60 m away, 20–30 m less than the real condition in figure 5.2,
which extends to 90 m from the water bodies. In addition, in the afternoon, with a high
value of solar radiation, a wind speed of 2 m/s did not contribute much more to water
bodies’ cooling performance than the 1 m/s wind speed. On the other hand, with a higher
wind speed, trees’ shade produced more cool air.
Points P5 and P6 showed insignificant increasing values compared to the water bodies’ air
temperature. The temperature difference was up to 0.5oC, leading to the assumption that the
wind velocity has less influence on water bodies’ cooling effect compared to other profiles.
In addition, nearby trees could help cool the air (from the trees’ shade), as the wind blows
faster. In some open spaces (lawn cover), the average temperature increased by up to
0.20oC. Thus, higher wind speeds could also help water bodies spread their cooling effect.
At point P7, the average temperature decreased to 28.05oC; this continued at point P8,
which had the same average temperature as the water’s surface. As previously suggested,
with a higher wind speed, the temperature under the trees is producing significantly cooler
air.
Further, as with prior findings, the water bodies are assumed to have the same cooling
effect as vegetation. He and Hoyano (2008) found that water bodies have the potential to
cool the urban atmosphere as much as vegetation does. Nonetheless, a higher wind speed in
this case helped spread the evaporation cooling from the water bodies to the surrounding
areas.
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P1 P2 P3 P4P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10
Figure 5.12 Temperature profile of Kallang River with wind speed 2m/s at 5:00 p.m.
In the evening (figure 5.12), the heat from the urban area (points P1 and P2, on average
28.85oC) could reach out over the water bodies (point P3) and bring the heat further until
over the investigated area (point P5). Point P4, the reference point, shows a very low
exposure of evaporative cooling from the water bodies. Almost all the air temperature
above the water bodies is covered with the heat brought by the higher wind speeds from the
urban area. This result supports Taseiko (2008) and Oke (1987), who found that some wind
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patterns can transport pollutants/heat into an urban environment in their air quality studies.
In addition, at this time, there is lower exposure to solar radiation. Furthermore, based on
the simulation results in the wind speed scenario profiles, a higher velocity of wind causes
lower diurnal average temperatures. On the other hand, the cooling performance extend a
similar distance as water bodies’ cooling effect at a lower wind speed (given the same
amount of solar radiation).
The section view (figure 5.12) shows that, in the evening, the heat release reaches about 18
meters above the ground, about 5 meters higher than in the afternoon (section view-figure
5.11), which reaches up to 14 meters. On average, compared to the real condition case
(figures 5.3 and 5.4), which only reaches about 10 meters above the ground, the releasing
heat in the wind speed scenario is higher, suggesting that a higher wind speed might also
lift the heat from the earth’s surface higher.
Figure 5.13 Comparison of diurnal average temperature of Kallang real condition with 2m/s wind speed
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Figure 5.13 shows a comparison of Kallang’s real condition and Kallang with a higher
wind speed. Generally, the average temperature differs by almost 1.5oC between the two
scenarios. In both results, the average temperature at all points shows a similar trend. The
average temperature at P1 and P2 also shows a higher value, which decreases after reaching
the water bodies (P4). The 2 m/s wind speed profile shows a constant trend (P5 to P10),
compared to the actual wind speed model, which has an increasing value moving away
from the water bodies. Thus, wind speed might also affect the surrounding covers near the
water bodies (in this case, a vegetation cover). However, the higher wind speed could lower
the surrounding air temperature near the water area. According to the literature review, a
lower wind speed is one factor that could decrease the amount of evaporation from the
earth’s surface. Thus, a higher wind speed could help the evaporation process over water
bodies.
5.5 Kallang River with All Grass Covered Microclimate
In this scenario, the simulation model is based on the real condition in Scenario 1 with the
surrounding area near the waterway being replaced by an all grass cover. Similar conditions
in the timestamp are applied in this scenario conducted at 10:00 a.m., 1:00 p.m., and 5:00
p.m. The scenario results suggest that the water bodies’ cooling effect could be enhanced
with evapotranspiration from the greenery in the surrounding area; hence, the average
temperature shows a lower value. Furthermore, surrounding areas with grass vegetation
have a similar temperature as the temperature above the waterway.
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P1 P2 P3 P4P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10
Figure 5.14 Temperature profile of Kallang River with all grass surrounding cover at 10.00 a.m.
In the morning (figure 5.14), the average temperature is generally 26.05o–26.65oC, which is
quite low. The waterway has begun the evaporation process when the solar radiation is 150
W/m2, as recorded in the field measurement. Before reaching the water bodies, the
temperature shows a higher value in the surrounding area, averaging 26.50oC (points P1
and P2); the temperature immediately drops after reaching the water bodies (26.30oC, point
P3), and the lowest temperature is at point P4 (26oC), which is believed to represent the air
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temperature above the water bodies. P5, as the reference point, already shows an increasing
air temperature, at about 0.10oC higher compared to air temperature above the water bodies.
As can be seen in figure 5.14, the air temperature profile shows a higher value at each point
(point P6 to P10), increasing approximately 0.15oC for every span of 30 meters.
P1 P2 P3 P4P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10
Figure 5.15 Temperature profile of Kallang River with all grass surrounding cover at 1:00 p.m.
In the afternoon (figure 5.15), with solar radiation present, the water bodies are in the
evaporation process and the temperature above the waterway is about 29.65oC (point P4).
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In this case, interestingly it seems the water bodies spread a very low cooling effect to the
grass area. P5 shows a 0.20o–0.30oC difference from P4, which only 5 m away from the
waterway. Further, P6 also has minimal differences with the previous point, as the
temperature is 29.95oC. From point P8, the temperature continues to decrease until the end
of the investigated area, at 29.80oC. Thus, there is no significant temperature difference
between the grass covered surrounding and the waterway. This result suggests that water
bodies’ cooling effect has a low impact on the grass covered area since the area itself
already provides a similar cooling effect compared to that of the surrounding.
P1 P2 P3 P4P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10
Figure 5.16 Temperature profile of Kallang River with all grass surrounding cover at 5:00 p.m.
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In the evening, figure 5.16 shows that evaporation of the waterway is decreasing and the
temperature above the waterway is increasing (to almost 30oC) because of heat dissipation
from the solar radiation exposure during daylight hours. As can be seen, generally the
temperature of the grass cover is similar to that of the water bodies, suggesting that the
grass area is not experiencing much heat release compared to a pavement covered
surrounding area.
5.6 Kallang Waterway with All Pavement Covered Microclimate
The last scenario is still based on the real condition by using similar timestamp profiles for
the simulation model. The surrounding water way area is modified by the pavement
surface. Generally, water bodies with pavement surroundings have an average temperature
above the water surface of 29oC. The wind carries the cooling effect to the pavement area
about 65 meters further from the border of the waterway (point P4), a shorter distance than
the grass area cover and real condition scenarios. From point P8 in each timestamp, with
average temperature of 31oC, it is believed that the average temperature already represents
the pavement air temperature.
In the morning (figure 5.17), this scenario generally shows a lower temperature profile—
about 26oC on average, which is about 1o–2oC lower than the real condition scenario. This
suggests that the pavement is still absorbing a little solar radiation that may not produce a
significant heat amount in the morning. The morning humidity level in the tropical area
might also create a cooler air temperature.
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P1 P2 P3 P4P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10
Figure 5.17 Temperature profile of Kallang River with all pavement surrounding cover at 10.00 a.m.
In the afternoon (figure 5.18), generally, the greenery on the west side of the waterway (P1
and P2) shows a lower temperature compared to the pavement area at points P6 to P10. In
this case, P3 shows the same temperature as P4 (about 30oC), whereas in other scenarios P3
had a higher temperature than P4. P5, the reference point, has an increasing temperature
about 0.20oC 5 meters away from the water bodies. P6, P7, and P8 also have significant
temperature increases by about 0.20oC for every 30 meters beyond the water. This result
suggests that the heat released from the pavement is more dominant than the cooling effect,
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shown in points P8 to P10, which have a maximum 31.40oC temperature profile. In
addition, the heat dissipation from the pavement during daylight seemed to cause a
significant temperature increase.
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10
Figure 5.18 Temperature profile of Kallang River with all pavement surrounding cover at 1:00 p.m.
Generally, in the 5:00 p.m. profile (figure 5.19), the cooling effect of the waterway is
relatively longer compared to the afternoon (figure 5.18), with an average temperature of
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29.90o C. This occurrence is caused by heat dissipation from the pavement during the day.
The pavement and its surrounding area have a high temperature due to the nature of
pavement, being highly heat absorbent and demonstrating heat dissipation. The average
temperature above the waterway surface is also relatively high (30.80 o C), as shown in
point P4. This suggests that the waterway is beginning to dissipate heat; hence, evaporation
has stopped.
P1 P2 P3 P4P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10
Figure 5.19 Temperature profile of Kallang River with all pavement surrounding cover at 5:00 p.m.
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Figure 5.20 Comparison of diurnal average temperature of Kallang River with different surrounding cover at
10.00 a.m.
Figure 5.20 shows that, in the morning, the all grass cover scenario has a lower temperature
compared to Kallang’s real condition. In tropical areas, the morning humidity level is quite
high; the presence of greenery (lawn) increases the humidity level. Thus, the temperature
will be significantly lower. Compared to the all pavement cover scenario, the average
morning temperature is quite similar to the all grass cover scenario, indicating that not
much heat absorption has occurred from the solar radiation of the surrounding area
(building materials, road; in the field measurement 10:00 a.m. profile, solar radiation was
about 200–250 W/m2). However, Kallang’s real condition scenario has an average lower
temperature, compared to the field measurement.
Figures 5.21 and 5.22 generally show that the real condition is the lowest temperature
profile, compared to the all grass cover and all pavement cover. In the afternoon, solar
radiation has a significant value (more than 900 W/m2). This suggests that, with the
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presence of a high solar radiation value, the surrounding humidity will be lower, and the
water area could have a maximum evaporation process to cool the surrounding area.
Furthermore, the all grass cover has a bit higher temperature (on average 1oC higher) than
the real condition, suggesting that in the real condition, with the presence of trees, the shade
from trees will produce cooler air than the lawn area.
1:00 p.m.
The average temperature of the 5:00 p.m. profile (figure 5.22) shows a higher diurnal
average temperature value in all scenarios, suggesting that all material cover at this time
produces a significant release of the heat gathered from solar radiation during the day. This
result supports Huang’s (2008) fieldwork in Nanjing, which showed that water bodies were
registered to be cooler than concrete areas in the day. Tree shade might have more potential
to decrease air temperature compared to bare concrete or lawn areas.
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Comparison of Kallang diurnal temperature
33
32
31
Temperature 30
29 all grass
28 all pavement
27 kallang condition
26
25
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10
Location
5:00 p.m.
5.7 Overall Simulation Findings
Evaporative cooling from the water bodies is suitable for areas with a high air temperature
and low air humidity. In a high air humidity climate, evaporative cooling might be less
applicable if it is not supported with an increased air flow. The benefits of such a climate
model are useful in the urban planning of extreme desert or humid climates.
Based on the five simulation scenarios in the Kallang waterway case, some insights related
to the water evaporation can be discovered. Water evaporation depends on several factors,
which are air humidity, air and water temperature, surface area of the water, the velocity of
the wind over the water, and the amount of solar radiation exposure.
Water bodies absorb the heat from their surroundings when they evaporate and produce a
cooling effect. Then, the water molecules evaporate and leave the surface of the water
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bodies. The field measurement results indicated that the cooling effect seems to depend on
solar radiation to produce energy performance to produce evaporation. The heat from solar
radiation exposure increases the energy absorbed in the water and speeds up the
evaporation process. From the simulation experiments, the boundary condition attached to
solar radiation conditions were sufficient for producing a cooling effect that is 900 W/m2.
The wind increases the amount of evaporation as it carries the released vapor from the
water bodies to reduce humidity. The occurrence of wind is caused by differences in air
pressure, sending air to the lower pressure area. Increasing the wind speed increases the
cooling effect from the water bodies, cooling the environment for a longer distance.
However, wind speeds in Singapore are very limited, which might affect the extension of
cooling performance benefits. This result suggests that wind speed is also an important
aspect for the cooling effect of water bodies.
Other findings obtained from the simulations showed that the surrounding area near the
water bodies seems to affect the performance of water bodies in their efforts to cool the
environment. The measurement result is enhanced if the surrounding area is covered by
dense trees, as the cooling effect is influenced by evapotranspiration produced by the
greenery in terms of distance. Interestingly, the result from Scenario 3, the wider the river
width, did not result in a significantly greater cooling effect.
The aforementioned insights lead to the following conclusions:
 Water bodies contribute to the cooling effect performance in an environment,
although the amount is not considerably high.
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 The surrounding areas of the water bodies affect the cooling effect performance of
the water bodies.
 The wind increases the cooling effect performance of the water bodies.
 A wider river does not significantly increase the water cooling effect performance to
its surrounding area in terms of distance.
 Vegetation or solid materials (asphalt/pavements) in the surrounding area affect the
cooling effect performance of the water bodies.
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CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
6.1 Summary and Conclusion
In this study, experiments were conducted to identify any air temperature differences in
Singapore’s water bodies on a clear day using a reference point stipulated on average every
30 meters away and along the water bodies. In order to define and develop the source of
methodology, the objectives were establishing in Chapter 1, including observational
parametric studies to evaluate the trends of cooling extended by the water bodies that
should be defined by the simulation using ENVI-met experimental models. The main
conclusions drawn from this thesis are detailed under each of those objectives in the
following subsections.
Objective 1:
To determine the cooling effect and benefit of water bodies on their surrounding
microclimate in hot and humid climates.
A review of the current literature in Chapter 2 identified that water features (water wall,
fountain) in Singapore have a cooling effect on their surroundings—namely, about 0.5oC at
100 meters from water area. The field measurement and analysis data in Chapter 4
considered the effect of typical activities on water bodies (river, reservoir) in Singapore.
The main conclusions drawn from these studies generally indicate that the waterways in the
four locations clearly improve the thermal environment by cooling the air over an extended
distance. The cooling effect, however, was limited, and the temperature drop was found to
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be relative to the distance from the waterway. The studies found that the air temperature
increases an average of 0.2°C for every 30 meters moved away from the water bodies, to a
maximum of about 100 meters, until it is the same average temperature as the surrounding
environment. Thus, a water body could reduce the surrounding area’s temperature on a hot
sunny day. The high humidity climate in Singapore and the low wind conditions might be
one of the possible reasons for the increased temperatures.
Kallang River showed a higher capability to reduce air temperature than the other areas
studied, with a 0.3oC temperature variation every 35 meters from the water bodies. The
regression analysis showed that the water bodies reached the maximum cooling effect at
about 125 meters away. Marina Bay, however, recorded a higher temperature than the
reference point during the day. This conflicted with the literature review results that
indicated that water bodies were believed to have a cooling potential. The disparity could
be attributed to the large surface area and the location of the bay chosen, which gathered
heat during the day from the nearby CBD area. This result supports the work of Sagan et al.
(1979) and Myers (1992), who found that land cover change has a significant impact on
climate.
Objective 2:
To determine the possible impact of water bodies’ cooling effect on the air
temperature on a hot sunny day.
According to the literature review, evaporation from water occurs when molecules of the
water have a higher amount of energy than is needed and turn into as by colliding with
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other molecules. Molecules turn into a gas when the temperature is nearing the boiling
point with help from the solar radiation absorbed by the water. This is known as
evaporation.
In this study, experiments were conducted to identify any air temperature differences at the
water bodies in comparison to a reference point stipulated at 20 to 30 meters away from the
waterways. The results revealed that, in all experiments, the presence of water bodies in
Singapore displayed potential cooling effects on the surrounding areas on a clear day with a
presence of solar radiation. The cooling performance from the water bodies obviously
benefits in lowering the surrounding air temperature of the nearby environment in a hot and
humid climate. However, the cooling effect is limited to the waterway’s immediate
surroundings, compared to the sub-tropical areas, where the temperature reduction could
reach about 4oC in the presence of water bodies.
The results generally revealed that water bodies in a hot and humid climate produce a
significant cooling effect to the surrounding area on a hot sunny day. Looking at the diurnal
profile of the field measurement in four locations, the point of reference near the water
bodies showed a greater likelihood of higher air temperature than other reference points
further from the water bodies. This result shows that the temperature drop is induced by the
evaporation of water from the water bodies. However, the fourth study also found that solar
radiation plays an important role in providing a better temperature profile. Solar radiation
provides the energy needed to change liquid into water vapour in the evaporation process.
Evaporation is always associated with the heat transfer between water and air.
Consequently, solar radiation is essential in the process, as it provides the energy needed to
change liquid water into water vapor.
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Objective 3:
To identify different types of surrounding area near the water bodies in order to
investigate their impacts on the water bodies’ cooling effect.
Air temperature near water bodies is different from that over the land due to different
properties. Water is a transparent medium, and land is opaque. Water allows short-wave
radiation transmission to a considerable depth, leaving the surface layers cooler. A cooler
water surface results in cooler air temperatures above it. Normally thought of as a
landscaping area, potential cooling effects of water bodies are often neglected. Hence, the
simulation study tried to find the extent of cooling benefits from vast waterways in the
tropical climate of Singapore.
The ENVI-met simulation results generally related to the field measurement results,
although the formed indicated a modest cooling effect. Water bodies are notably able to
influence the surrounding thermal environment. The difference in air temperature due to
water evaporation through enough solar radiation input during the day is evident. Water
evaporation produces a cooling effect in the surrounding area near water bodies. Water
bodies with all grass surroundings produce the best results in terms of the cooling effect.
However, the simulation also suggested that there might be other parameters or factors that
are likely to have a stronger influence than water bodies and nearby vegetation. All these
findings suggest that water bodies in Singapore should be considered as a source for
improving the microclimatic conditions in outdoor spaces.
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6.2 Limitations of the Study
This research was completed with limitations and constraints, especially when conducting
the field experiment. Due to the limited studies on the impact of water bodies on a hot and
humid microclimate, the existing literature was limited in terms of information and
inference from relevant papers and reports.
The experiments were conducted with readings recorded from only four areas surrounding
water bodies in Singapore: Kallang and Pasir Ris Rivers in 2010 and Marina Bay and
Bedok Reservoir in 2012. Pasir Ris is located near the sea, and Marina Bay is located near a
CBD area; therefore, they might not reflect the conclusive results of the potential cooling
effects of water bodies in tropical areas.
The experiment was conducted with readings recorded from only several points of the
water bodies, meaning the results might not reflect conclusive findings of the potential
cooling effect by the water facilities. Instead, the precision of the data would have been
improved with temperatures taken from numerous water body locations in Singapore,
especially if the scale of the bodies of water were large. In addition, the types of materials
near each water body were not taken into account, although they might affect the rate of
absorption of the solar radiation, which will in turn affect the recorded air temperature.
In addition, the types of measurements used at each water body were taken nearly to the
greenery area, which might affect the rate of absorption of the solar radiation and, in turn,
affect the air temperature recorded. The cooling effect of the greenery area could also be
considered in the recordings.
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Data from the ENVI-met simulation experiments were gathered in the hopes that the results
would provide a better conclusion in assessing the effects on the water bodies’
environments in different scenarios and conditions around the water bodies. The goal was
to compare the results related to temperature increases among the three scenarios of the
simulated water area to determine which features provide a greater cooling effect.
However, these experiments relied on limited information because the water body in this
experiment was not moving water, although in reality it is a river (i.e., moving water).
6.3 Recommendations for Future Work
Based on this work, in order to assess urban environments, urban heat islands, and climate
changes in Singapore, thereby developing general guidelines for urban development based
on water bodies’ potential benefits, the following areas were identified for further research
to enlarge the scope of this work as well as identify opportunities for linking urban design
and climate.
1. The accuracy of the data will increase with temperature comparisons if readings are
taken from a greater variety of water bodies in Singapore to determine if the cooling
effect of water is applicable in a hot climate with a high humidity profile.
2. Qualitative or quantitative surveys for the area around the water bodies should be
conducted. Having determined the cooling capacity of the water bodies, in the
future, research needs to examine humans’ perceptions of its existence in terms of
thermal sensation, comfort level, humidity, and acceptance of the environmental
condition around it. Thermal sensation depends on the skin temperature while
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thermal comfort is dependent on the physiological state of an individual. This aspect
is important as the people will be the ones using such facilities; understanding the
thermal comfort condition in relation to the presence of a body of water will further
enhance facility planning.
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APPENDIX A
STATEMENT OF PERMISSION
I declare that I have obtained explicit permission from my co-authors for including some
figure from one peer-reviewed scientific journal manuscripts as chapters in this thesis
(Chapter 4).
They are :
• Wong Nyuk Hien;
• Tan Chun Liang, Terrence and;
• Steve Kardinal Jusuf.
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COOLING EFFECTS OF WATER BODY IN HOT AND HUMID CLIMATE

ANDRITA DYAH SINTA NINDYANI

(BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE, GADJAH MADA UNIVERSITY)

A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE

Andrita Dyah Sinta Nindyani

this thesis through You who gives me strength. I love you.

knowledge and immense wisdom greatly aided my scholarly development. He provided a

while I was planning and writing up my research for this thesis.

at one point or another, for which I am deeply grateful.

me throughout my academic accomplishments in a foreign land. To my dear parent, Papi

reason to believe. I love you both.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 1

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................ 9

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .................................................................. 29

CHAPTER 4 OBJECTIVE DATA ANALYSIS ................................................................. 45

CHAPTER 5 ENVI-met SIMULATION ANAYLSIS ........................................................ 75

CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ............................................................ 108

BIBILOGRAPHY .............................................................................................................. 115

APPENDIX A .................................................................................................................... 122

little thermal response. A study in sub-tropic regions found a difference of approximately

comparatively less attention.

waterways’ evaporative cooling performance fort the surrounding microclimate, especially

observe the impact of the cooling effect for each scenario.

temperatures in surrounding area increase by 0.15 to 0.20oC approximately 20–30 meters

away from the water bodies.

Table 1: Data selection ......................................................................................................... 36

Figure 1.1: Research Methodologies...................................................................................... 6

occurrence of UHI can be attributed to mainly manmade surroundings; however, the

amount of heat released is dependable on the prevailing natural environmental conditions

(Memon et al., 2008).

ground-level ozone (Rosenfeld et al., 1998), deterioration in the quality of living

environments with a significant increase of pollutant emissions and smog production

mortality rates (Changnon et al., 1996; Ichinose et al., 2008).

process. The process is basically a natural mechanism in which heat is removed by

the heat, thereby cooling the surrounding air.

The lack of response can be attributed to four characteristics (Oke, 1987):

depths, energy absorption is diffused through a large volume.

the heat gains/losses to be spread throughout a large volume.

 Thermal capacity: the thermal capacity of water is exceptionally large; therefore, it

same temperature interval as most soil.

Murakawa (1990) showed a difference of approximately 3–5°C in air temperature between

surrounding area in terms of distance?

as determined using a simulation model?

1.3 Research Objectives

The objectives of the study are as follows:

microclimate in hot and humid climates (field measurement study).

temperature on a hot sunny day (field measurement study).

using an ENVI-met simulation).

1.4 Scope of the Study and General Methodology

The scope of this research is focused on:

1. Water bodies’ cooling effect performance in terms of distance in several

locations in Singapore based on solar radiation performance; and

effect of a water body’s surrounding area cover on the cooling performance on a

hot sunny day; but

focused on human thermal comfort.

Formulation of research problem

Field Measurement Simulation study with

Data measurement and Modeling and running

Data analysis using Extract data for ENVI-

Research findings Simulation findings

Figure 1.1 Research Methodologies

1.6 Organization of Study