1.

HYDROGEN FUEL CELL

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Hydrogen fuel cell is a device which generate electricity by converting hydrogen or fuels contains
hydrogen, directly into formation electrical energy and heat through an electrochemical reaction
between hydrogen and oxygen into water.
Overall electrochemical reaction :
2𝐻2(𝑔𝑎𝑠) + 𝑂2(𝑔𝑎𝑠) → 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
It produces power with high efficiency and a silent operation and if hydrogen used as a fuel then
there will no emission of pollutant. Hydrogen is renewable source which is readily available by
different methods.
1.2 HISTORY
In the year 1839 by accidently a British lawyer and amateur scientist, Sir William Groove
developed the first fuel cell of the world. When he was doing the electrolysis of the water then by
mistake he connected the two electrodes together when the battery was disconnected. He observes
that the hydrogen and oxygen are consumed and current was flowing in opposite direction. He
termed this device as a ‘Gas Battery’.

Fig 1.1 Groove`s Gas Battery [21]

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He used platinum as an electrode which are kept in the test tube of hydrogen and oxygen and this
test tube is placed in the dilute sulphuric acid. It was capable of generating electricity of approx.
one volt. In the year 1842 Groove used number of gas batteries connected in series and he termed
it as a ‘Gas Chain’. Due to the problem of instability of materials and corrosion of electrode this
idea of fuel cell by Groove was not practical.
1.3 PRINCIPLE
Basically, a fuel cell is a device which converts the chemical energy stored in a chemical into an
electrical energy without any need of mechanical processes. Here in fuel cell electrochemical
reaction occurs and the energy produced by reaction is released as a combination of heat and low
voltage electrical energy in form of DC. Heat produced in electrochemical reaction is either wasted
and used for some other purposes.
Any Fuel cell of any type is a galvanic cell which is the basic model of the fuel cell. Basically, the
electric current load determines the consumption of oxygen and hydrogen gas. Galvanic cell is a
basic cell in which electrochemical reaction form the basis in which it converts the chemical energy
into electrical energy.
1.4 COMPONENTS OF FUEL CELL
1.4.1UNIT CELL
Unit cell is the basic requirement for a fuel cell. Electrochemical reaction is handled in unit cell
where chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. Unit cell consist of an electrolyte layer
in contact with a cathode and an anode on either side. Unit cell is heart of the fuel cell where
cathode and anode comes in contact via electrolyte.
1.4.2 STACKS
Individual cells are combined by electrically connecting the fuel cells to form units for obtaining
desired output capacity, this method is known as Stacking. For practical use of fuel cell
applications, unit cell are combined electrically to have the desired voltage and power output level
required for the application. Stacking of individual cell is made such that it take less area so it give
more voltage in very less area to have good efficiency. There are two ways for stacking
arrangement of individual cells.
1 Planar Bipolar Stacking
2 Tubular Stacking

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1.4.3FUEL CELL SYSTEMS
Basically, fuel cell system is a group of subsystems and components which are required in fuel
cell for proper function which is known as Balance of Plant (BoP). Characteristics of BoP are
determined by requirements of stack design, specific operating conditions and individual cells.
Fuel Preparation: Sometimes fuel used for fuel cell is not pure fuels then the fuel is to prepared
which is used in fuel cell by usually involving the removal of impurities. Many fuel cells that use
fuels other than the pure fuel (hydrogen) require processing of fuel like reforming for making the
hydrogen rich anode feed mixture by reacting fuel with some oxidant usually as steam or air.
Air Supply: Most of the fuel cell system have air blowers or compressor as well as air filters. Air
supply is mainly for supply of oxygen to the fuel cell compartment.
Thermal Management: Fuel cell system requires careful control of the temperature rise in the
fuel cell during an electrochemical reaction.
Water Management: As water is the reaction product and to have smooth operation some amount
of feed water is added to fuel and for efficient working of the fuel cell system proper water
management system is required.

Fig 1.2 Basic components of fuel cell [31]

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1.5 GALVANIC CELL
Mainly galvanic cell is standard cell which have two electrodes cathode and anode an electrolyte.
Positive electrode (oxidant) or cathode is made from a substance which is readily got reduced
means it readily accept electrons. Negative electrode (fuel) or anode is made from a substance
which is readily got oxidized means it readily got oxidized means it readily releases electrons. In
galvanic cell oxidation and reduction reaction occurs spontaneous at anode and cathode. Actually,
anode and cathode are at high energy state and they donate their energy as electric energy by
achieving to lower energy state. For oxidation and reduction reaction to occur reactant elements
are must be in contact with cathode and anode by electrolyte. For having the good advantage of
the available electrical energy from chemical energy.
Basically, electrolyte is a liquid substance mainly which conducts ion. When group of atom or
atom acquired an electrical by donating the electron or accepting the electron is known as ion.
Cations are positive ions which possess the positive charge by losing one or more electron and
having positive charge. Anions are negative ions which possess the negative charge by gaining
one or more electron and having negative charge. For example: when hydrochloric acid (HCl) is
dissolved in water. It dissociates into a hydrogen cation (H+) and chloride anion (Cl-). When an
ion migrates through the electrolyte, the charge with ion also move with it. Due to continuously
migration of ionic from anode to cathode it imparts conductivity to electrolyte and as a result we
get electric voltage.

Fig 1.3 Galvanic cell [33]

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The anode electrode present in electrolyte will generate the positive charged cations which are
released to the electrolyte by building up of free electrons at anode. Free electron will manifest
itself as a negative charge at anode. While the cathode electrode has tendency to attract the positive
cations which are generated by the anode. Now the accumulation of the cation on cathode will
make cathode as a positively charged. Now an electric potential is established between both the
electrodes where anode is having free electron (negative charge) and cathode is having cation
(positive charge). Due to the potential now the electron will start to migrate towards cation through
the outside circuit route. This flow of electron will generate the electric current. This electric
voltage can be measured by open circuit voltage (OCV).

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2.TYPES OF FUEL CELLS
2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF FUEL CELL
There are many types of fuel cells and they’re classified on the basis of the presence of electrolyte
and then used. They are as follows:
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)
Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC)
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
2.2 PROTON EXCHANGE MEMBRANE FUEL CELL
2.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) are able to efficiently generate high power
densities, thereby making the technology potentially attractive for certain mobile and portable
applications. Especially the possible application of PEMFC as a prime mover for automobiles has
captured the imagination of many. PEMFC technology differentiates itself from other fuel cell
technologies in that a solid phase polymer membrane is used as the cell separator/electrolyte.
Because the cell separator is a polymer film and the cell operates at relatively low temperatures,
issues such as sealing, assembly, and handling are less complex than most other fuel cells. The
need to handle corrosive acids or bases is eliminated in this system. PEMFC is typically operate
at low temperatures (600 to 80°C), allowing for potentially faster startup than higher temperature
fuel cells. The PEMFC is seen as the main fuel cell candidate technology for light-duty
transportation applications.
2.2.2 CELL COMPONENTS
Typical cell components within a PEMFC stack include:
1. Ion exchange membrane
2. Electrically conductive porous backing layer
3. Electro catalyst at the interface between the backing layer and the membrane
4. Cell interconnects and flow plates that deliver the fuel and oxidant to reactive sites via flow
channels and electrically connect the cells as shown in Figure 2.1

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PEMFC stacks are almost universally of the planer bipolar type. Typically, the electrodes are cast
as thin films that are either transferred to the membrane or applied directly to the membrane.
Alternatively, the catalyst-electrode layer may be deposited onto the backing layer, then bonded
to the membrane.

Figure 2.1 Schematic of Representative PEMFC [34]

2.2.3 WORKING
Proton exchange membrane (PEMFC) fuel cells use an electrolyte that conducts hydrogen ions
(H) from the anode to the cathode. The electrolyte is composed of a solid polymer film that consists
of a form of acidified Teflon. PEM fuel cells typically operate at 70 to 90 °C and a pressure of 1
to 2 bar gauge. Each cell can produce up to about 1.1 V DC. The proton exchange membrane fuel
cell (PEMFC) uses a water-based, acidic polymer membrane as its temperatures (below 100
degrees Celsius) and can tailor electrical output to meet dynamic power requirements. Due to the
relatively low temperatures and the use of precious metal- based electrodes, these cells must
operate on pure hydrogen. PEMFC cells are currently the leading technology for light duty vehicles
and materials handling vehicles, and to a lesser extent for stationary and other applications. The
PEMFC fuel cell is also sometimes called a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (also PEMFC).
Hydrogen fuel is processed at the anode where electrons are separated from protons on the surface
of a platinum-based catalyst. The protons pass through the membrane to the cathode side of the
cell while the electrons travel, ¡k circuit, generating the electrical output of the cell. On the cathode
side, another precious metal electrode combines the protons and electrons with oxygen to produce
water, which is expelled as the only waste product oxygen can be provided in a purified form, or
extracted at the electrode directly from the air.
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 Figure 2.2 Schematic diagram of PEMFC [14]
2.2.4 REACTION
PEM fuel cells react hydrogen with oxygen.
The reaction at the anode is: 𝐻2 → 2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 −
1
The reaction at the cathode is: 2𝑂2 + 2𝑒 − + 2𝐻 + → 𝐻2 𝑂
The overall cell reaction is: 𝐻2 + 12𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝑂
The F+ ion is drawn through the electrolyte from the anode to the cathode by the reactive attraction
of hydrogen to oxygen, while electrons are forced through an external circuit. Thus, the fuel cell
produces water that accumulates at the cathode. This product water must be continually removed
to facilitate further reaction.
2.2.5 ADVANTAGE
 Are tolerant of carbon dioxide. As a result, PEM fuel cells can use impure air as oxidant, and
reformate as fuel.
 Operate at low temperatures. This simplifies materials issues, provides for quick response and
increases safety.
 Use a solid, dry electrolyte. This eliminates liquid handling, electrolyte migration and
electrolyte replenishment problems.
 Use a non-corrosive electrolyte. Pure water operation minimizes corrosion problems. Have high
voltage, current and power density.
 Operate at low pressure which Increases safety.
 Have good tolerance to differential reactant gas pressures.

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 Are compact and rugged
 Have relatively simple mechanical design
 Use stable materials of construction

2.2.6 DISADVANTAGE
 Can tolerate only about 50 ppm carbon monoxide
 Can tolerate only a few ppm of total sulphur compounds
 Need reactant gas humidification
 Humidification is energy intensive and increases the complexity of the system. The use of water
to humidify the gases limits the operating temperature of the fuel cell to less than water’s boiling
point and therefore decreases the potential for co-generation applications.
 Use an expensive platinum catalyst
 Use an expensive membrane that is difficult to work with.

2.3 PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELL

2.3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the year 1961 Scientist named G. V. Elmore and H. A. Tanner has made a research on electrolyte
for fuel cell and published a paper “Intermediate Temperature Fuel Cell” which was having a
experiments in which 35 % Phosphoric Acid and 65% Powder of Silica which is pasted into a
Teflon gasket. They found that the phosphoric acid is not reduced as sulphuric acid when
electrolyte is used under cell operating conditions. Fuel cell with having phosphoric acid as an
electrolyte it was operated for 6 months for current density of 90 (milliamps per square centimetre)
and 0.25V. Phosphoric acid fuel cell were the first type of fuel cell which was commercialized.
Due to having good stability and performance and having low cost the use of PAFC is increasing
faster. In the year 1970s the first PAFC power plant was established.
2.3.2 CELL COMPONENTS
Typical standard PAFC have cell components within a stack include
1) Membrane which enable us to have proton exchange.
2) Backing layer for proper distribution of reactant over catalyst and remove the side products
formed.
3) Electro catalyst spread a the interface of the membrane and backing layer

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4) Cell interconnects and flow plate which deliver the fuel and oxidant properly at the reactive
sites and electrically connects the cell as shown in figure.

Fig 2.3 Schematic diagram of various components of PAFC [19]

A typical PAFC stack contains cells connected in series to obtain the practical voltage level desired
for the load. In such a arrangement, individual cells are stacked with bipolar plates between the
cells. The bipolar plates used in early PAFC consisted of a single piece of graphite with gas
channels machined on either side to direct the flow of fuel and oxidant.
2.3.3 WORKING
Phosphoric acid concentrated to 100% is used for the electrolyte in this fuel cell, which operates
at 150 to 2200C. At lower temperature, phosphoric acid is a poor ionic conductor, and CO
poisoning of the Pt electro-catalyst in the anode become severe. The relative stability of
concentrated phosphoric acid is high compared to the common acids, consequently the PAFC is
capable of operating at the high end of the acid temperature range (100 to 220oC). In addition, the
use of the concentrated acid (100%) minimizes the water vapor pressure so water management in
the cell is not difficult. The matrix universally used to retain the acid is silicon carbide, and the
electro-catalyst in both the anode and cathode is Pt.
2.3.4 REACTION
Phosphoric acid fuel cells react hydrogen with oxygen.
This reaction at the anode is:- 𝐻2 → 2𝐻 + + 2𝑒 −
The reaction at the cathode is:- 12𝑂2 + 2𝑒 − + 2𝐻 + → 𝐻2 𝑂
The overall cell reaction is:- 𝐻2 + 12𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝑂

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 Fig 2.4 Schematic diagram of working of PAFC [29]
The H+ ion is drawn through the electrolyte from the anode to the cathode by the reactive attraction
of hydrogen to oxygen, while electrons are forced through an external circuit.
Thus, the fuel cell produces water that accumulates at the cathode. This product water must be
continually removed to facilitate further reaction.
2.3.5 ADVANTAGE
 Are tolerant of carbon dioxide (up to 30%). As a result, phosphoric acid fuel cell can use impure
air as oxidant and reformate as fuel.
 Operate at low temperature, but at higher temperatures than other low temperature fuel cells.
Thus, they produce higher grade waste heat can potentially be used in co-generation
applications.
 Have stable electrolyte characteristics with low volatility even at operating temperatures at high
as 200oC.

2.3.6 DISADVANTAGE
 Can tolerate only about 2%carbonmonoxide.
 Can tolerate only about 50ppm of total sulphur compounds.
 Use a corrosive liquid electrolyte at moderate temperature, resulting in material corrosion
problems

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 Have a liquid electrolyte, introducing liquid handling problems. The electrolyte slowly
evaporates over time
 Allow product water to enter and dilute the electrolyte
 Are large and heavy
 Cannot auto-reform hydrocarbon fuels
 Have to be warmed up before they are operated or be continuously maintained at their operating
temperature.

2.4 ALKALINE FUEL CELL

2.4.1 INTRODUCTION
The Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC) was one of the first modern fuel cells to be developed, beginning in
1960. The application at that time was to provide on-board electric power for the Apollo space
vehicle. Desirable attributes of the AFC include excellent performance compared to other
candidate fuel cells due to its active O2 electrodes kinetics and flexibility to use a wide range of
electro-catalysts. The AFC continues to be used: it now provides on board power for the Space
Shutter Orbiter with cells manufactured by UTC fuel cells. The AFC developed for space
application was based, in large part on work initiated by F. T. Bacon in the 1930s. By 1952
construction and performance testing of a 5kW alkaline fuel cell, operating on H2 and O2 was
completed. The fuel cell developed by Bacon operated at 200 to 240oC with 45% KOH electrolyte.
Pressure was maintained at 40 to 55 atm to prevent the electrolyte from boiling. At this relatively
high temperature and pressure, performance of the cell was quite good (0.78 volts at 800 mA/cm2
). The anode consisted of a dual-porosity Ni electrode (two-layer structure with porous Ni of 16
μm maximum pore diameter on the electrolyte side and 30 μm pore diameter on the gas side). The
cathode consisted of a porous structure of lithiated NiO. The three-phase boundary in the porous
electrodes was maintained by a differential gas pressure across the electrode, since a wetproofing
agent was not available at that time, i.e. PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) as a wet proofing material
did not exist, and it would not have been stable in the high temperature alkaline solution.
2.4.2 CELL COMPONENTS
Typical cell components within AFC stack include:-
1 Ion exchange membrane
2 Electrically conductive porous backing layer

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3 Electro-catalyst at the interface between backing layer and the membrane
4 Cell inter connects and flow plates that deliver the fuel and oxidant to receives sites via flow
channels and electrically connect the cells as shown in figure.

Fig 2.5 Schematic diagram of AFC [6]

Th stack design of AFC is different from the most common designs of PEMFC or SOFC. The
stack design is similar to that of standard primary batteries. AFCs often have a liquid alkaline
electrolyte in two cell chambers that are divided by electrodes or separators. Sometimes, the AFC
also has three chamber cells. However, two compartments are required for the hydrogen and
oxygen (air) reactants.
2.4.3 WORKING
The electrolyte in this fuel cell is concentrated (85 wt. percent) KOH in fuel cells operated at high
temperature (~250oC), or less concentrated (35 to 50 wt. percent) KOH for lower temperature
(<120oC) operation. The electrode is retained in a matrix (usually asbestos), and a wide range of
electro-catalysts can be used (e.g., Ni, Ag, metal oxides, and noble metals). The fuel supply is
limited to non-reactive constituents except for hydrogen. CO is a poison and CO2 will react with
the KOH to form K2CO3, thus altering the electrolyte. Even the small amount of CO2 in air must
be considered a potential poison for the alkaline cell. Generally, hydrogen is considered as the
preferred fuel for AFC, although some direct carbon fuel cells use (different) alkaline electrolytes.

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The AFC was one of the first modern fuel cells to be developed, beginning in 1960. The application
at that time was to provide on-board electric power for the Apollo space vehicle. The AFC has
enjoyed considerable success in space applications, but its terrestrial application has been
challenged by its sensitivity to CO2. Still, some developers in the U.S. and Europe pursue AFC for
mobile and closed-system (reversible fuel cell) applications.
2.4.4 REACTION
Alkaline fuel cells must operate using pure hydrogen free of carbon oxides
Anode 1) 𝐻2 + 2𝐾 + + 2𝑂𝐻 − → 2𝐾 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
2) 2𝐾 → 2𝐾 + + 2𝑒 −
Cathode 1) 12𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝑂𝐻
2) 2𝑂𝐻 + 2𝑒 − → 2𝑂𝐻 −

Fig 2.6 Schematic diagram of working and reaction of AFC [10]

The OH- ion is drawn through the electrolyte from the cathode to the anode by the reactive
attraction of hydrogen to oxygen, while electrons are forced through an external circuit from the
anode to the cathode.
The overall cell reactions are: 1) 𝐻2 + 2𝑂𝐻 − → 2𝑒 − + 2𝐻2 𝑂

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 2) 12𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 2𝑒 − → 2𝑂𝐻 −
Thus, the fuel cell produce water that either evaporates into the source hydrogen stream ( in an
immobile system) or is flushed out of the cells along the electrolyte (in a mobile system). This
water must be continually removed to facilitate further reaction.
2.4.5 ADVANATAGE
 Operate at low temperature
 Have fast start-up times (50 % rated power at ambient temperature)
 Have high efficiency
 Need little or no expensive platinum catalyst
 Have minimal corrosion
 Have relative ease of operation
 Have low weight and volume

2.4.6 DISADVANTAGE
 Are extremely intolerant to CO2 (about 350 ppm maximum) and somewhat intolerant of CO.
This is a serious disadvantage and limits both the type of oxidant and fuel that can be used in
an alkaline fuel cell. The oxidant must be either pure oxygen or air that has been scrubbed free
of carbon dioxide. The fuel must be pure hydrogen due to the presence of carbon oxides in
reformate.
 Have a liquid electrolyte, introducing handling problems
 Require complex water management
 Have a relatively short lifetime

2.5 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells(MCFC)

2.5.1 INTRODUCTION
The molten carbonate fuel cell operates at approximately 650 °C (1200 °F). The high operating
temperature is needed to achieve sufficient conductivity of the carbonate electrolyte, yet allow the
use of low-cost metal cell components. A benefit associated with this high temperature is that
noble metal catalysts are not required for the cell electrochemical oxidation and reduction
processes. Molten carbonate fuel cells are being developed for natural gas and coal-based power
plants for industrial, electrical utility and military applications. Currently, one industrial

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corporation is actively pursuing the commercialization of MCFCs in the U.S:- Fuel Cell Energy
(FCE)I Europe and Japan each have at least one developer pursuing the technology: MTU
Friedrichshafen, Ansaldo (Italy), and Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries (Japan).
2.5.2 CELL COMPONENTS
Typical cell components within a PAFC stack include:-
1) Ion exchange membrane
2) Electrically conductive porous backing layer
3) Electrocata1YSt at the interface between the backing layer and the membrane

2.5.3 WORKING
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells use an electrolyte that conducts carbonate ( CO32- ) ions from the
cathode to the anode. This is the opposite of many other types of fuel cells, which conduct
hydrogen ions from the anode to the cathode. The electrolyte is composed of a molten mixture of
lithium and potassium carbonates. This mixture is retained by capillary forces within a ceramic
support matrix of lithium aluminate. At the fuel cell operating temperature, the electrolyte structure
is a thick paste, and the paste provides gas seals at the cell edges. Molten carbonate fuel cells
operate at about 1200°F (650°C) and a pressure of 15 to 150 psig (1 to 10 barg). Each cell can
produce upto between 0.7 to 1.0 V DC.

Figure 2.7 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell [28]

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2.5.4 REACTION
Molten carbonate fuel cells can operate using pure hydrogen or light hydrocarbon fuels. When a
hydrocarbon, such as methane, is introduced to the anode in the presence of water, it absorbs heat
and undergoes a steam reforming reaction: 𝐶𝐻4 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 3𝐻2 + 𝐶𝑂
When using other light hydrocarbon fuels, the number of hydrogen and carbon monoxide
molecules may change but in principle the same products result.
The reaction at anode:-
1) 3𝐻2 + 3𝐶𝑂3−2 → 3𝐻2 𝑂 + 3𝐶𝑂3 + 6𝑒 −
2) 𝐶𝑂 + 3𝐶𝑂3−2 → 2𝐶𝑂3 + 6𝑒 −

The reaction at cathode: -

1) 2𝑂2 + 4𝐶𝑂2 + 8𝑒 − → 4𝐶𝑂3−2

The CO3 ion is drawn through the electrolyte from the cathode to the anode by the reactive
attraction of hydrogen and carbon monoxide to oxygen, while electrons are forced through an
external circuit from the anode to the cathode.
The overall cell reactions are: -
1
1) 𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝑂
2
1
2) 𝐶𝑂 + 2 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2

Thus, the fuel cell produces water, regardless of fuel, and carbon dioxide if using a hydrocarbon
fuel. Both product water and carbon dioxide must be continually removed from the cathode to
facilitate further reaction.
2.5.5 ADVANTAGE
 Support spontaneous internal reforming of light hydro-carbon fuels
 Generate high-grade waste heat
 Have fast reaction kinetics (react quickly)
 Have high efficiency
 Do not need noble metal catalysts

2.5.6. DISADVANTAGE

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 Require the development of suitable materials that are resistant to corrosion, are dimensionally
stable, have high endurance and lend them to fabrication.
 Corrosion is a particular problem and can cause nickel oxide from the cathode to dissolve into
the electrolyte, loss of electrolyte, deterioration of separator plates, and dehydration or flooding
of the electrodes. All of these corrosion effects result in a decline in performance, limit cell life,
and can culminate in cell failure. Use of a platinum catalyst overcomes some of these problems,
but eliminates an important cost-saving advantage.
 Dimensional instability can Cause electrode deformation that alters the active surface area and
may cause loss of contact and high resistances between components.
 Have a high intolerance to sulfur .The anode in particular tolerate more than 1-5 ppm of sulfur
compounds (primarily H2S and COS) in the fuel gas without suffering a significant performance
loss.
 Have a liquid electrolyte which introduces liquid handling problems.
 Require a considerable warm-up period.

2.6 SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL

2.6.1 INTRODUCTION
Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) have an electrolyte that is a solid, non-porous metal oxide, usually
Y2O3-stablilized Zr02. The cell operates at 600-1000 °C where ionic conduction by oxygen ions
takes place. Typically, the anode is a Ni-Zr02 cermet and the cathode is Sr doped LaMnO3. There
is no liquid electrolyte with its attendant material corrosion or electrolyte management problems.
The high temperature of the SOFC, however, places stringent requirements on its materials. The
development of suitable low cost materials and the low cost fabrication of ceramic structures are
presently the key technical challenges facing SOFC.
2.6.2 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING
The cell is constructed with two porous electrodes that sandwich an electrolyte. Air flows along
the cathode. When an oxygen molecule contacts the cathode/electrolyte interface, it acquires
electrons from the cathode. The oxygen ions diffuse into the electrolyte material and migrate to
the other side of the cell where they contact the anode. The oxygen ions encounter the fuel at the
anode/electrolyte interface and react catalytically, giving off water, carbon dioxide, heat, and
electrons. The electrons transport through the external circuit, providing electrical energy. Solid

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oxide fuel cells use an electrolyte that conducts oxide ( 02- ) ions from the cathode to the anode.
This is the opposite of most types of fuel cells, which conduct hydrogen ions from the anode to
the cathode.
The electrolyte is composed of a solid oxide, usually zirconia (stabilized with other rare earth
element oxides like yttrium), and takes the form of a ceramic.
Solid oxide fuel cells are built like computer chips through sequential deposition of various layers
of material. Common configurations include tubular and flat (planar) designs. The designs differ
in the extent of dissipative losses within cells, in the manner of sealing between the fuel and oxidant
channels, and in the manner that cell-to-cell electrical connections are made in a stack of cells.
Metals such as nickel and cobalt can be used as electrode materials.
Solid oxide fuel cells operate at about 1830°F (1000 °C) and a pressure of 15 psig (l barg). Each
cell can produce between 0.8 and 1.0 V DC.

Figure 2.8 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell [7]

2.6.3. REACTION
Solid oxide fuel cells can operate using pure hydrogen or hydrocarbon fuels, just like molten
carbonate fuel cells. This results in an inlet fuel stream comprised of hydrogen with or without
carbon monoxide.

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The reaction at anode: -

1) 𝐻2 + 𝑂2− → 𝐻2 𝑂 + 2𝑒 −
2) CO + 𝑂2− → C𝑂2 + 2𝑒 −

The reaction at cathode: -

1
1) 𝑂2 + 2𝑒 − → 𝑂2−
2

The O2 ion is drawn through the electrolyte from the cathode to the anode by the reactive attraction
of hydrogen and carbon monoxide to oxygen, while electrons are forced through an external circuit
from the anode to the cathode. Since the ions move from the cathode to the anode, this is the
opposite of most types of fuel cells, the reaction products accumulate at the anode rather than the
cathode.

The overall cell reactions are: -

1
1) 𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝑂
2
1
2) 𝐶𝑂 + 2 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2

Thus, the fuel cell produces water regardless of fuel and carbon dioxide if using a hydrocarbon
fuel. Roth product water and carbon dioxide must be continually removed from the cathode to
facilitate further reaction.
2.6.4. ADVANTAGE
 Support spontaneous internal reforming of hydrocarbon fuels. Since oxide ions rather than
hydrogen ions travel through the electrolyte, the fuel cells can in principle be used to oxidize
any gaseous fuel.
 Operate equally well using wet or dry fuels.
 Generate high-grade waste heat.
 Have fast reaction kinetics.
 Have very high efficiency.
 Can operate at higher current densities than molten carbonate fuel cells.

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 Have a solìd electrolyte, avoiding problems associated with handling liquids.
 Can be fabricated in a variety of self-supporting shapes and configurations.

 Do not need noble metal catalysts.

2.6.5 DISADVANTAGE
 Require the development of suitable materials that have the required conductivity, remain
solid at high temperatures, are chemically compatible with other cell components, are
dimensionally stable, have high endurance and lend them to fabrication.
 Few materials can operate at high temperatures and re-main solid over long periods of time.
Furthermore, the selected materials must be dense to prevent mixing of the fuel and oxidant
gases, and must have closely matched thermal expansion Characteristics to avoid
delamination and cracking during thermal cycles.
 Have a moderate intolerance to sulfur.
 Solid oxide fuel cells are more tolerant to sulfur corn-pounds than are molten carbonate fuel
cells, but overall levels must still be limited to 50 ppm. This increased sulfur tolerance makes
these fuel cells attractive for heavy fuels. Excess sulfur in the fuel decreases performance.
 Do not yet have practical fabrication processes.
 The technology ¡s not yet mature.

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