PHYSICS PROJECT

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I am extremely grateful to Mr. Navendu Gupta, Teacher
of Department of Physics for his able guidance and useful
suggestions, which helped me in completing the project
work, in time.
I would also like to thank all the teaching and non-
teaching staff of Chemistry department who helped me
directly or indirectly in the completion of this project.
Finally, yet importantly, I would like to express my
heartfelt thanks to my beloved parents for their blessings,
my friends/classmates for their help and wishes for the
successful completion of this project.

Kunal Sirohi
Class-XII-C
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Physics project work on

“PHTODTECTOR & LED AND THEIR USES IN

COMMUNICATION” is a bonafide record of work

done by KUNAL SIROHI under my guidance and

supervision.

Mr. Navendu Gupta

HOD Physics
 CONTENTS
1. Synopsis.
2.Principle Of Instruments.
3.Theory.
A.Why Use Leds As Sensors.
B. Drawbacks Of Leds As Light Sensors.
C. Leds Detect Specific Colors Of Light
4.Visible Light Photo-Detector Circuits.
A.Basic Phototransister Detector.
B. Basic CdS Photocell Detector.
C. Basic Photocell Detector.
5.LEDs as Light Sensors.
6.Observation.
7.Result.
8.Discussion.
9.Bibliography.
 PRINCIPLE OF INSTRUMENTS

1. Different types of LEDs.

2.Current limiting resistors for LEDs - Resistors are
used to limit current flow, to adjust signal levels, bias active elements.
The principle is also applied in the carbon microphone.
3.Multimeter - A multimeter is an electronic measuring instrument
that combines several measurement functions in one unit.
4.Breadboard - A breadboard is a solder less device for temporary
prototype with electronics and test circuit designs.
5.Flash light.
6.Microcontroller - A microcontroller unit, or MCU, is a
specialized type of digital computer used to provide automatic
sequencing or control of a system.
 THEORY
A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts
light into current. The current is generated when
photons are absorbed in the photodiode. A small
amount of current is also produced when no light is
present. Photodiodes may contain optical filters, built-
in lenses, and may have large or small surface areas.
Photodiodes usually have a slower response time as its
surface area increases. The common, traditional solar
cell used to generate electric solar power is a large
area photodiode.
Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor
diodes except that they may be either exposed (to
detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a
window or optical fiber connection to allow light to
reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes
designed for use specifically as a photodiode use a PIN
junction rather than a p–n junction, to increase the
speed of response. A photodiode is designed to operate
in reverse bias.
 Why Use LEDs As Sensors?
Silicon photodiodes are widely available and
inexpensive. So why use LEDs as light sensors?

 LEDs detect a narrow band of wavelengths, which

is why I call them spectrally selective photodiodes.
A silicon photodiode has a very broad spectral
response, about 400nm (violet) to 1,000nm
(invisible near-IR), and requires an expensive filter
for detecting a specific wavelength.
 The sensitivity of most LEDs is very stable over
time. So are silicon photodiodes — but filters have
limited life.
 LEDs can both emit and detect light. This means an
optical data link can be established with only a
single LED at each end, since separate transmitting
and receiving LEDs aren’t needed.
 LEDs are even more inexpensive and widely
available than photodiodes.
LEDs Detect Specific Colors of Light
The typical human eye responds to light with
wavelengths from around 400nm (violet) to about
700nm (red). LEDs detect a much narrower band of
light, having a peak sensitivity at a wavelength slightly
shorter than the peak wavelength they emit.
Figure A shows the spectral response of 7 blue, green,
red, and near-infrared LEDs that replace the usual
silicon photodiodes and filters in my modified Multi-
Filter Rotating Shadowband Radiometer, used for solar
spectroscopy.
Blue and most green LEDs are made from gallium
nitride (GaN). The brightest red LEDs are made from
aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs). The LEDs used in
near-infrared remote controllers are also AlGaAs
devices; their peak emission is about 880nm and peak
detection around 820nm.
Older remote controllers used gallium arsenide
compensated with silicon (GaAsSi). These LEDs emit at
about 940nm, which makes them ideal for detecting
water vapor, but they’ve become very difficult to find.
In my experience, the sensitivity of red “super-bright”
and AlGaAs LEDs and similar near-IR LEDS is very
stable over many years of use. Green LEDS made from
gallium phosphide (GaP) are also very stable. However, a
blue LED made from GaN has declined in sensitivity
more than any LED I have used.
This does not apply to white LEDs, which are blue-
emitting LEDs coated with a phosphor that glows yellow
and red when stimulated by blue from the LED. The
merging of the blue, yellow, and red provides white
light. While a white LED can detect blue light, a blue
LED is a much better choice.
Visible Light Photo-Detector Circuits
Basic Phototransistor Detector
In this circuit, when the light falling on the
phototransistor (Q1) is blocked, its conductance will
decrease and the voltage across Q1 will rise. When the
voltage rises above 1/2 of the supply voltage the
output of the comparator will turn ON and the LED will
be lit.
The only critical part of this circuit is the value of
resistor R1 which in most cases can be 470K ohms but
may have to be increase if the room is dark or
decreased if the room is well lit.
Increasing the value of R1 will cause the sensitivity of
the sensor to decrease. This may be necessary when
the light falling on the cell is not very strong or
shadows can affect the phototransistor.
There are a number of phototransistors sizes and
case styles. The smaller cases will be easier to hide but
connecting wires may be more difficult.

Basic CdS Photocell Detector

In this circuit, when the light falling on the photocell
(PC 1) is blocked, its resistance will increase and the
voltage across PC 1 will rise. When the voltage rises
above 1/2 of the supply voltage the output of the
comparator will turn ON and the LED will be lit.

Basic Photocell Detector

Due to wide variations in CdS photocells it is usually
best to install the cell and then measure its resistance
under normal lighting conditions. A resistor with a value
that is approximately 3 to 5 times the measured
resistance of the cell is then selected for R1. For
example; If the cell resistance is measured at 400
ohms then a 1200 to 2200 ohms resistor would be used.
Increasing the value of R1 will cause the sensitivity of
the sensor to decrease. This may be necessary when
the light falling on the cell is not very strong or
shadows can affect the photocell.
This circuit can be adapted for use in dark areas by
placing a small light above the photocell.
LEDs as light sensor
Step 1: What You Will Need
 Random assortment of LEDs
 Current limiting resistors for LEDs
 Multimeter
 Breadboard
 Bright flashlight
 Microcontroller

Step 2: How Does it Work?

LED as light sensor:
"A LED is simply a diode that has been doped specifically for
efficient light emission and has been packaged in a
transparent case. Therefore, if inserted into a circuit in the
same way as a photodiode, which is essentially the same thing,
the LED will perform the same function."

Photodiode:
"A photodiode is a type of photo-detector capable of
converting light into either current or voltage, depending upon
the mode of operation."

Step 3: Sensing
All you have to do is to attach the multimeter to read the
voltage coming off the LED, that's it! Try pointing the LED at
different light sources and see how the reading changes
 OBSERVATIONS
 When light falls on the LDR then the LED will
start to glow.
 When light doesn’t fall on the LDR , the LED will
NOT glow.

RESULT
 The the circuit gives a high voltage when the LDR
is in high light & a low voltage when the LDR is in
the shade.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. WEBSITES :
www.wikipedia.org
www.google.com
www.ask.com
www.home.cogeco.ca
www.answers.yahoo.com

2.BOOKS :
Comprehensive Practical Manual for class XII
Pradeep’s New Course Physics

NCERT Class XII