BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

AND SCIENCE
A FINAL REPORT ON PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
LAB ORIENTED PROJECT
BY

MAYANK 2015A2PS0840P
SHUBHENDU 2015A2PS0665P
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF
CONTAMINANT TRANSPORT THROW
SOIL-WATER CHAMBER.
(NOVEMBER 2017)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our sincere gratitude to Dr. Shibani K. Jha, Associate Professor,

Department of Civil Engineering, BITS Pilani, who helped us to gain valuable
knowledge and supported us throughout the course. During the whole research of
the project we learnt many new things apart from the course content. We intend
to do this project not only for evaluation purpose but for earning inestimable
things in limited time frame.
It is always a pleasure to be in your guidance and developing knowledge of this
course in your presence.
 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF CONTAMINANT TRANSPORT THROW SOIL-WATER CHAMBER.
1. ABSTRACT

Environmentally sensitive areas along coastlines may be adversely affected by

saltwater intrusion (SI), a condition which can be worsened by extensive
groundwater extraction.
Therefore understanding the mixing dynamics of salt water within freshwater
aquifer systems is an important research problem.
Modeling saltwater flow in freshwater systems requires numerical codes that can
solve density-coupled flow and transport equations.
Experiments were completed in a laboratory-scale, porous media tank to study the
transport patterns of a saltwater wedge in a freshwater aquifer. Three types of
experiments were performed to develop: (1) steady state salt-wedge data observed
under different hydraulic gradient conditions; (2) transient salt-wedge data
observed under intruding-wedge conditions; and (3) transient salt-wedge data
observed under receding-wedge conditions.
The performance of these codes is often validated by solving a set of benchmark
problems. Some of these problems are Henry Problem, The Elder problem and salt
dome problem (HYDROCOIN problem level1 case 5). Many researchers have done
laboratory-scale investigation of saltwater intrusion dynamics such as Simmons et
al, Bear and Dagan, Zhang et al etc.

Keywords-
Salt water, intrusion, confined aquifers, henry problem, sand chamber experiment,
elder problem, variable density flow, saltwater wedge.
2. INTRODUCTION

Groundwater is one of the major sources of drinking water all over the world. Some
areas near the coast have potential saltwater intrusion problems which may be
initiated due to excessive pumping. Thus, the management of groundwater
pumping in these aquifers differs from groundwater supply areas which are not near
coastal zones. Catastrophic events such as tsunamis and hurricanes, improper water
management practices in coastal aquifers are the main cause of saltwater intrusion
and thus degradation of freshwater aquifers. Once the degradation of aquifers
occurs, it often results in a loss of fresh water resources and requires the need to
seek alternative water supplies that are costly.
The fresh groundwater region is in direct contact with the saline seawater region in
coastal aquifers. Under natural conditions, a dynamic equilibrium exists between
these two regions. There are numerous human and environmental factors that can
adversely impact this equilibrium and that lead to severe saltwater contamination
of the freshwater region. Once contaminated, it is difficult and expensive to clean
up saltwater contaminated aquifers. In some cases the contamination could even
be irreversible.
Saltwater intrusion into freshwater aquifers primarily occurs due to the difference
in the density of seawater (which has a density value of 1.025 g/cm3) and fresh
groundwater (which has a density value of 1.000 g/cm3). This small density
difference can play a significant role in controlling two types of saltwater intrusion
processes: lateral intrusion of seawater beneath the regional aquifer and up-coning
of seawater near pumping wells.
The up-coning of seawater normally occurs near a pumping well when a large
amount of groundwater is withdrawn from the aquifer. Anthropogenic pumping
activities induce a cone of depression around the well, which can lead to upward
migration of seawater directly into pumping wells. Lateral intrusion of seawater, on
the other hand, would occur naturally when denser saltwater seeps inland at the
bottom of the freshwater aquifer (see Figure 1). Lateral intrusion of seawater would
result in a distinct curved interface that separate the freshwater and saltwater
regions; this interface is known as the regional “saltwater wedge.” The shape and
extent of the interface is determined by various factors such as the geology of the
aquifer, climate patterns, variations in natural groundwater flow and the sea level,
etc.
Variable density fluid flow and transport in porous ground media occur in many
cases of groundwater hydrology (i.e., seawater intrusion in coastal aquifers, natural
or artificial saltwater up-coning in aquifers, The main focus of the present work is
saltwater intrusion in coastal aquifers and describe the transport patterns of
intruding and receding salt wedges under different hydraulic gradient conditions.

Figure 1: salt water intrussion

Figure 2: Vertical cross-section of unconfined aquifer with indication of characteristic zones.

3. BENCHMARK PROBLEMS

A. THE HENRY PROBLEM (S ALTWATER INTRUSION)

Henry proposed an analytical solution of the saltwater intrusion for steady state
conditions allowing the mixing of fluids with different densities. Variable density
analysis leads to a quantitative description of the balance between fresh water
and saltwater in a coastal aquifer. Based on his assumption of a constant
dispersive mechanism in the aquifer, he used Darcy’s law, the continuity
equation, and a steady state transport equation. Even though there have been
some critical remarks in the literature on the unrealistic boundary condition on
the seaside boundary and the use of the constant diffusivity, the Henry problem
has become one of the most popular benchmark tests in variable density flow
applications.

B. THE ELDER PROBLEM

Elder provided experimental and numerical studies of transient convection in a

porous medium. He used a Hele-Shaw cell to generate thermal convection-
dominated flow by constantly heating a part of the base of a porous medium. The
Elder problem can be considered analogous to the density-driven problem from
the hypothesis of Cooper.
“Differing from it only in that changes in density are produced by changes in
concentration rather than by changes in temperature”. Similar to the Henry
problem, the Elder problem has also been another benchmark test problem for
variable density flow applications.
 C. THE SALT DOME PROBLE M

A salt dome has been known to be a good geological formation for storage of
radioactive wastes in several countries. The proponents especially for heat
producing waste refer to the facts that the flow of salt closes fractures in short
times because of high plasticity and salt has high thermal conductivity. On the
other hand, some doubts about the storage in the salt dome are that the impurity
of the salt, salt dome diapirism, high solubility of salt, and the corrosive effect of
salt may increase risks when keeping the radioactive wastes in these
environments. Nonetheless, it is still considered as one of the good candidates
for radioactive waste burial sites.

4. LABORATORY MODEL

Experiment is conducted in a rectangular flow tank having a porous medium and

two constant head chambers. The IS sand (passing through sieve of 2mm and
retaining on 1mm) was used as a porous medium and the two chambers contain
freshwater and saltwater. A conceptual diagram of the experimental setup
is shown in Figure 3. A digital photograph of the flow tank used in this study is shown
in Figure 4 below. The flow tank was divided into three distinct chambers: a central
flow chamber containing the porous medium and two constant-head chambers
containing salt water and freshwater.
Dimensions of flow tank are length-72cm, breadth- 5.7cm, height- 32cm, Thickness
of glass-1 cm. Dimensions of constant head chambers are length-72cm, width -
5.7cm and height-32 cm, And mesh size is 1mm used in the constant head chambers.

The experiments were recorded using MI A1 dual camera in a high-resolution mode.

The digital data allowed us to zoom and observe small-scale variations occurring at
the millimeter scale.
Constant rates of freshwater and saltwater flow from two large constant-head
controlled reservoirs were injected into the saltwater and freshwater chambers,
respectively. The saltwater and freshwater heads in the model were controlled by
opening the appropriate overflow outlets.
After conducting tracer test and after establishing steady freshwater flow, the
saltwater intrusion process was initiated by inserting the saltwater supply tube from
the reservoir into the left chamber and system is allowed to reach the steady state
condition.

About 15 ltr of salt water was prepared in a large tank by dissolving commercial salt
in deionized water. In this study, we added about 5g of KMnO4 to 15 ltr of salt
solution as a dye which gives a bright red/pink color.
The porosity of the uniform porous medium was measured using volumetric
methods, and the average value of the porosity was estimated as 0.385. The density
of the salt solution was measured and its value was 1.03 g/ml.

Figure 3: Dimensions of chamber

Figure 4: Actual experimental chamber

5. DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Prior to the experiment, the tank was packed with wet porous medium under fully
saturated conditions; this procedure helped us avoid air entrapment.
After distributing the porous media in each layer, the tank and the porous medium
were tamped to achieve homogeneous packing conditions.
The saltwater intrusion experiments completed in the study included three phases
involving distinct steady state conditions.

The hydraulic conductivity of the porous medium was estimated by setting up a

uniform flow field through the system and measuring the hydraulic gradient and the
corresponding volumetric discharge.

The average in situ hydraulic conductivity value was subsequently calculated using
Darcy’s law. The value of hydraulic conductivity was approx. 5x10-3 m/s. Before
starting the saltwater intrusion experiment, the system was allowed to transmit
freshwater from right to left at a fixed gradient condition. Excess amount of
freshwater was injected into the right-hand-side constant head chamber, and the
overflow outlet was adjusted to maintain a constant head hf = 26.8 cm. This allowed
the freshwater to transmit from the right chamber to the left chamber. The
transmitted water exited the system through the overflow outlet in the left
constant-head chamber; and the outlet level was adjusted to maintain the head hs
= 23.8 cm.

All these head values were measured from the bottom of the tank.

After establishing steady freshwater flow, the saltwater intrusion process was
initiated by inserting the saltwater supply tube from the reservoir into the left
chamber.

The dense salt water rapidly flushed the freshwater in the left chamber, and then
the dense water started to invade the porous medium. Considerable mixing of
saltwater and freshwater flows was observed during this initial invasion period.
The saltwater intrusion experiments completed in this study included three phases
involving distinct steady state conditions.

In the first phase, a sharp steady state wedge (designated as SS-1) was established.
This steady state condition was considered as the initial condition of experimental
design.

The freshwater head in the right chamber was instantaneously lowered to force a
milder gradient which resulted in reduced freshwater flow. The new head was
maintained at lower value of 25cm from the base. This allowed the salt wedge to
advance into the freshwater system. This transient saltwater intrusion phase is
referred in this manuscript as the ‘‘advancing-front condition.’’
Then the wedge will migrate until it reaches the second steady state which is
referred to as the ‘‘steady state 2 condition (SS-2).’’

The head in the freshwater tank was then instantaneously raised to push the
wedge back toward the saltwater boundary. The head was again raised to the
value of 26.9cm. This transient, receding phase is referred in the manuscript as the
‘‘receding front condition.’’ Then the system finally reaches the ‘‘steady state 3
condition (SS-3).’’

Under each steady state condition, we observed the length of the toe and height
of the wedge. And with the help of plot digitizer software we found out the area of
the wedge.

Figure 5: plot digitizer co-ordinates for SS-2.

6. ANALYSIS

Sand used to fill the chamber has the size of 1mm. Also there were 2 tanks
supplying freshwater and seawater both having capacity of 15 ltr.
Density of saltwater is 1.029 g/cubic meter and KMnO4 is used as a dye in the salt
water.
Dye used- KMnO4 (5gm in 15 ltr of saltwater)
There was a head difference of 3cm in between freshwater and saltwater
chamber.
Flowrate of freshwater in chamber- 1.194 x 10-5 m3/sec.
Flowrate of Saltwater in chamber- 1.216 x 10-5m3/sec.
When the freshwater head was first kept at 26.8cm, the toe length was found out
to be 14.9cm from the salt water side. When the head was lowered to the value of
25cm, the toe of the wedge advanced up to the length of 50cm. at last when the
head was again raised up to the same value as that of the first one, it was
observed that the toe didn’t recede back to its exact position of 14.9cm. The
observed value was found out to be 18cm.The area of the all the stead state
wedges were calculated using MATLAB. And it was found there was a significant
difference in the area of the wedge for steady state1 and steady state 3 due to the
fact that the intruded contaminant can’t be receded back to its original place.
There will always be some difference in the length of the toe for SS1 and SS3. The
length of toe for steady state 3 was greater than that of the first one.

Figure 6a: plot & co-ordinates for SS1.

Figure 6b: plot & co-ordinates for SS2.

Figure 6c: plot & co-ordinates for SS3.

 For advancing case:

Figure 7a: SS1 at time = 24minutes.

Figure 7b: advancing at time=32minutes.

Figure 7c: SS2 at time = 60minutes.

 For receding case:

Figure 8a: SS2 at time = 60minutes.

Figure 8b: receding at time = 91minutes.

Figure 8c: SS3 at time = 100minutes.

7. OBSERVATIION AND RESULTS

The digital data and the flow measurements founded from the different phases
and steady state conditions like –

(1) The locations of three steady state saltwater wedges

(2) Locations of three transient salt wedges under intruding conditions.

(3) Locations of three transient salt wedges under receding condition.

The length of toe for SS1 was 14.9cmfor the fresh water head of 26.8cm, for SS2 it
was 50cm, when the head was at 23.8cm and for steady state 3 (SS3) at the fresh
water head level of 26.9cm it was 18cm.

The difference between toes of SS1 and SS3 was found out to be 18.0-14.9=3.1cm

The error was calculated to be 20% with respect to initial state.

The area of the curves for different steady states were

A) SS1=23.3cm2
B) SS2=374.6cm2
C) SS3=39.3cm2

The observations above clearly indicate that there will always be some intruded
contaminant left, even after recharging the fresh water. And that contaminant
can’t be removed back.

These data helped to assemble multiple data sets which can be used for
benchmarking the performance of saltwater intrusion models.
8. MODELING METHOD

The finite difference models like SEAWAT, SUTRA and modified version of the
MODFLOW can be used to simulate the steady state and transient experiments.

9. CONCLUSION

The experimental setup described in this study provides a novel approach for
simulating the saltwater boundary condition in a laboratory-scale saltwater
intrusion model. The results demonstrate that the mixing of salt water and
freshwater can be controlled to some extent by recharging the freshwater head.
The experimental results also show that the transition zone between the saltwater
and freshwater regions is sharp under both steady state and transient transport
conditions.
References-
1. Henry Saltwater Intrusion Problem, GEO-SLOPE International Ltd, Calgary, Alberta,
Canada www.geo-slope.com
2. Laboratory-scale investigation of saltwater intrusion dynamics
Rohit R. Goswami1 and T. Prabhakar Clement
3. SALTWATER INTRUSION IN COASTAL AQUIFERS, Chan- Hee Park
4. SALTWATER INTRUSION IN COASTAL AQUIFERS, S.-H. HONG1, H.-D. KIM2, N.
KUMAR, J.-H. KIM2, N. PARK