Minerals Engineering 53 (2013) 266–275

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Minerals Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mineng

The precious metals we prefer to ignore

Jannie S.J. van Deventer
Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Based on publicly available information and the author’s experience, there is reason to suspect that high
Available online 25 July 2013 levels of precious metals may be extracted economically from non-assayable materials. Such proprietary
recovery methods have been demonstrated only at laboratory or pilot scale, so that the credibility asso-
Keywords: ciated with large scale production is still lacking. Precious metals not detected by spectroscopy and stan-
Precious metal ores dard assay techniques are usually assumed not to exist, and hence present a technical and credibility
Electrowinning challenge to metallurgists interested in these ‘abnormal’ ores. It is unlikely that this demanding field
Leaching
of metallurgy will be addressed by academic researchers or large companies, despite the substantial
Redox reactions
opportunity that it offers for breakthrough discovery. This paper reviews some of the pseudo-science sur-
rounding this field, including: (a) the role of ‘intermolecular water’ in forming complex salts locking up
precious metals, but which also presents a basis for extraction of precious metals from non-assayable
ores; (b) accounts of ambient transmutation of elements, mainly using thermal methods; (c) Orbitally
Rearranged Monoatomic Elements (ORMEs) which are virtually undetectable by conventional means
and their conversion to normal metals; (d) the ‘high spin’ state of transition metals; and (e) the formation
of microclusters altering the chemical behaviour of precious metals. It is hypothesised here that precious
metals occur in nature across a spectrum of degrees of clustering, ranging from ‘normal’ gold amenable to
conventional extraction methods, to the ORME state.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction neutron activation, could indeed be recovered using unconven-

Much has been written about the detection and recovery of so-
called ‘invisible’ gold, although less information is available on the
detection of platinum group metals (PGMs) in refractory ores (Gen-
kin et al., 1998; Hough et al., 2008; Maddox et al., 1998; Palenik
et al., 2004). Goodall and Scales (2007) presented an overview of
automated detection methods for ‘invisible’ gold based on modern
scanning and spectroscopic technology. In published studies on
this subject there is usually no discussion about the potential dis-
crepancy between using spectroscopic methods based on the orbi-
tal electron structure of the metal on the one hand, and methods
based on the properties of the nucleus, such as mass spectroscopy
or neutron activation, on the other hand. Experience by Jannie van
Deventer (JvD) has shown that conventional analytical techniques
such as Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) and Atomic Absorption
Spectroscopy (AAS) involving a dissolution step are unreliable for
the quantification of ‘invisible’ precious metals. Moreover, all these
analytical methods, even those that do not involve an undesirable
chemical step such as dissolution, assume that precious metals
present in an ore will be detectable. Conventional scientific wis-
dom does not allow for the possibility that precious metals not de-
tected by any analytical method, including highly sensitive
E-mail address: jannie@zeobond.com
tional methods.
A case in point is the publically available information on recov-
eries from Bamboo Creek iron-rich tailings of Haoma Mining NL in
Australia (Haoma Mining, 2013). Fire assays conducted by a re-
puted independent laboratory on these materials yielded on aver-
age 0.3 gAu/t. When Haoma Mining subjected the tailings to a pilot
scale concentration process and applied the proprietary ‘refined
Elazac assay method,’ the product yielded in excess of 1000 g gold,
platinum and palladium per ton, and was acceptable to refineries.
This product assay was back-calculated to a tailings head grade
exceeding 140 g precious metal per ton. Another case is Royal
Mines and Minerals Corporation in the USA. that used their pro-
prietary ‘Cholla’ process to recover in excess of 60 gAu/t from fly
ash which in its untreated form gave 0.01 gAu/t in a fire assay (Sna-
per, 2012). It is JvD’s experience that several materials not classi-
fied as ‘ores’ may yield very high recoveries of precious metals
when subjected to proprietary extraction methods. Unfortunately,
such methods have been demonstrated only at laboratory or pilot
scale, so that the credibility associated with full scale production is
still lacking.
This huge discrepancy between different assay methods is not
uncommon. The nugget effect and spotty gold coupled with inad-
equate sample size, as well as accumulation of gold in processing
equipment, are common reasons why metallurgists struggle to rec-
oncile their head and tailings assay values with the actual gold

0892-6875/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2013.06.021
 J.S.J. van Deventer / Minerals Engineering 53 (2013) 266–275
recovered. This paper is not concerned with such conventional dis-
crepancies, but instead will focus on ‘abnormal’ explanations for
unusually high recovery of precious metals from ores which show
much lower values using conventional assay techniques.
It is the aim here to review unconventional observations, pseu-
do-science and hypotheses for the recovery of ‘non-assayable’ pre-
cious metals, referencing information that will not withstand a
peer review process, or is unlikely to be considered by main stream
research. The metallurgical community will likely continue to re-
ject many of these ideas as lunacy, but it is suggested here that
some of these ideas deserve investigation by scientists with an
open mind.
2. ‘AB bubbles’
Late 2010 JvD visited Frank Andres in Spokane, Washington
State, as well as Dr. Franklin Bailey at the University of Idaho, Mos-
cow. They both confirmed much of the information available on
the web (Bailey and Andres, 2009) to JvD. Frank Andres showed
JvD how the ‘AB bubbles’ formed and how they extracted precious
metals from different ore particles, with metals like gold, platinum
and rhodium clearly visible under the microscope. The identity of
these formed metals was confirmed by Franklin Bailey using En-
ergy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy and Scanning Electron Micros-
copy (EDS–SEM).
This story started in 1974 at the Yuba Goldfields, a 10,000-acre
valley on either side of the Yuba River in northern California
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuba_Goldfields), where Frank An-
dres was the general manager of the site supervising a large gold
dredging operation. He noticed that year after year the gold recov-
ery of the dredged material did not decline, contrary to expecta-
tions. It appeared that increasing amounts of gold became
‘liberated’ as dredging proceeded. One day, Andres discovered an
impure gold nugget with an odd white material growing in the
cracks and fissures. He put the nugget in a Petrie dish with hydro-
chloric acid, where it was still late 2010. Andres retained the odd
piece of gold and forgot about it until the mid 1990s, when he dis-
covered that the white substance had purified his nugget into 24-
karat gold.
Andres then placed the white substance in the same hydrochlo-
ric acid with a piece of copper. The copper turned clear and nearly
invisible. When Andres examined this white substance under the
microscope, he found bubbles and called them ‘AB bubbles.’ The
bubbles appeared to extract trace amounts of precious metals from
any object imaginable (Fig. 1). For example, Andres observed that
the ‘AB bubbles’ grew tendrils of precious metals out of pomegran-
ates, grapes, iris flowers, cherry pits, blackberries and even An-
Fig. 1. ‘AB bubbles’ collaring to a mineral particle, observed by Bailey and Andres (2009).
267
dres’s bathroom sink. It is noteworthy that most of the materials
used as a substrate by Andres do not reveal precious metals when
subjected to spectroscopic analysis, including neutron activation.
The ‘AB bubbles’ grow these long, colourful tendrils that are made
up of different precious metals. Different metals produce different
coloured growths: blue, red, clear, amber, green or multi-coloured.
The ‘AB bubbles’ are very small and no work has been done to see
whether their production and application could be scaled up for
commercial use in mineral processing. Andres suggested that they
could be used for exploration purposes to find new deposits.
Some scientists dismiss the ‘AB bubbles’ as hydrogen bubbles,
or other natural forming gas, escaping from the minerals when
hydrochloric acid is applied. However, Bailey rejected this simple
explanation, as the bubbles appear to have a membrane that pro-
tects the interior. When the solution is removed, the bubbles dry
out, but they do not go away and remain intact. Then, when a li-
quid is reapplied, the bubbles become active again. Andres said
that when precious metal has been extracted by the bubbles and
the pH changes, the precious metal may ‘disappear’ again, and
reappear when the pH shift reverses.
There is speculation whether the ‘AB bubbles’ or the white sub-
stance found on the nugget by Andres is biological or indeed alive.
Andres and Bailey believe that they could be byproducts of other
living organisms, for example they may be the result of the inter-
action between a bacterium and fungus. The white substance orig-
inally found on the gold nugget, and since used in experiments by
Andres, appears to be a fungus, although scientists still are unsure.
Bailey speculated that the bacterium that is interacting with the
fungus could be located inside the mycelia of the fungus. Microbi-
ologists Dr. Susan Childers and Prof Larry Forney at the University
of Idaho have started to do research on these substances, but have
not drawn any conclusions (Bailey and Andres, 2009).
It is disappointing but not surprising that the work of Andres
and Bailey has not been taken up by mainstream researchers or
industry, especially in view of its profound implications for pre-
cious metal recovery and our understanding of the chemistry of
precious metals.
3. Gold nanoparticles
The gold extracted by the ‘AB bubbles’’ of Frank Andres is quite
different from the gold nano-particles and biofilms identified in
nature by Rob Hough and co-workers of CSIRO in Perth (Hough
et al., 2008; Reith et al., 2010). The gold nano-particles identified
by the Hough team are detectable by high precision analytical
instruments, while the precious metals in plant material, etc. prior
to extraction are not detectable by any existing method of analysis.
268 J.S.J. van Deventer / Minerals Engineering 53 (2013) 266–275
The term ‘invisible gold’ has been used for these types of gold
occurrences, similar to the particles identified by Hough’s team,
but it does not mean that it cannot be identified as gold when de-
tected, unlike the alleged gold occurrences discussed in the rest of
this paper.
As gold nano-particles are transparent to electron beams and
effectively invisible, detection had been a problem before the dis-
covery by the Hough team. However, Rob Hough considers such
gold nano-particles to be a common form of gold in this type of
natural environment worldwide, where saline water interacts with
gold deposits. This research also provided the first direct observa-
tion of the nano-scale mobility of gold during weathering. Reith
et al. (2010) showed that biofilms living on gold grains play a
key role in the biogeochemical cycle of gold by promoting the dis-
persion of gold via the formation of gold nano-particles as well as
the formation of secondary biomorphic gold. This study demon-
strated that (1) microbially driven dissolution, precipitation, and
aggregation lead to the formation of bacterioform gold and con-
tribute to the growth of gold grains under supergene conditions,
and (2) the microbially driven mobilisation of coarse gold into
nano-particles plays a key role in mediating the mobility of gold
in surface environments, because the release of nano-particulate
gold upon biofilm disintegration greatly enhances environmental
mobility compared to gold complexes only.
The Hough team (Hough et al., 2008; Reith et al., 2010) ob-
served that highly saline and acidic groundwater dissolves primary
gold and re-deposits it as pure gold crystals on fracture surfaces
and in open pore spaces. On investigation of these crystals, there
appeared to be a dark band across them. However, high magnifica-
tion imaging showed the band was in fact a mass of gold nano-par-
ticles and nano-plates. These are identical to those being
manufactured in laboratories around the world for their unique
properties. When the Hough team investigated clays from the frac-
ture surfaces there was no gold visible, but ICP-MS analysis
showed the clays contained up to 59 gAu/t (Hough et al., 2008).
The research team concluded that the gold nano-particles they
had imaged represented the ‘invisible’ gold in the clay, and that
this nano-sized gold was common in similar environments.
Whether the occurrence of gold nano-particles in nature will help
to explain the recovery of gold from non-assayable ores still needs
to be decided. As will be discussed later, the recovery of such gold
may benefit from the application of clustering chemistry.
4. Paul Welk’s ‘intermolecular water’ and complex salt
hypothesis
Welk (2000, 2002, 2006a,b, 2007, 2011a,b) in several Canadian
patents proposed that the refractory behaviour of precious metals
during extraction could be explained by the concept of ‘intermo-
lecular water’ which leads to the formation of complex salts, but
which also offers a solution. There is no direct scientific evidence
to support this hypothesis, but it does appear to explain some of
the behaviour of precious metals during extraction and analysis.
In the sections below Welk’s hypotheses and methods are repro-
duced without rebuttal, but with reference to recently published
research that may provide qualified support.
4.1. The concept of ‘intermolecular water’
Welk (2011b) considers the chemical symbol H+ as an oversim-
plification and not representative of what happens in chemical
reactions. Welk says that the only discussions in the literature,
which marginally relate to ‘intermolecular water,’ refer to the
hydronium ion, H3O+. This criticism by Welk is unjustified, as the
role of ions as structure makers or structure breakers in water is
an old concept. Water is effectively polymeric and has a unique
well-developed hydrogen-bonded structure of low entropy and
has the ability to form an even more ordered ‘surface’ of even low-
er entropy when certain ‘hydrophobic solutes’ are added to water
(Parker, 1976). In addition, Bialonska and Bernal (2007) and Wal-
lace et al. (2012) hypothesised that stable structures of hydronium
ion clusters H3O+(H2O)n may likely be found in solutions. By using
density functional theory, Wallace et al. (2012) showed that the
interaction of one hydronium ion with seven neutral water mole-
cules induces proton transfer, resulting in the species H17 Oþ 8.
Welk (2007, 2011b) has found it helpful to acknowledge the
presence of ‘intermolecular water’ in the writing of chemical for-
mulae by using modified more complex formulae, which incorpo-
rate ‘intermolecular water.’ ‘Intermolecular water’ can be
distinguished from normal water H2O by the symbol (HOH)x, be-
cause it is positioned internally between the cation and the anion
of aqueous salts, as in Na(HOH)xCl, where x is a multiple of the total
number of ions. If the multiple of x is unity, the salt is in a solid
state; if the number is infinitely high, the salt is an infinitely di-
luted solution (Welk, 2011b).
Although ‘intermolecular water’ is not proposed in the litera-
ture to have the same role as hypothesised by Welk (2011b), Bar-
bour et al. (1998) showed that hydrogen-bonded (H2O)n clusters
can play an important role in stabilising some supramolecular spe-
cies, both natural and synthetic, in aqueous solution. Park et al.
(1993) showed that 2D networks of water molecules appear to
be ubiquitous in M(H2O)2Ni(CN)44H2O (M a divalent cation in
the last half of the first transition series) in the analogy with the
Hofmann-type clathrates.
4.2. Welk’s examples illustrating the existence of ‘intermolecular
water’
1. When liquid aqueous hydrochloric acid H(HOH)xCl is mixed with
aqueous sodium hydroxide Na(HOH)xOH the reaction is instan-
taneous and exothermic. To the contrary, when solid anhydrous
sodium hydroxide NaOH is submerged in 30% hydrochloric acid
H(HOH)xCl, contrary to expectation, NaOH and H(HOH)xCl do not
react instantaneously to produce NaCl and H2O. The anticipated
reaction cannot occur, for the concentrated hygroscopic hydro-
chloric acid absorbed and locked-in all available water, as
‘intermolecular water’ in H(HOH)xCl. Common H2O is not pres-
ent and not available. Only after the anhydrous NaOH gradually
becomes the hydrous Na(HOH)xOH could Na react with aqueous
Cl of H(HOH)xCl to form Na(HOH)xCl (Welk, 2006a,b, 2011b).
2. Technically, the symbol HCl represents anhydrous hydrogen
chloride; HCl does not truly represent hydrochloric acid. The
acid, abbreviated as HCl, is an oversimplification, which does
not exist. The true formula for concentrated hydrochloric acid
is H(HOH)2Cl. The formula for diluted hydrochloric acid is
H(HOH)2xCl, where the number x is proportional to the dilution
factor. Concentrated hydrochloric acid cannot exceed 50% as a
result of the molecular ratio between HCl and H(HOH)2xCl. If
attempts are made to concentrate hydrochloric acid to the point
that ‘intermolecular water’ is eliminated, hydrochloric acid will
decompose (Welk, 2011b).
Advances in computational chemistry have made it possible
to follow the path of solvation of species like HCl and NaOH,
which shows that Welk’s conceptual framework is over-simpli-
fied. Laasonen and Klein (1997) used ab initio molecular dynam-
ics to show that for typical laboratory strength solutions of
1:3.6 hydrochloric acid to water molar ratio, the textbook pic-
ture of separated solvated ions breaks down with the formation
of a hydrogen-bonded species Cl–H  Cl. Forbert et al. (2011)
showed that, upon successive aggregation of HCl with H2O
 J.S.J. van Deventer / Minerals Engineering 53 (2013) 266–275
molecules, a series of cyclic heteromolecular structures, up to
and including HCl(H2O)3, are initially obtained before a precur-
sor state for dissociation, HCl(H2O)3  H2O, is observed upon
addition of a fourth water molecule. The latter partially aggre-
gated structure can be viewed as an ‘activated species’, which
readily leads to dissociation of HCl and to the formation of a
solvent-shared ion pair H3O+(H2O)3Cl (Forbert et al., 2011).
Megyes et al. (2008) used molecular dynamics and X-ray dif-
fraction to show how the ‘bulk’ water structure is disrupted,
i.e. hydrogen bonds of Ow  Ow types are breaking up and those
of Ow–H types are building up during the solvation of sodium
hydroxide.
3. Similar to the above example 2, the same principle applies to
aqueous ammonia, commonly abbreviated as NH4OH, which
does not accurately represent aqueous ammonia. Welk
(2011b) considers aqueous ammonia to be NH4(HOH)2OH or
NH3(H2O)3. Concentrated aqueous ammonia cannot exceed
32%, because of the molecular weight ratio between ammonium
and water. If attempts are made to concentrate aqueous ammo-
nia to the point that ‘intermolecular water’ is eliminated, aque-
ous ammonia will decompose (Welk, 2011b).
4. Examples 2 and 3 illustrate that in aqueous salts ‘intermolecu-
lar water’ (HOH)x is individually and physically combined with
both the anion and the cation of an aqueous salt. If ‘intermolec-
ular water’ is attached to only the cation or the anion, the
resulting product is semi-aqueous and flocculent, as in the
ammines, e.g. Pt(H3N)x(HOHCl)2,4 or, as in hydroxides, e.g.,
Fe(HOH)OH)3 (Welk, 2011b). This semi-aqueous nature of
ammines and hydroxide causes impractical complications and
makes a complete solid/liquid separation by filtering impossi-
ble. This also explains why many sedimentary rocks, which
originated from hydroxides, contain molecular water, which
crackles and explodes when exposed to the heat of a torch
(Welk, 2011b).
5. Absolutely pure water H2O which contains no salts is non-con-
ductive of electricity, for the bond between hydrogen and oxy-
gen is so strong that electrons cannot be shared. In
‘intermolecular water’ the ionic bonds are a chain of multiple
bonds, the polarity between cation and anion is weakened,
and electrons can flow. Salt water, which is ionic, e.g. Na(HOH)-
xCl is a conductor of electricity. If the number x is large, the
chain of ‘intermolecular water’ is long, the resistance is great,
and the flow of electrons is impeded. For similar reasons dehy-
drated athletes find that fruit–salt water is far more effective in
replenishing electrolytes in the body than pure water, because
‘pure’ water requires preliminary procedures before being
assimilated into body fluids which are aqueous salts, e.g.,
Na(HOH)xCl (Welk, 2011b).
6. If the presence of ‘intermolecular water’ is not taken into con-
sideration many chemical reactions cannot be properly under-
stood, which can cause great difficulties, misunderstandings,
and which leads to costly wrong conclusions (Welk, 2006a,b,
2007, 2011b). Specific examples are:
6.1.
PtðH OH ClÞ4 þ heat ! 2H2 O " þ4HCl " þPtO2
Problems: (a) Spectroscopic analysis for precious metals (PGM
and Au) is based on the assumption that liquid precious metal
salts vaporise from the liquid state to a gaseous state as which
they may be analysed. In contrast, when heated, such salts revert
from the liquid state back to the solid state, as which they do not
readily vaporise. Consequently, since oxides, e.g. PtO2 precipi-
tate, true analysis is inconclusive. (b) Oversimplified formulae,
269
such as PtCl4, will never explain why platinic chlorides, even
when heated in an oxygen-free atmosphere, produce platinum
oxides, as explained below (Welk, 2011b).
6.2.
A: PtðNH3 Þ4 ðH OH ClÞ4 þ heat ! 2H2 O " þ4NH4 Cl
þ PtO2 ; but
B: PtðNH3 Þ2 ðH OH ClÞ4 þ heat ! N2 " þ4HCl " þ4H2 O "
þ H2 " þPt
6.3. Gold chloride AuCl3 does not give gold plating, because
aqueous AuCl3 is in fact Au(HOH)xCl3 (Welk, 2011b).
7. According to Welk (2006a,b), the PGMs form not only complex
bonds with oxygen of ‘intermolecular water’, but the PGMs also
form inter-metallic bonds with virtually any other metal, even
other precious metals, depending in part on the availability of
cations. This makes assaying of these metals extremely cumber-
some, and electroplating of the PGMs is virtually impossible,
unless very special conditions are met. When, for example,
4þ
the positively charged cation PtðH OH Þ4 is bombarded at an
electrode with negatively charged electrons, hydrogen, which
has lower reduction potential than platinum, is reduced instead
4þ
of platinum. At best, platinum PtðH OH Þ4 becomes PtO22H2O
which is immediately re-dissolved when hydrochloric acid is
the electrolyte. The cycle of partial reduction and re-oxidation
is endlessly repeated and the PGM can remain in the solution,
which is what happens when a rhodium plating solution is con-
taminated (Welk, 2006b).
8. Another concept, which has far-reaching implications for pros-
pecting and analytical mineralogical identification of complex
PGM oxides is the realisation that hydrate oxides not merely
contain water, as the general formulae suggest (Welk, 2006b).
For example rhodiumsesquioxide, the hydrate oxide Rh2O35H2-
O is not merely an oxide that contains water, but the sesquirho-
dinic acid H2Rh2(OH)8 that can have complex salts like
FeRh2(OH)8 which when heated becomes the very refractory
anhydrous and naturally occurring oxide FeRh2O4 (Welk,
2006b; Kane, 1842).
4.3. Electro-extraction based on ‘hydroxyacids’
Welk (2011a) defines the term ‘hydroxy acid’ as being an inor-
ganic aqueous acid in which a complex anion molecularly
consists of an ion of a ‘desirable metal’ such as gold or platinum,
‘intermolecular water’ (hydrate), and hydroxides, for example
H+(Au(HOHOH)4). Metals which have a chemical bond strength
with oxygen which is stronger than the chemical bond strength be-
tween hydrogen and oxygen do not form ‘hydroxy acids’; instead,
they form oxyacids, such as osmic acid, H2OsO4, titanic acid,
H2TiO4, and others (Welk, 2011a).
Welk (2000, 2011a) proposed a method whereby an ore con-
taining a ‘desirable metal’ such as gold or platinum is leached using
a ‘strong acid’ such as hydrochloric, sulphuric or nitric acid. Welk
does not appear to consider pH or Oxidation Reduction Potential
(ORP) as important when he subjects the leaching slurry to a direct
or alternating current using carbon electrodes. This electro-disso-
lution is the first important step in all Welk’s patents (2000,
2011a). Welk (2006a,b, 2011a) argues that direct precipitation or
electrowinning from the strong acid leach liquor is impossible,
and proposes that the strong acid be replaced by a weak organic
acid like formic acid, in order to form a ‘hydroxy acid.’ For this to
happen, the strong acid solution must first be neutralised by an al-
kali such as ammonia, followed by addition of the formic acid.
270 J.S.J. van Deventer / Minerals Engineering 53 (2013) 266–275
An example of the formation of an aqueous ‘hydroxy acid’ by
the addition of aqueous ammonium to a solution of complex salts
of strong acids is (Welk, 2011a):
FeðAuðH OH Þx Cl4 Þ3 þ 12NH4 OH ¼
FeðOHÞ3 # þ12NH4 Cl þ 3½AuðH OH Þx ðOHÞ3 ! HðAuðH OH Þx1 ðOHÞ4 Þ
An example of the formation of an aqueous ‘hydroxy acid’ by the
addition of formic acid to a complex of semi-aqueous flocculent am-
mines is (Welk, 2011a):
½PtðNH3 Þ2 ðOHÞ4 þ 2H2 O ! PtðNH3 H =OH Þ2 ðOHÞ4  þ 2HðH OH Þx COOH
¼ 2NH4 ðH OH Þx6 COOH þ H2 PtðH OH OHÞ6
According to Welk (2011a), when a mixture of several acids is
neutralised by the addition of aqueous ammonium, the cation of
the neutralising agent forms salts and progressively neutralises
all acids, from the strongest to the weakest until only ‘hydroxy
acids’ are left. At the transition from an acidic solution to an alkali
solution, the ‘desirable metals’, which previously existed as acidic
complex aqueous salts of strong acids, become aqueous ‘hydroxy
acids.’ As ‘hydroxy acids,’ they are chemically unable to molecu-
larly bond with other metals, because ‘hydroxy acids’ are molecu-
lar structures which consist only of one ‘desirable metal’,
hydrogen, oxygen and possibly with ammonium as a complex of
the neutralising agent (Welk, 2011a). Welk (2011a) prefers aque-
ous ammonium instead of potassium or sodium hydroxide as a
neutralising agent, for the latter forms complex sodium and/or
potassium hydroxides which would re-introduce base metals to
‘hydroxy acid’ complexes. However, this use of ammonium pro-
duces flocculent ammines of the PGMs which would remain
mixed-in with the gangue or hydroxides if the gangue were not
re-acidified with formic acid.
If elements like copper and zinc are accumulating at a nega-
tively charged electrode, and re-dissolve in an acidic or alkali solu-
tion, they will reduce, at least in part, any element, which has a
reduction potential that is higher than the reduction potential of
copper and zinc (e.g., Ag, Au, Pt). Therefore in some cases, it may
be advisable to do electro-extraction by electrolysis in a neutral
solution, a weak acidic, or in basic solution, in whichever the ex-
tracted metal does not re-dissolve. Welk (2011a) also proposes
that electro-extraction by electrolysis can be applied by means of
an alternating current, which is unconventional.
An example of the decomposition of an aqueous ‘hydroxy acid’
is (first half reaction, activated at a negatively charged electrode)
(Welk, 2011a):
2HðAuðH OH Þx1 ðOHÞ4 Þ þ 6e ¼ 2xH2 O þ 2Au # þ½6OH ! 3H2 O2 þ 6e 
An example of decomposition of an aqueous ‘hydroxy acid’ is
(second half reaction, activated at the positively charged electrode)
(Welk, 2011a):
2HðAuðH OH Þx1 ðOHÞ4 Þ þ 6OH ! ð6 þ 2xÞH2 O þ Au2 O3
1 are members of the scientific community, who should know better.
# þ1 O2 þ 6e
2
The combined reaction for the decomposition of an aqueous
‘hydroxy acid’ at both anode and cathode, whether using direct
or alternating current, is:
1 is no credible and peer reviewed evidence available that such
4HðAuðH OH Þx1 ðOHÞ4 Þ ! ð6 þ 4xÞH2 O þ 2Au # þAu2 O3 # þ1 O2
2
Whether Welk’s explanations are valid or not, JvD has observed
metallic gold, identifiable by spectroscopy, being recovered at the
anode when a suitable catalytic surface is used and the gold is
present in a partially clustered form, as will be discussed later.
An alternative explanation for gold plating at the anode is that
the gold in a partially clustered form is negatively charged (anodic)
in solution. Metallurgists used to thinking about gold as (always)
cationic may find this possibility confronting, but the anionic
behaviour of gold has been discussed before (Kryachko, 2008). Sch-
midbaur et al. (2005) cite in this context an experiment by Eduard
Zintl in the 1930s who reacted an AuI solution with an ammoniacal
solution of sodium and obtained the (metallic) NaAu. Underway,
they would have had the auride anion (Au-) without knowing it
(Pyykkö, 2005). Regarding its electronegativity, gold is ranked close
to iodine, and in fact auride anions can replace iodide anions in salt
lattices without changing these into alloys or causing redox reac-
tions (Schmidbaur et al., 2005).
4.4. Implications for assay practice
When extracts of precious metals, their oxides and hydroxides,
particularly the PGMs, are fused (heat > 1100 °C), they transform to
an ionic liquid, which combine with other liquid ions and form an
acid-like solution of metals and metal oxides, in which ionic com-
ponents combine according to the laws governing ion exchange,
according to Welk (2011a). Thus extremely complex and refractory
anhydrous molecules are formed, which may not re-dissolve in an
aqueous solution of acids. If gold and PGMs are jointly melted in
such circumstances, particularly if oxygen is present, an acidic
interaction will cause intermetallic and intermolecular bonding
of ions, and will obscure virtually everything – even gold. Thus col-
lective extracts, especially if the PGMs are included, cannot be
tested accurately by any method which requires heat and firing,
especially in air/oxygen (e.g. the fire assay method).
Welk (2006b) states that when aqueous precious metal salts are
nebulised or vaporised, the precious metal of the salt does not
vaporise, but instead precipitates as a solid hydrate oxide and
hence escapes detection. Also, the standard fire assay method is
the ideal tool for obscuring the presence of PGMs. Using standard
fire assay methods, the PGMs are not separated from oxides, but
they are produced as oxides and end up in the slag, not the metal
collector as is assumed by metallurgists.
There is little scientific proof for Paul Welk’s hypotheses, but at
least some of his observations and explanations are supported by
JvD’s own experience. It is worth investigating some of Welk’s sug-
gestions for refractory ores, and to explain the recovery of precious
metals from non-assayable ores.
5. Alchemy and transmutation of ores
Everyone has been taught that transmutation of elements at
ambient temperature is scientifically impossible, and that those
advocating it are either acting fraudulently, or are scientifically
ignorant, or are not of a sound mind. Anybody who has even raised
the possibility has suffered a loss of reputation, especially if they
An example is Prof John O.M. Bockris of Texas A&M University, one
of the world’s leading electrochemists, who has been ostracised by
his colleagues for openly investigating transmutation (Bockris,
1999). It is well known that a famous scientist like Sir Isaac New-
ton spent a large part of his life secretly working on alchemy. There
transmutation of elements has indeed been achieved at ambient
conditions. However, there are numerous anecdotal indications
from the internet, and also from personal discussions between
JvD and people working behind the scene in this alternative field,
that individuals have achieved such transmutations, but that the
results have poor reproducibility. Here selected examples are
 J.S.J. van Deventer / Minerals Engineering 53 (2013) 266–275
mentioned, as taken largely from the website of Robert A. Nelson
(2013).
Nuclear physicists have achieved the artificial production of
gold during nuclear reactions, but the yields are low, the product
is unstable and of course extremely expensive. Melchanov (1980)
published a notice that Soviet physicists at a nuclear research facil-
ity near Lake Baikal in Siberia accidentally discovered a fusion
reaction for turning lead into gold in 1972 when they found the
lead shielding of one of their experimental reactors had changed
to gold (Nelson, 2013).
Thomas H. Moray was approached in 1950 with a request to im-
prove the extraction of uranium ores (Nelson, 2013). The Moray
Research Institute (MRI) proceeded by bombarding the ore in an
‘environment’ with X-rays as high as 24 MeV. While the average
ore contained 0.23% uranium oxide, after irradiation the ore
yielded from 7% to 75% uranium oxide. In 1953 the MRI proposed
that the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) in the US investigate
such a project for the conditioning of atomic ores by a ‘‘breeding
type reaction with high-energy particles or X-rays in the presence
of a proper environment’’ (Nelson, 2013). The AEC declined to grant
a contract to Moray (1965). In 1958 MRI adapted its process to the
conditioning of precious metal ores. It was found that higher grade
ores seem to be less adaptable to this process, as they yielded
much less of an increase in values than did low grade ores (Nelson,
2013). While virtually no gold or silver values could be determined
in the raw ore, after irradiation and drying the gold and silver could
be identified by standard fire assay, yielding 50–100 ozAu/t ore.
Apparently, the ore was treated in combination with chemicals,
including arseno- and iron pyrites in an alkaline solution, whose
atomic numbers add up to the atomic number of silver or gold
and yielded silver and gold upon irradiation (Nelson, 2013).
The MRI obtained the services of an eminent physicist Prof W.J.
Hooper, who concluded that low grade ores and mining tailings
provide not only the seed for crystal growth, but also a nuclei envi-
ronment which is well advanced or uniquely favourable for the for-
mation of the precious metals by transmutation. Dr. Hans
Frauenfelde of the University of Illinois suggested that the energy
levels were too much of a departure from the accepted standards
to verify this point (Nelson, 2013). Another theory proposed that
colloidal gold, lost in the dilution of ore in the environmental solu-
tion, was concentrated by the bombardment. The MRI insisted that
was not the case (Nelson, 2013). In 1963, MRI conducted experi-
ments with a linear accelerator at the Electronized Chemicals Cor-
poration (Rockford, IL) at energy levels of 11.4–20 MeV with doses
of 1 megarad and obtained yields of 8–9% gold (Nelson, 2013).
In 1931, a Polish engineer named Dunikovski announced that he
could produce artificial gold by the action of ‘Z-rays’ on a mixture
of silica and felspar melted in bronze crucibles under the influence
of 110 kV (Nelson, 2013). Dunikovski claimed to have perfected a
process he inherited from his father and grandfather who had
developed it. Dunikovski theorised that all minerals contain
‘embryonal atoms’ or ‘mineralites’ that could be artificially ma-
tured in minutes (Nelson, 2013). Several French investors syndi-
cated and subscribed 2 million francs which Dunikovski used to
build a laboratory in Paris, however, no gold was produced, and
he was charged with fraud. He demonstrated his process to the
court, but the results were ambiguous and insufficient to prove
his innocence. Dunikovski was sentenced to 4 years imprisonment,
but his attorney, Jean Legrand, secured his release after 2 years.
Dunikovski relocated to San Remo and renewed his experiments.
He improved the process, gaining significant increases in yields.
His attorney visited Dunikovski with the eminent chemist Albert
Bonn to investigate the new situation. Bonn witnessed and repli-
cated the process. One type of sand, which contained 11 gAu/t be-
fore treatment, assayed 859 gAu/t after treatment with the
improved apparatus. Dunikovski later established ‘Metallex, Socié-
271
té Anonyme’ with Belgian stockholders and established a factory
on Lake Neuchâtel. Nothing more is known about the affair be-
cause all subsequent proceedings were kept secret (Nelson, 2013).
According to Nelson (2013), an Austrian chemist named Adal-
bert Klobasa claimed around 1937 to have produced gold using
an electromagnet and induction coil with which he treated a mix-
ture of titanium–potassium-oxalate (36 g), ferrous sulphate (84 g),
copper sulphate (50 g), sodium sulphide (50 g), ammonium chlo-
ride (100 g), ammonia (250 ml), sodium silicate (20 ml) and silica
(440 g). The reaction was catalysed with 100 mg of silver. Two
hours of treatment yielded a 1% yield of gold which appeared as
brown–red scales. Klobasa claimed that gold is built up from iron,
titanium, and sodium. He declined to enter into business with his
synthesis and apparently said: ‘‘I am too old, and not fit enough
to worry myself chasing around after capitalists’’ (Doberer, 1948).
Nelson (2013) explains how Arnold Conrad learned a process to
‘‘ripen green ores’’ like volcanic sulphides, pyrites or tellurides,
from a German scientist, and consisted of ‘‘balancing the ore’s elec-
tropositive charge’’ with 10–150 V DC. The enhanced values were
removed by electroplating (or in vacuum for Rh, Os, and Ir). Conrad
(1973) said that he used from one to three additives ‘‘to assist in
rejuvenating the chemicals and acids in ores,’’ but any material
eroded by water is not amenable to this process. Nelson (2013) de-
scribes another similar method of transmutative enrichment
which was developed by some California alchemists in the 1970s,
consisting of: (a) Smelting lead with soda ash and/or soda–borax;
(b) Using this as the anode, and a stainless steel or carbon rod as
the cathode; (c) The reaction with the ore is contained in a carbon
crucible with 10% nitric acid as the electrolyte; (d) Add extra flux as
needed; (e) The process is repeated from 7 to 21 times.
Joe Champion (1993) announced a variety of methods of trans-
mutations of black sands by thermal burns, melts and kinetic
methods. He was convicted of fraud in Arizona after being accused
by an irate investor who failed to achieve satisfactory results (Nel-
son, 2013). Allegedly, the eminent electrochemist Prof John Bockris
validated his processes, but nothing has been published and appar-
ently the Bockris team could not replicate the results when Cham-
pion was not present (Bockris, 1999). Apparently, Champion’s
process was developed from a method of ‘‘growing gold’’ in an
electrolytic cell which was originally developed by Dr. Walter Lus-
sage, a Czechoslovakian geologist who died in 1977. Dr. Lussage re-
vealed his process to Mr. Jack Keller, who taught it to Joe Champion
in 1989. The original formula was quite simple: black sand (90 g),
charcoal (90 g), and sodium nitrate (270 g), pulverised separately
to 75 lm and mixed thoroughly. The mixture is ignited with a
torch; it burns about 90 s, reaching a temperature of about
700 °C. In one assay, the mixture contained 0.18 mg Au and
1.35 mg Ag before ignition; after ignition it contained 212.7 mg
Au and 856.8 mg Ag. Black sand typically is composed of 40% mag-
netite (Fe3O4), haematite (Fe2O3), or chalcopyrite (CuFeS2). The
necessary parental isotopes (cobalt, iron, manganese, nickel, and
calcium) must be present (Nelson, 2013).
Champion (1993) stated that the addition of a molar proportion
of lead enabled the atoms of gold to be collected as they formed,
and served as an absorptive shield for radioactivity released in
the reaction. Another formula for the thermal burn process was
(Nelson, 2013): carbon (300 g), potassium nitrate (900 g), sulphur
(80 g), silica (120 g), ferrous sulphate (100 g), cadmium (30 g),
mercury chloride (100 g), lead oxide (50 g), silver (5 g), and cal-
cium oxide (30 g). In one test, the thermal melt process was
accomplished in a gas-fired or inductively heated furnace, vented
to release gases liberated in the process. A mixture of black sands
(1 kg), mineral coal (1 kg), sodium nitrate (3 kg), lead (300 g), silver
(200 g) and mercury chloride (HgCl2, 1 kg) in a graphite crucible
yielded 44 g gold, 6 g platinum, and 35 g rhodium (Nelson, 2013).
Another gas-fired mixture tested by Champion (1993) was
272 J.S.J. van Deventer / Minerals Engineering 53 (2013) 266–275
composed of black sands (100 g), charcoal (300 g), sodium nitrate
(900 g) and powered silver (500 g). When an inductive furnace
was employed, the formula needed to be modified: black sands
(100 g), charcoal (350 g), sodium nitrate (150 g), silver (50 g), and
copper powder (50 g). The gas or electricity was reduced during
the ignition period. After the ignition was completed, the temper-
ature was raised to 2000 °C for 90 min. If necessary, borax or potas-
sium nitrate was added to maintain fluidity of the mixture. When
there was no more apparent reaction, the mixture was poured into
a mould to cool, and the slag was removed (Nelson, 2013).
Another method proposed by Champion (1993) utilised the ki-
netic energy of a ball mill with 40 kg of carbon steel balls. The liner
must be made of iron-coated steel and the reagents must be thor-
oughly dry for this method to work properly. The ball mill also
must have an air-tight seal. 24% of the mineral weight should be
ferric oxygen, which is required for the kinetic excitation transmu-
tation to occur (Champion, 1993).
In an insightful review of the work on transmutation at Texas
A&M, Bockris (1999) wrote: ‘‘. . . there is no doubt that it – and par-
ticularly the pioneer suggestions of Joseph Champion – should be
given their rightful place in the history of nuclear science. When
Champion came to Texas A&M, the proposition that one could car-
ry out nuclear reactions with metals in solids in the cold (‘Al-
chemy’) would have received unhesitating rejection and ridicule.
Now, 8 years later, not only are scientific papers describing such
phenomena available from many groups; but scientific meetings
in Russia, formerly entitled Cold Fusion, have been changed to
meetings on ‘Transmutation’. The American Nuclear Society has
hosted sessions on Low Temperature Nuclear Reactions for 3 years
in succession. Champion’s courage in maintaining that nuclear
change in the cold could be brought about could probably not have
withstood a formal training in nuclear science. He would then have
known that such a suggestion would have been STUPID.’’
6. Hudson’s Orbitally Rearranged Monoatomic Elements
(ORMEs)
The story of David Hudson, a cotton farmer in Arizona, who pos-
tulated the existence of precious metals in a form hitherto un-
known to science, is described in numerous websites (Hudson,
1994; Eden, 2013; Taylor, 2013). Hudson found in 1976 that his
soil suffered from a high sodium content, which caused the surface
to be hard and impenetrable by water. To combat this problem, he
injected sulphuric acid into the ground so as to break down the
crust to a manageable consistency, but, on testing soil constituents
that were not dissolved by the acid, he found that one particular
material had a most unusual quality. When heat-dried in the
sun, it would flare into a great blaze of white light and totally dis-
appear. Under spectroscopic analysis, however, the substance reg-
istered as ‘pure nothing.’ Following unsuccessful tests at Cornell
University, a sample was sent to Harwell Laboratories in Oxford-
shire, England, for neutron activation analysis, but even they could
not obtain a suitable reading. Eventually, with assistance from the
Soviet Academy of Sciences, it was determined that the mysterious,
glowing white substance was composed entirely of PGMs in a form
hitherto unknown to science. In the course of continued research,
the material was regularly heated and cooled, with a resultant fluc-
tuation in its gravitational weight. In addition, Hudson (1989,
1994) claimed that monatomic elements exhibit the characteristics
of superconductors at room temperature.
With the support of researchers, Hudson (1989, 1994) postu-
lated the existence of ORMEs (Orbitally Rearranged Monoatomic
Elements) which are virtually undetectable by conventional means
(except for a distinguishing infrared doublet located between
about 1400 and 1600 cm1), because they allegedly lack a d-orbital
electron. Hudson (1989) and associates developed a method to re-
cover ORMEs and convert them into their metallic forms. While it
is not a transmutation of one element into another, the extraction
and conversion of ORMEs to metal may explain the claims of some
other experimenters in this field. Apparently, certain ores, particu-
larly sodium and calcium plagioclase, contain large amounts of
ORMEs which could be extracted by Hudson’s process (Hudson,
1989), consisting of a series of oxidation and reduction steps,
including electrolysis.
Hudson (1989) describes a process whereby gold ORME could
be reconverted to metallic gold by an oxidative rearrangement
which removes all paired valence electrons together with their va-
cancy pair electrons, with a subsequent refilling of the d and s orbi-
tals with unpaired electrons until the proper configuration is
reached for the normal metal. This oxidative rearrangement is ef-
fected by subjecting the ORME to a large negative potential in
the presence of an electron-donating element, such as carbon, thus
forming a metallic gold-carbon chemical bond. For that gold-car-
bon bond to occur the carbon must provide for the removal of
the d orbital vacancy of the ORME. The carbon acts as a chemical
fulcrum. When the gold-carbon bond is reduced by way of further
decreasing the potential, the carbon receives a reducing electron
and subsequently inserts that reducing electron below the s orbi-
tals of the element, thus forming metallic gold (Hudson, 1989).
The notion that the orbitals in these elements are rearranged
comes from the fact that when these materials are subjected to or-
dinary instrumental assays, the instruments provide false readings.
For example, the same material can appear as iron oxide, calcium
and silica, or aluminium-silica oxide at different stages of the pro-
duction process (Hudson, 1989). However, when the normal metals
are recovered by electrolysis in the presence of a catalyst, a final
analysis then shows that there is no iron, calcium, silica, or alumin-
ium present. This does not suggest transmutation of elements, but
rather the inability of spectroscopic analysis to identify ORMEs,
according to the researchers who have been working in this field be-
hind the scenes. Hudson (1989) postulated that, because the valence
electrons of monatomic elements are unavailable for chemical reac-
tions, monatomic atoms are chemically inert and have many of the
physical properties of ceramic materials. This may not be entirely
correct, as Hudson speaks of the same colour changes in monatomic
chemistry as occurring in metallic chemistry.
Rational Wiki (2013) provides scathing criticism of Hudson’s
hypothesis by identifying an extensive list of scientific errors in Hud-
son’s writings, and by stating that: ‘‘This shows a complete lack of
understanding of the nature of chemical bonding in metals.’’ . . .
‘‘Hudson’s patented procedures definitely do not work, because it
would be at odds with the known chemical behaviour of gold under
those conditions.’’ . . . ‘‘The result is a worthless salt that has none of
the claimed properties.’’ . . . ‘‘The countless alternative procedures of
obtaining ORMUS also do not work – a material with superconduc-
tive properties occurring abundantly in nature would be very easy to
detect, yet no such kind of material is known to modern science.’’ . . .
‘‘The concept is highly exploitable by quacks.’’ Clearly, such criticism
should convince any career-focused scientist with a reputation to
avoid this field of investigation like the plague. Even when there
are errors in Hudson’s writings, and even if Hudson’s hypothesis of
ORMEs may not be entirely correct, JvD suggests that it takes a brave
person to deny that precious metals could occur in a form unidenti-
fiable by existing scientific methods, when there is increasing
empirical evidence supporting such contention.
7. Partial clustering of metals: a neglected state of matter?
In an insightful review on ‘microclusters,’ Duncan and Rouvray
(1989) stated: ‘‘Divide and subdivide a solid and the traits of its
 J.S.J. van Deventer / Minerals Engineering 53 (2013) 266–275
solidity fade away one by one, like the features of the Cheshire Cat,
to be replaced by characteristics that are not those of liquids or
gases. They belong instead to a new phase of matter, the micro-
cluster. Micro-clusters consist of tiny aggregates comprising from
two to several hundred atoms. They pose questions that lie at
the heart of solid state physics and chemistry, and the related field
of material science. How small must an aggregate of particles be-
come before the character of the substance they once formed is
lost? How might the atoms reconfigure if freed from the influence
of the matter that surrounds them? If the substance is a metal, how
small must this cluster of atoms be to avoid the characteristic shar-
ing of free electrons that underlies conductivity? Do growing clus-
ters proceed gradually from one stable structure to another, largely
through the simple addition of atoms, or do they undergo radical
transformations as they grow?’’
Bond (2007) stated with regard to platinum–gold alloys that
there is clear evidence that ‘‘sufficiently small particles can form
true solid solutions, but that with larger particles phase separation
is inevitable; they behave as does the macroscopic system. There is
no indication in the literature of the critical size at which the
change of behaviour takes place; for this information we need to
consider other factors. Before doing so, however, it is worth noting
that many scientists express no surprise that their small particles
do not behave as the macroscopic alloy does. This lack of curiosity
is unfortunate, to say the least, because knowledge of the bonding
in homogeneous alloy particles might help in understanding their
catalytic behaviour, and hence in further improvement.’’
According to Bond (2007), ‘‘It has long been appreciated that the
electronic structure of platinum in the macroscopic state differs
from that of the isolated atom (Mott and Jones, 1958); in the free
state it is 5d96s1, but in the solid state it is approximately
5d9.46s0.6. This is because, as the number of atoms forming the par-
ticle increases, the electron energy levels of the free atom begin to
broaden, then overlap, and finally form a continuous electron band
in which rehybridisation between the s, p and d valence orbitals
can readily occur. The spacing between adjacent energy levels d
is given to a first approximation by d = EF/n where EF is the Fermi
energy level and n the number of atoms in the particle. When d ex-
ceeds the thermal energy kBT (where kB is the Boltzmann constant),
the levels begin to act independently, and the particle then resem-
bles a giant molecule. For EF = 10 eV, a typical value, the critical
number at room temperature is about n = 400, but in the transi-
tional region particles become less metallic at low temperature.
There is therefore a continuous change from non-metallic to metal-
lic behaviour, without any abrupt transition.’’
In the case of platinum, therefore, one consequence of the rehy-
bridisation of the energy levels is a decrease in the number of d-
band holes per atom as particle size is lowered, and this can be di-
rectly sensed by X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy
(XANES), which exhibits a decrease in the intensity of the white
line on the leading edge of the LIII X-ray absorption band (Van
Bokhoven et al., 2006). According to Bond (2007): ‘‘While it does
not appear possible to use this quantitatively, the effect, although
small, is quite distinct. It is less well appreciated that exactly the
same phenomenon occurs with gold. Although in the free atom
there is a filled d-electron level, in the bulk state a small white line
is seen, showing again that there has been some rehybridisation, so
that the electronic structure of the metal is actually 5d10x6s1+x
(Benfield et al., 2001; Mattheiss and Dietz, 1980), and the white
line that reveals this weakens as the size of the particle becomes
smaller (Van Bokhoven et al., 2006). The situation with larger par-
ticles (diameter > 2 nm) or macroscopic forms is somewhat differ-
ent. Gold then loses its strong electronegative character that
determines much of its chemistry, because of the rehybridisation
of its valence orbitals through electron band formation. The num-
ber of unpaired 6s electrons on the gold atoms is lowered, the
273
capacity for bond formation with the 6s electron of platinum is de-
creased, and the solubility of platinum in gold is therefore limited.’’
Therefore, there is evidence that small clusters of atoms will be-
have very differently from large metallic clusters of the same ele-
ment, so that it is not surprising that Hudson (1989) postulated
that monoatomic precious metals could have a very different
chemistry to normal metallic gold. If that is the case, the detection
of such partially clustered precious metals using conventional as-
say techniques will also be problematic. It is surprising that no-
body seems to have made the connection between these ‘wild’
theories and speculations and the anomalous behaviour of pre-
cious metals in extraction processes and the associated problems
interpreting assay data.
It is speculated that it is not only the electron and orbital struc-
ture of some transition elements that get distorted in the mono-
atomic or partially clustered form, but that the nucleus itself
may become distorted. If so, it may be the reason why precious
metals recoverable from some ores are not identifiable using mass
spectrometry or neutron activation. Websites like Crucible.org
(2013) speculate that isolated atoms of the transition metals co-
balt, nickel, copper, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, os-
mium, iridium, platinum, gold and mercury may assume what is
referred to as a ‘high spin’ state. Unlike ordinary atomic nuclei,
which display spherical symmetry, the nuclei of these specially
prepared metals have a distorted shape.
Yam (1991) stated: ‘‘Researchers at the Lawrence Berkeley lab-
oratory have been finding that rapidly spinning nuclei with differ-
ent masses have similar – if not exactly the same – moments of
inertia. ‘Something is going on,’ said Frank F. Stephens, a physicist
at the Lawrence Berkeley lab, ‘and for reasons we don’t understand
yet.’ A spinning nucleus results from an off-center collision be-
tween two nuclei that fuse to form a rapidly spinning, elongated
body. The deformed nucleus can take the shape of an American
football, a doorknob, or possibly even a banana depending on the
collision energy in the nuclei. In a typically deformed nucleus the
long axis exceeds the two short axis by about a factor of 1.3. . . .
It is in these superdeformed nuclei that curious goings-on have ta-
ken place. . . .The surprise: the spectra of some different superde-
formed nuclei were almost identical.’’
The White Gold Web (2013) speculates about the shapes of the
atoms of these ‘high spin’ elements and attempts to reconcile the
contradictory observations of Hudson (1989) about the chemical
behaviour of monoatomic precious metals by postulating that pre-
cious metals probably do not occur in nature as complete ORMEs
but rather partial ORMEs.
It is proposed here that the anomalous behaviour of precious
metals is probably a result of a partially clustered state, which is
not yet recognised by science. Whether alchemy is possible or
not, and whether the ‘high spin’ state occurs indeed in nature, it
is hypothesised here that precious metals occur in nature across
a spectrum of degrees of clustering. Sugano and Koizumi (1998)
explained that microclusters have properties between those of sol-
ids and liquids, and that their formation from atoms is associated
with a phase change resulting from a change in geometry of pack-
ing of the atoms. The electrons orbit the centre of a microcluster
rather than the centre of each atom, which may greatly affect the
chemical behaviour of the microcluster compared with either the
individual atoms, or the bulk metal.
It is hypothesised here that clustering of precious metal ele-
ments could occur not only with the same element, but also with
other elements. For example, PGMs may cluster with iron in such
a way that the PGM adopts the ‘identity’ of iron and is not recogni-
sed spectroscopically as PGM, as suggested by Welk (2007). JvD has
observed that gold may be present in clusters at substantial con-
centrations with silicon or iron in such a way that the gold is not
detected spectroscopically or by any standard assay technique;
274 J.S.J. van Deventer / Minerals Engineering 53 (2013) 266–275
such ‘abnormal’ gold may still be partially recoverable using pro-
prietary methods. It is well known that the chalcogens have a high
affinity for gold, so it could be expected that ‘abnormal’ gold may
be found in abundance in clusters with chalcogens and be ‘hidden’
from detection. Conventional technology to decouple gold from
chalcogens is ineffective in recovery of such clustered gold or
PGMs. AES Gold Basin Mine (2013) cites an example where chlo-
ride gas phase technology has been used to ‘‘free’’ precious metals
from ‘‘all the other material they were previously associated with.’’
8. Final observations
Many of the observations and ideas cited here from the internet
are so far-fetched that they are considered as lunacy and contra-
vening the laws of nature by main stream metallurgists and scien-
tists. It is expected that some of the experiential statements by JvD
will be rejected similarly. Consequently, the ideas cited and the
hypotheses raised in this paper are unlikely to be investigated with
scientific rigour by the research community, and they will not at-
tract funding by competitive grant agencies or companies. It is
politically easier to outright reject them rather than risk one’s hard
earned reputation to even suggest that they are worthy of research.
There is little chance that the management of a major precious
metals company or any university will investigate this field of
non-assayable ores.
Any tenure track academic relies on research students and post-
doctoral fellows to conduct the bulk of experimental work. It is
essential for the careers of all these individuals that research is
published in peer reviewed journals, which means that neither
an academic nor a PhD student nor a postdoctoral fellow can afford
to do speculative work which will face resistance getting pub-
lished. Simply, it is much safer not to deviate too far from the norm
accepted by one’s peer group. In countries like Australia and the
USA the success rate of competitive grant applications is very
low and falling, which means that an academic cannot afford to
risk an unconventional proposal or being ridiculed by one’s peers.
In medical science only a few Nobel Prize winners have had the
courage to research alternative medicine and mind–body phenom-
ena, with the unsurprising rejection by the rest of the medical
community.
What is required here is a combination of strong fundamental
research in physics and chemistry, coupled with applied research
trying to reproduce some of the anomalous observations by non-
main stream people who have been active in this field. Although
the in-bred sceptical mind of the true scientist is always necessary,
an open mind is a prerequisite for making progress in this field,
otherwise prejudice will prevail over sensory observation. In to-
day’s world of modern chemistry there is an attitude of ‘if we can-
not measure something it does not exist.’ In contrast, in a past era
of pre-spectroscopy chemistry, sensory observation by chemists
played a key role in making progress and reporting findings to col-
leagues. In today’s peer-reviewed culture, unquantified and subjec-
tive sensory observations by a researcher are viewed as inferior
and not true science. It is contended here that progress in recover-
ing precious metals from non-assayable ores is possible only when
a scientist is able to forsake spectroscopy for sensory observation.
Based on personal experience and reports by associates working
on ‘abnormal’ materials yielding high precious metal values, JvD
believes there is sufficient evidence to suspect that economic pre-
cious metals may be recovered from unconventional sources.
Moreover, there is justification for modern research to be targeted
at understanding the geochemistry and origins, as well as the
chemical behaviour of such ‘abnormal’ precious metals, and conse-
quently, to devise new methods for their recovery. Have we as a
metallurgical community ignored an important source of precious
metals? Or have we preferred to ignore well established scientific
principles? The first question will be answered in the affirmative
when precious metal is recovered from ‘abnormal’ ores at commer-
cial scale. The last question will always be contemplated by scep-
tics until such production takes place.
Acknowledgements
This work has been funded partly by the Australian Research
Council (ARC) through an ARC Discovery Project grant awarded
jointly to JvD and John Provis.
References
AES Gold Basin Mine, 2013. Gas Phase Extraction. <http://www.aesgoldmine.com/
gas_phase.cfm> (accessed 26.06.13).
Bailey, F., Andres, F., 2009. AB bubbles. <http://scienceuidahoblogs.wordpress.com/
page/6/> (accessed 26.06.13).
Barbour, L.J., Orr, G.W., Atwood, J.L., 1998. An intermolecular (H2O)10 cluster in a
solid-state supramolecular complex. Nature 393, 671–673.
Benfield, R.E., Grandjean, D., Kröll, M., Pugin, R., Sawitowski, T., Schmid, G., 2001.
Structure and bonding of gold metal clusters, colloids, and nanowires studied
by EXAFS, XANES, and WAXS. Journal of Physical Chemistry B 105 (10), 1961–
1970.
Bialonska, A., Bernal, I., 2007. A new cyclic hydronium di-cation of composition
H18 O2þ
8 . Comptes Rendus Chimie 10 (3), 232–233.
Bockris, J.O.M., 1999. Early contributions from workers at Texas A&M University to
(so-called) low energy nuclear reactions. Journal of New Energy 4 (2), 40–72.
Bond, G.C., 2007. The electronic structure of platinum–gold alloy particles: better
catalysts for selective oxidation. Platinum Metals Review 51 (2), 63–68.
Champion, J., 1993. Twentieth Century Alchemy: How to Synthetically Produce
Precious Metals. Discovery Publishing, Westboro, Wisconsin.
Conrad, A., 1973. California Mining Journal (February 1973), p. 13.
Crucible.org, 2013. <http://www.crucible.org/monatomic_elements.htm> (accessed
26.06.2013).
Doberer, K.K., 1948. The Goldmakers. Nicholson & Watson, London.
Duncan, M.A., Rouvray, D.H., 1989. Microclusters. Scientific American 261 (6), 110–
115.
Eden, D., 2013. Ormus – White powder gold. <http://www.viewzone.com/
ormus.html> (accessed 26.06.13).
Forbert, H., Masia, M., Kaczmarek-Kedziera, A., Nair, N.N., Marx, D., 2011.
Aggregation-induced chemical reactions: acid dissociation in growing water
clusters. Journal of the American Chemical Society 133 (11), 4062–4072.
Genkin, A.D., Bortnikov, N.S., Cabri, L.J., Wagner, F.E., Stanley, C.J., Safonov, Y.G.,
McMahon, G., Friedl, J., Kerzin, A.L., Gamyanin, G.N., 1998. A multidisciplinary
study of invisible gold in arsenopyrite from four mesothermal gold deposits in
Siberia, Russian Federation. Economic Geology 93 (4), 463–487.
Goodall, W.R., Scales, P.J., 2007. An overview of the advantages and disadvantages of
the determination of gold mineralogy by automated mineralogy. Minerals
Engineering 20 (5), 506–517.
Haoma Mining NL, 2013. Announcement by Haoma Mining NL to the Australian
Stock Exchange, 25th February 2013. <www.haoma.com.au> (accessed
26.06.13).
Hough, R.M., Noble, R.R.P., Hitchen, G.J., Hart, R., Reddy, S.M., Saunders, M., Clode, P.,
Vaughan, D., Lowe, J., Gray, D.J., Anand, R.R., Butt, C.R.M., Verrall, M., 2008.
Naturally occurring gold nanoparticles and nanoplates. Geology 36 (7), 571–
574.
Hudson, D.R., 1989. Non-metallic, Monoatomic Forms of Transition Elements.
Australian Patent No. AU3662489. <http://www.subtleenergies.com/ormus/
patents/Ozpatent.htm> (accessed 26.06.13).
Hudson, D.R., 1994. <http://www.subtleenergies.com/ormus/presentations/
virginiabeach.htm> (accessed 26.06.13).
Kane, R., 1842. Elements of Chemistry, Including the Most Recent Discoveries and
Applications of the Science to Medicine and Pharmacy, and to the Arts. Hodges
and Smith, Dublin, p. 673.
Kryachko, E.S., 2008. Where gold meets a hydrogen bond? Journal of Molecular
Structure 880 (1–3), 23–30.
Laasonen, K.E., Klein, M.L., 1997. Ab initio study of aqueous hydrochloric acid.
Journal of Physical Chemistry A 101 (1), 98–102.
Maddox, L.M., Bancroft, G.M., Scaini, M.J., Lorimer, J.W., 1998. Invisible gold:
comparison of Au deposition on pyrite and arsenopyrite. American Mineralogist
83, 1240–1245.
Mattheiss, L.F., Dietz, R.E., 1980. Relativistic tight-binding calculation of core-
valence transitions in Pt and Au. Physical Review B 22 (4), 1663–1676.
Megyes, T., Bálint, S., Grósz, T., Radnai, T., Bakó, I., Sipos, P., 2008. The structure of
aqueous sodium hydroxide solutions: a combined solution x-ray diffraction and
simulation study. Journal of Chemical Physics 128 (4), 044501.
Melchanov, A., 1980. Chicago Elite, January 1980. In: Nelson, R.A., 2013.
Transmutations of Ores. Chapter 2, Part II, Adept Alchemy. <http://
www.levity.com/alchemy/nelson2_2.html> (accessed 26.06.13).
Moray, T.H., 1965. I. Recovery of Minerals from Low-grade ore by High Energy
Bombardment. 68th National Western Mining Conference. Denver, CO., 4
 J.S.J. van Deventer / Minerals Engineering 53 (2013) 266–275
February 1965; II. Hooper, W.J., Startling Possibilities in Artificial
Transmutation, pp. 5–7; III. Hendricks, R.L., History of Research Project, pp. 8–
9; IV. Rudolph, Th.E., Statistical Evaluation Research Report, pp. 10–12.
Mott, N.F., Jones, H., 1958. The Theory of the Properties of Metals and Alloys. Dover
Publications Inc., New York, 326 p.
Nelson, R.A., 2013. Transmutations of Ores. Chapter 2, Part II, Adept Alchemy.
<http://www.levity.com/alchemy/nelson2_2.html> (accessed 26.06.13).
Palenik, C.S., Utsunomiya, S., Reich, M., Kesler, S.E., Wang, L., Ewing, R.C., 2004.
‘‘Invisible’’ gold revealed: direct imaging of gold nanoparticles in a Carlin-type
deposit. American Mineralogist 89 (10), 1359–1366.
Park, K.-M., Kuroda, R., Iwamoto, T., 1993. A two-dimensional ice with the
topography of edge-sharing hexagons intercalated between CdNi(CN)4 layers.
Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English 32 (6), 884–886.
Parker, A.J., 1976. Solvation of ions  enthalpies, entropies and free energies of
transfer. Electrochimica Acta 21 (9), 671–679.
Pyykkö, P., 2005. Theoretical chemistry of gold. II. Inorganica Chimica Acta 358 (14),
4113–4130.
Rational Wiki, 2013. <http://rationalwiki.org/wiki/ORMUS> (accessed 26.06.13).
Reith, F., Fairbrother, L., Nolze, G., Wilhelm, O., Clode, P.L., Gregg, A., Parsons, J.E.,
Wakelin, S.A., Pring, A., Hough, R., Southam, G., Brugger, J., 2010. Nanoparticle
factories: biofilms hold the key to gold dispersion and nugget formation.
Geology 38 (9), 843–846.
Schmidbaur, H., Cronje, S., Djordjevic, B., Schuster, O., 2005. Understanding gold
chemistry through relativity. Chemical Physics 311 (1–2), 151–161.
Snaper, A., 2012. Royal Mines and Minerals Corporation Fly Ash project, 3rd
February 2012. <http://www.royalmmc.com/> (accessed 26.06.13).
Sugano, S., Koizumi, H., 1998. Microcluster Physics. Springer Verlag, Heidelberg,
Germany.
275
Taylor, R., 2013. The Magic and Mystery of Ormus Elements. <http://
www.bibliotecapleyades.net/ciencia/esp_ciencia_oro21.htm> (accessed
26.06.13).
Van Bokhoven, J.A., Louis, C., Miller, J.T., Tromp, M., Safonova, O.V., Glatzel, P., 2006.
Activation of oxygen on gold/alumina catalysts: in situ high-energy-resolution
fluorescence and time-resolved X-ray spectroscopy. Angewandte Chemie
International Edition 45 (28), 4651–4654.
Wallace, S., Huang, L., Matta, C.F., Massa, L., Bernal, I., 2012. New structures of
hydronium cation clusters. Comptes Rendus Chimie 15 (8), 700–707.
Welk, P., 2000. Reduction and Oxidation of Transition Metals, Including Platinum
Group Metals, without the use of Aqua Regia. Canadian Patent No. 2,313,144.
Welk, P., 2002. Separating Platinum Group Elements from Complex Acidic Solutions
of Base Metals. Canadian Patent No. 2,406,328.
Welk, P., 2006a. Decomposing Complex Acqeous Salts, and Electro-winning
Precious Metals from Acidic Solutions, Basic Solutions and Seawater.
Canadian Patent No. 2,550,418.
Welk, P., 2006b. Testing for, and Extracting Oxides or Metallic Gold and Platinum
Group Elements from a Complex Acidic Solution. Canadian Patent No. 2,551,166.
Welk, P., 2007. Producing Precious Metals, Particularly the Platinum Group Metals.
Canadian Patent No. 2,599,490.
Welk, P., 2011a. Electro-extraction of Desirable Metals from Hydroxy Acids, by
Microwaves and Electrolysis. Canadian Patent Application No. 2,729,239.
Welk, P., 2011b. Intermolecular Water: Why Textbooks of Chemistry should be
Rewritten. <http://acrossroad.files.wordpress.com/2011/07/intermolecularwater.
pdf> (accessed 26.06.13).
White Gold Web, 2013. Paranormal Observations of ORMEs Atomic Structure.
<http://www.zz.com/WhiteGoldWeb/ozone1.htm> (26.06.13).
Yam, P., 1991. Spin cycle. Scientific American 265 (4), 26.