Perception is the process by which the individuals organize and interpret their impressions in order to

give meaning to their environment

Factors that influence perception

1. The Perceiver

- Attitudes

- Motives

- Interests

- Experience

- Expectations

2. The Target
- Novelty
- Motion
- Sounds
- Size
- Background
- Proximity
- Similarity

3. The Situation
- Time
- Work setting
- Social setting

Perceptual Errors

1. Attribution Theory
2. Selective Perception
3. Halo Effect
4. Contrast Effects
5. Projection
6. Stereotyping

Personality: The stable patterns of behaviour and consistent internal states that determine how an
individual reacts to and interacts with others.
Personality Traits

1. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator(MBTI)

 Extraverted/introverted
 Sensing/intuitive
 Thinking/feeling
 Judging/perceiving

2. The Big Five Personality Model

 Extraversion
 Agreeableness
 Conscientiousness
 Emotional Stability
 Openness to Experience

Dark Triad

Socially undesirable traits

1. Machiavellianism (Mach): End can justify means

2. Narcissism: The tendency to be arrogant, have a grandiose sense of self-importance, require
excessive admiration, and have a sense of entitlement
3. Psychopathy: The tendency for a lack of concern for others and a lack of guilt or remorse when
one’s actions cause harm.

Chapter 3

Value: A representation of basic convictions that “a specific mode of conduct or end state of existence
is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end state of
existence.”

Judgemental element in that they carry an individual’s ideas as to what is right, good, or desirable.
Two components

1. Content: says a mode of conduct or end-state of existence is important.

2. Intensity: Specifies how important it is.

Value system: A hierarchy based on ranking of an individual’s values in terms of their intensity.

Rockeach Value Suvey

Milton Rokeach created RVS, which consists of two sets of values, each containing 18 individual value
items.

2 Sets of values:

1. Terminal Values: Refers to desirable end-state of existence. These are the goals that individuals
would like to achieve during their lifetime. They include
 A comfortable life
 An exciting life
 A sense of accomplishment
 Equality
 Inner harmony
 Happiness

2. Instrumental values : Refers to preferred modes of behaviour, or means for achieving the
terminal values. They include
 Ambitious
 Broad-minded
 Capable
 Courageous
 Imaginative
 Honest

A balance between the two is important.

Hofstede’s Franmework for Assessing Cultures

Developed by Geert Hofstede in late 1970s.

6 Value Dimensions

 Power distance: A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society accepts
that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. A high rating means that large
inequalities of power and wealth exist and are tolerated in the culture. A low power distance rating
characterizes societies that stress equality and opportunity.
 Individualism vs collectivism: Individualism is the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals
rather than as members of groups and believe in individual rights above all else. Collectivism
emphasizes a tight social framework i which people expect others in groups of which they are a part
to look after them and protect them.
 Masculinity vs Femininity: Masculinity is the degree to which the culture favours traditional
masculine roles, such as achievement, power and control, as opposed to viewing men and women
as equals. High rating indicates the culture has separate roles for men and women, with men
dominating the society. A high Femininity rating means the culture sees little differentiation
between male and female roles and treats women as equals of men in all respects.
 Uncertainty avoidance: The degree to which people in a country prefer structured over unstructured
situations defines their uncertainty avoidance. In cultures that score high on uncertainty avoidance,
people have an increased level of anxiety about uncertainty. Cultures low n uncertainty avoidance
are more accepting of ambiguity and are less rule-oriented, take more risks and more readily accept
change.
 Long-term vs short-term orientation: People in culture with long-term orientation look to the future
and value thrift, persistence, and tradition. In a culture with short-term orientation, people value the
here and now; they accept change more readily and don’t see commitments as impediments to
change.
 Indulgence vs. Restraint: Culture that emphasize Indulgence encourage “relatively free gratification
of basic and natural human desires related to enjoying life.” Those that favour retraint emphasize
the need to control the gratification of needs.

Aboriginal Values

 Land
 People
 Opportunity
 Honouring culture
 Long-term outlook
Cultural Intelligence
The seemingly natural ability to interpret someone’s unfamiliar and ambiguous gestures in just the way
that person’s compatriots and colleagues would, even to mirror them.

The ability to understand someone’s unfamiliar and ambiguous gestures in the same way as would
people from that person’s culture.

CQ picks up where emotional intelligence leaves off.

4 CQ Profiles

 Provincial: Same background

 Analyst: Analyze rule and expectations
 National: Use intuition rather than study
 Ambassador: Appear to fit in.

Attitudes
Attitudes are evaluative statements – either positive or negative – about objects, people, or events.
They reflect how we feel about something.

Components:

1. Cognitive: A description of or belief in the way things are.

2. Affective: The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude.
3. Behavioural: An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something.

Job Satisfaction

A positive feeling about a job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics.

Impacts

 Productivity
 Organizational Citizenship Behaviour: Individuals who are high in OCB will go beyond their usual job
duties, providing performance that is beyond expectations.
 Customer Satisfaction:
 Absenteeism & Turnover

Responses to Job Dissatisfaction

  Exit: Actively attempting to leave the organization, including looking for a new position as well
as resigning. This action is destructive from the point of view of the organization.
 Voice: Actively and constructively attempting to improve conditions, including suggesting
improvements, discussing problems with superiors, and some forms of union activity.
 Loyalty: Passively but optimistically waiting for conditions to improve, including speaking up for
the organization in the face of external criticism and trusting the organization and its
management to “do the right thing.”
 Neglect: Passively allowing conditions to worsen, including chronic absenteeism or lateness,
reduced effort, and increased error rate. This action is destructive from the point of view of the
organization.

- Exit and neglect behaviours reflect employee choices of lowered productivity absenteeism,
and turnover in the face of dissatisfaction.
- This model also presents constructive behaviours such as voice and loyalty that allow
individuals to tolerate unpleasant situations or wok toward satisfactory working conditions.

Types of Attitudes @ work

1. Organization Commitment: An employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals,
and wishes to remain a member. Most research has focused on emotional attachment to an
organization and belief in its values as the “gold standard” for employee commitment.
 Affective Commitment: an individual’s emotional attachment to an organization and a belief
in its values.
 Normative Commitment: The obligation an individual feels to stay with an organization for
moral or ethical reasons.
 Continuance Commitment: An individual’s perceived economic value of remaining with an
organization. An employee may be committed to an employer because she is paid well and
feels it would hurt her family to quit.
 2. Job involvement: The degree to which a person identifies with a job, actively participates in it,
and considers performance important to self-worth.

3. Perceived Organizational Support (POS): The degree to which employees believe an

organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being.

4. Employment Engagement: An individual’s involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthisuasm

for the work he or she does.

Diversity in the workplace

Legal framework for equal employment opportunity and encourage fair treatment of all people.

How diverse workforce will be better able to serve a diverse market of customers and clients.

Personal development programs that bring out the skills, abilities of all workers.
 CHAPTER 4

Motivation
The process that accounts for an individual’s intensity, direction and persistence of effort toward
reaching a goal.

#Theory X and Y
Theory X: The assumption that employees dislike work, will attempt to avoid it, and must be coerced,
controlled, or threatened with punishment to achieve goals.

Theory Y: The assumption that employees like work, are creative, seek responsibility, and will exercise
self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic motivators

 Intrinsic: A person’s internal desire to do something, due to such things as interest, challenge, and
personal satisfaction.
 Extrinsic: Motivation that comes from outside the person and includes such things as pay, bonuses,
and other tangible rewards.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

 Physiological: Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex and other bodily needs.
 Safety: Includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm
 Social: Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship.
  Esteem: Includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement, and
external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention.
 Self-actualization: Includes growth, achieving one’s potential, and self-fulfilment. This is the
drive to become what one is capable of becoming.

Motivation-Hygiene Theory
A theory that relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and associates extrinsic factors with
dissatisfaction.

1. Motivation (Intrinsic): Factors that lead to job satisfaction.

2. Hygiene (Extrinsic): Factors- such as company policy and administration, supervision, and salary-
that, when adequate in a job, placate employees. When these factors are adequate, people will
not be dissatisfied.

The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction as was traditionally believed. Removing dissatisfying
characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. Therefore, managers who seek to
eliminate factors that create job dissatisfaction may bring about peace but not necessarily motivation.

Expectancy Theory

Expectancy theory says that employees will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when they
believe the following:

 That the effort will lead to good performance

 That good performance will lead to organizational rewards, such as salary increases and /or
intrinsic rewards.
 That the rewards will satisfy employees personal goals.

The theory focuses on three relationships:

1. Effort-Performance Relationship (Expectancy)

 2. Performance-Rewards Relationship (Instrumentality)
3. Rewards-Personal Goals Relationship (Valence)

Goal Setting Theory

Intention to achieve a goal is major source of motivation.
A theory that says hat specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance.

Management by Objectives (MBO)

An approach to goal setting in which specific measurable goals are jointly set by managers and
employees; progress on goals is periodically reviewed, and rewards are allocated on the bases
of this progress.
Goal setting motivates in four ways:

 Goals direct attention

 Goals regulate effort
 Goals increase persistence
 Goals encourage the development.
In order for goals to be effective, they should be “SMART”
- Specific: Individuals know exactly what is to be achieved.
- Measurable: The goals proposed can be tracked and reviewed.
- Attainable: The goals, even if difficult, are reasonable and achievable.
- Results-oriented: The goals should support the vision of the organization.
- Time-bound: The goals are to be achieved within a stated time.

Self-Efficacy Theory
Individual’s beliefs in their ability to perform a task influence their behaviour.

Self efficacy influences effort. It compliments goal setting theory.

If someone have high efficacy, negative feedback leads to increased effort and motivation, on the other
have someone with low self efficacy, efforts and motivation will decrease.
Ways to improve Self-Efficacy

 Enactive mastery (past success)

 Vicarious modelling (Seeing someone else)
 Verbal Persuasion (being convinced)
 Arousal (get’ em excited)

Reinforcement Theory
A theory that says that behaviour is a function of its consequences.

Ignores that inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on what happens when he or she takes
some action.

Types:

 Positive Reinforcement
 Negative Reinforcement
 Punishment
 Exitnction