Construction of Multi Story Buildings

Notes
FORMWORK AND GOOD FORMWORK PROPERTIES

What is formwork?

When concrete is fresh and in its liquid state it must be restrained within a

mould in order for it to set in its required shape. Formwork is the term used to

describe this mould.

Formwork is a temporary mould into which fresh concrete and reinforcement

are placed to form a particular reinforced concrete element.

For most in-situ pours, the formwork is made of wood. A smooth outer surface
provides the main support for the concrete as it sets. This is normally made of
plywood.
GOOD FORMWORK:

There are two factors that decide how well the concrete will look in the final

result.. one is how the concrete is placed and compacted, and the other is the

quality of the formwork.

Formwork usually needs to be used many times for it to be cost efficient. This
can only be done if it is carefully handled, cleaned and stored, regardless of
what material it is made from.

Good formwork should fulfill the following criteria:

 It is strong enough to support the weight of fresh concrete during placing

and compacting, and any other loads it may be required to take.
 The face of the formwork is of sufficient quality for its use.
 It can be easily erected and struck.
 It is sufficiently stable in all weathers.
 It can be handled safely and easily using the equipment available.
 It provides suitable access for placing and compacting the concrete.
 It conforms with appropriate safety regulations.
 The joints between members are sound enough to prevent grout leakage.

Designing and building formwork effectively requires a basic understanding of

how concrete behaves as it exerts pressure on formwork. Concrete exerts
lateral pressure on the formwork. The formwork is designed based on these
lateral forces.

Lateral concrete pressure on formwork is affected by:

1) Height of concrete pour

2) Concrete pour rate

3) Weight of concrete

4) Temperature

5) Type of cement
6) Vibration

7) Concrete slump (water–cement ratio)

8) Chemical additives

1) Height of concrete pour: Before concrete hardens, it acts like a liquid and
pushes against the forms the way water presses against the walls of a storage
tank. The amount of pressure at any point on the form is directly determined by
the height and weight of concrete above it. Pressure is not affected by the
thickness of the wall.

Fig: Lateral concrete pressure on formwork

2) Concrete pour rate: Concrete pressure at any point on the form is directly
proportional to the height of liquid concrete above it. If concrete begins to
harden before the pour is complete, the full liquid head will not develop and the
pressure against the forms will be less than if the pour were completed before
any of concrete hardened.

Once concrete hardens it cannot exert more pressure on the forms even though
liquid concrete continues to be placed above it. The following diagrams
illustrates how form pressure varies when the pour rate is increased from one
level to another level. For ease of explanation, it is assumed that concrete
hardens in one hour (typically) at 21°C.
 Fig: Concrete pressure on formwork during hardening

When the pour rate is increased the pressure also increases as shown below:

Fig: Concrete pressure on formwork due to higher pour rate

3) Weight of Concrete: Pressure exerted against the forms is directly

proportional to the unit weight of concrete. Light weight concrete will exert less
pressure than normal weight concrete as shown below:

Fig: Pressure on formwork due to normal and lightweight concretes

4) Temperature: The time it takes concrete to harden is influenced greatly by

its temperature. The higher the temperature of the concrete, the quicker it will
harden. Most formwork designs are based on an assumed average air and
concrete temperature of 21°C. At low air temperatures, the hardening of
concrete is delayed and you need to decrease your pour rate or heat your
concrete to keep the pressure against the formwork from increasing. Ideally,
concrete should be poured at temperatures between 16°C and 38°C. Outside
this temperature range there is often insufficient moisture available for curing.
If adequate water for curing is not available or freezes, the strength of the
concrete will suffer.

5) Type of Cement: The cement type will influence the rate at which concrete
hardens. A high early strength concrete will harden faster than normal concrete
and will allow a faster pour rate. When using a cement which alters the normal
set and hardening time, be sure to adjust the pour rate accordingly.

6) Vibration: Internal vibration consolidates concrete and causes it to behave

like the pure liquid. If concrete is not vibrated, it will exert less pressure on the
forms.

7) Concrete Slump: When concrete has very low slump, it acts less like a
liquid and will transmit less pressure. When using concrete with a slump greater
than 100 mm, the formwork should be designed to resist full liquid head.

8) Chemical additives: When using chemical additives – i.e. retarders,

plasticizers, etc. – make sure to refer to the vendor’s application data.
 CONSTRUCTION QUALITY

POOR CONSTRUCTION METHODS AND WORKMANSHIP TO

AVOID

Poor construction methods and workmanship is responsible for the failure of

buildings and structure. The poor construction methods and workmanship is
caused due to negligence and inadequate quality control at construction site.
The effects of some of the poor construction methods are discussed below:

(a) Incorrect placement of steel

Incorrect placement of steel can result in

insufficient cover, leading to corrosion of the
reinforcement. If the bars are placed grossly out of
position or in the wrong position, collapse can
occur when the element is fully loaded.

(b) Inadequate cover to reinforcement

Inadequate cover to reinforcement permits ingress of moisture, gases and other

substances and leads to corrosion of the reinforcement and cracking and
spalling of the concrete.

(c) Incorrectly made construction joints

The main faults in construction joints are lack of preparation and poor
compaction. The old concrete should be washed and a layer of rich concrete laid
before pouring is continued. Poor joints allow ingress of moisture and staining of
the concrete face.

(d) Grout leakage

Grout leakage occurs where formwork joints do not fit together properly. The
result is a porous area of concrete that has little or no cement and fine
aggregate. All formwork joints should be properly sealed.

(e) Poor compaction

If concrete is not properly compacted by ramming or vibration the result is a

portion of porous honeycomb concrete. This part must be hacked out and
recast. Complete compaction is essential to give a dense, impermeable
concrete.

(f) Segregation

Segregation occurs when the mix ingredients become separated. It is the result
of

1. dropping the mix through too great a height in placing (chutes or pipes
should be used in such cases)

2. using a harsh mix with high coarse aggregate content

3. large aggregate sinking due to over-vibration or use of too much plasticizer

Fig: Seggregation of concrete

Segregation results in uneven concrete texture, or porous concrete in some

cases.

(g) Poor curing

A poor curing procedure can result in loss of water through evaporation. This
can cause a reduction in strength if there is not sufficient water for complete
hydration of the cement. Loss of water can cause shrinkage cracking. During
curing the concrete should be kept damp and covered.

(h) Too high a water content

Excess water increases workability but decreases the strength and increases the
porosity and permeability of the hardened concrete,which can lead to corrosion
of the reinforcement. The correct water-to-cement ratio for the mix should be
strictly enforced

GOOD CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES AND TECHNIQUES TO

PREVENT STRUCTURAL DAMAGE

Good construction practices and techniques should be followed to prevent

occurrence of structural damages that may occur during occupancy and with
age of the structure. A structure has to go through different stages in
construction process. Each and every stage of construction is important to make
sure that the structure being constructed will not experience damage under any
general circumstances. Development of cracks in structure is the first sign of
damage. Structural damage does not only reduces strength of the structure but
it may also make it unfit for use to the extent that the structure collapses. It is
very important for the civil engineers to ensure good construction practices are
followed at every stage of construction to prevent structural damage and failure
of the structure.

Following are the good construction practices and techniques that shall
be followed for good quality and durable construction of structure:

1. Masonry work:

 Masonry work in a structure should be carried out in uniform levels at all

parts of the structure to prevent differential settlement of foundation due to
differential loading. This will prevent the cracking of masonry walls and also
other structural elements. Difference in the height of masonry in different
parts of a building should normally not exceed 1m any time during
construction.
 Masonry work should be properly cured for a minimum period of 7 to 10
days.
 Masonry works on any RCC elements such as RCC Slab and beams should
not be started till minimum of 2 weeks after striking off the shuttering.

2. Concrete work:

 In reinforced concrete members such as cantilever beams and slabs which

are liable to deflect appreciably under load, removal of centering and
imposition of load should be deferred at least one month so that concrete
gains sufficient strengths before it bears the load.
 Curing of any concrete member should be done for a minimum period of 7
to 10 days and terminated gradually so as to avoid quick drying.
 Concrete work in very hot and windy climate should be avoided, and in
case it is not avoidable then precautions shall be taken to keep the
temperature of fresh concrete down and to prevent quick drying of concrete.
Following steps should be taken to keep the temperature of freshly prepared
concrete down:

- Aggregate and mixing water should be shaded from direct sun.

- Part of mixing water may be replaced by pounded ice.

- As far as possible concreting should be done in early hours of the day.

 Re-trowelling the concrete surface slightly, before its initial setting to

mitigate plastic shrinkage cracks

3. RCC frame work:

 As far as possible frame work should be completed before starting work of

panel walls for cladding and partitioning.
 Work of construction of panel walls and partition should be deferred as
much as possible and should proceed from top to down ward.
 Light re-vibration of concrete shall be done, before it has set, for the
member and section prone for plastic settlement cracks i.e. narrow column
and walls, at change of depth in section.

4. Plastering:

Plastering should be done after masonry has been properly cured and allowed to
dry so as to undergo initial shrinkage before plaster.

 For plastering on concrete background, it should be done as soon as

feasible after removal of shuttering by roughing of concrete surface where
necessary by hacking, and applying neat cement slurry on the concrete
surface to improve the bond.
 When RCC and brick work occurs in combination and to be plastered, then
sufficient time (at least 1 month) shall be allowed for RCC and brickwork to
undergo initial shrinkage and creep before taking up plaster work. In such
case either groove shall be provided in the plaster at the junction or 10cm
wide strip of metal mesh or lathing shall also be provided over the junction
to act as reinforcement.
5. Concrete and terrazzo floor:

 Control joint should be provided in the concrete and terrazzo floor either
by laying floors in alternate panels or by introducing strips of glass,
aluminium or some plastic material at close interval in grid pattern.
 When flooring is to be laid on RCC slab, either a base course of lime
concrete should be provided between the RCC slab and the flooring or
surface of slab should be well roughened, cleaned and primed with cement
slurry before laying of floor.

5. RCC Lintels:

Bearing for RCC lintels should be on the liberal side when spans are large so as
to avoid concentration of stress at the jambs.

6. RCC roof slab:

 The top of the slab should be provided with adequate insulation or

protective cover together with some high reflectivity finish cover to check
the thermal movement of the slab and consequent cracking in supporting
wall and panel/partition wall.
 In load bearing structure, slip joint should be introduced between the slab
and supporting/cross walls. Further either the slab should project for some
length from the supporting wall or the slab should rest only on part width of
the wall as shown in figure below:

Fig.1: Constructional detail of bearing of RCC roof slab over a masonry

wall
On the inside, wall plaster and ceiling plaster should be made discontinuous by
a groove of about 10 mm.

For introducing the slip joint, the bearing portion of supporting wall is rendered
smooth with plaster (preferably with neat cement finish), which is then allowed
to set and partly dry. Thereafter either it is given thick coat of whitewash, or 2
to 3 layers of tarred paper is placed over the plaster surface, before casting of
slab.

7. Provision of glazed, terrazzo or marble tile on vertical surface:

Before fixing of these tiles on vertical surface background component should be

allowed to undergo movement due to elastic deformation, shrinkage & creep
otherwise tiles are likely to crack and dislodged.

8. RCC work in exposed condition:

For RCC work in exposed condition i.e. sunshades, balconies, canopies, open
verandah etc., to prevent shrinkage cum contraction cracks, adequate quantity
of temperature reinforcement shall be provided. In such condition quantity shall
be increase by 50 to 100 % of the minimum amount prescribed.

9. Finish on wall:

Finishing items i.e. distemper and painting etc. should be carried out after the
plaster has dried and has under gone drying shrinkage.

10. Pace of construction:

The construction schedule and the pace of construction should be regulated to

ensure :

 All items of masonry are properly cured and allowed to dry before
plastering work is done, thus concealing the cracks in masonry in plaster
work. Similarly plaster work should be cured and allowed to dry before
applying finishing coat. So as to conceals the cracks in plaster under finish
coat.
 In case of concrete work before taking masonry work either over it or by
its side, the most of the drying shrinkage, creep and elastic deformation of
concrete should be allowed to take place, so as to avoid cracks in masonry
or a the junction of masonry and concrete.
11. Provision of reinforcement for thermal stresses:

To control the cracks in concrete due to shrinkage as well as temperature effect,

adequate temperature reinforcement shall be provided. This temperature
reinforcement is more effective if smaller diameter bars and the deformed steel
is used than plain reinforcement.

12. Extension of existing building:

(a) Horizontal extension: Since foundation of an existing building undergoes

some settlement as load comes on the foundation, it is necessary to ensure that
new construction is not bonded with the old construction and the two parts are
separated by a slip or expansion joint right from bottom to top. Otherwise,
when the newly constructed portion undergoes settlement, an unsightly crack
may occur at the junction.

Care should also be taken that in the vicinity of the old building, no excavation
below the foundation level of that building is carried out.

When plastering the new work, a deep groove should be formed separating the
new work from the old.

When it is intended to make horizontal extension to a framed structure later on

than the twin column with combined footing shall be provided at the time of
original construction itself as under:
b) Vertical extension: When making vertical extension to an existing building
(that is adding one or more additional floors) work should be proceeded at a
uniform level all round so as to avoid differential load on the foundation. In
spite of this precaution, however, sometimes cracks appear in the lower floors
(old portion) at the junction of RCC columns carrying heavy loads and lightly
loaded brick masonry walls due to increase in elastic deformation and creep in
RCC columns. Such cracks cannot be avoided.

Renewal of finishing coats on old walls of old portion should be deferred for 2 or
3 months after the imposition of additional load due to new construction so that
most of the likely cracking should take place before finish coat is applied thus
concealing the cracks.

13. Rich cement treatment on external walls:

When it is proposed to give some treatment on external walls of some rich

cement based material i.e. artificial stone finish, terrazzo etc., the finish should
be laid in small panels with deep grooves in both directions.

14. Movement joints:

To mitigate/relieve the magnitude of stresses due to thermal movement and
shrinkage movement joints i.e. Expansion joint, Control joint and Slip joint shall
be provided in the structure.

15. Filling in plinth:

Filling in plinth should be done with good soil free from organic matter,
brickbats and debris etc. It should be laid in 25 cm thick layers, well watered
and compacted to avoid possibility of subsequent subsidence and cracking of
floors.
QUALITY CONTROL MEASURES AT SITE

QUALITY CONTROL MEASURES

 Study duties responsibilities, Tender specification, standards, codes of

practice and work instruction.
 Evolve effective acceptance/rejection procedures for construction
materials in coordination with the project purchase department.
 Do proper sampling and testing of steel, cement, concrete, aggregates,
water, etc., and verify test results in view of standards and work
specifications prior to their use in construction.
 Set procedures to control quality at the points of storage for raw
materials, mixing and placing of concrete.
 Follow the prescribed curing and deshuttering schedules.
 Observe procedures to control quality of welded joints of structural steel
members.
 Evolve a system to check quality of workmanship in all construction
activities.
 Keep all codes of practice available in QC laboratory and have them
handy during discussion with client/consultant.
 Maintain sequence of construction required under any activity.
 Discuss QA/QC issues as a separate agenda during site review meetings
with staff.
 Observe regular schedule for maintenance, repairs and calibration of
plants and equipments.
 Keep spare parts/materials for laboratory equipments weigh batchers,
batching plant, etc., always keep spare vibrators ready at site.
 Carry work instruction cards in pocket while supervising/inspecting works.
 Practice sound house keeping methods to achieve saving, safety and
quality.
QUALITY AND SAFETY CONCERNS IN CONSTRUCTION

Quality control and safety represent increasingly important concerns for project
managers. Defects or failures in constructed facilities can result in very large
costs. Even with minor defects, re-construction may be required and facility
operations impaired. Increased costs and delays are the result. In the worst
case, failures may cause personal injuries or fatalities. Accidents during the
construction process can similarly result in personal injuries and large costs.
Indirect costs of insurance, inspection and regulation are increasing rapidly due
to these increased direct costs. Good project managers try to ensure that the
job is done right the first time and that no major accidents occur on the project.

As with cost control, the most important decisions regarding the quality of a
completed facility are made during the design and planning stages rather than
during construction. It is during these preliminary stages that component
configurations, material specifications and functional performance are decided.
Quality control during construction consists largely of insuring conformance to
these original design and planning decisions.

While conformance to existing design decisions is the primary focus of quality

control, there are exceptions to this rule. First, unforeseen circumstances,
incorrect design decisions or changes desired by an owner in the facility function
may require re-evaluation of design decisions during the course of construction.
While these changes may be motivated by the concern for quality, they
represent occasions for re-design with all the attendant objectives and
constraints. As a second case, some designs rely upon informed and appropriate
decision making during the construction process itself. For example, some
tunneling methods make decisions about the amount of shoring required at
different locations based upon observation of soil conditions during the
tunneling process. Since such decisions are based on better information
concerning actual site conditions, the facility design may be more cost effective
as a result. Any special case of re-design during construction requires the
various considerations.

With the attention to conformance as the measure of quality during the

construction process, the specification of quality requirements in the design and
contract documentation becomes extremely important. Quality requirements
should be clear and verifiable, so that all parties in the project can understand
the requirements for conformance.
Safety during the construction project is also influenced in large part by
decisions made during the planning and design process. Some designs or
construction plans are inherently difficult and dangerous to implement, whereas
other, comparable plans may considerably reduce the possibility of accidents.
For example, Workers should be constantly alert to the possibilities of accidents
and avoid taken unnecessary risks.

What are the main hazards in construction?

What are the main hazards in construction?

Among the dangers in construction are:

 Falls from working at height,

 Crush injuries in excavation work,
 Slips and trips,
 Being struck by falling objects,
 Moving heavy loads,
 Bad working positions, often in confined spaces,
 Being struck or crushed by a workplace vehicle,
 Receiving injuries from hand tools,
 Inhalation of dust,
 Handling of rough materials,
 Exposure to dangerous substances (chemical and biological),
 Working near, in, or over water,
 Exposure to radiation,
 Loud noise,
 Vibration from tools or vibrating machinery.

10 neglected construction safety concerns

With so many risks on the job, it is no surprise that construction workers are more prone to
serious injuries and in some cases, fatalities, than other industries. As a result, employers must
continually strive for workplace safety compliance and most importantly, their employees’ health
and vitality.

1 Scaffolding
Workers assigned to scaffolding jobs should be properly trained and continually aware of their
environment as falling debris, electrocution from power lines, and falls related to unstable
platforms can result in serious injuries. Supported and suspended scaffolds should be properly
outfitted with guardrails to prevent workers from falling from an open side, and workers should
be secured in appropriate fall protection.
2 Fall protection
All employees whose work conditions include the danger of falling should undergo fall
protection training regularly. Company training courses should identify specific hazards and
familiarize employees with all fall protection equipment used in the workplace. A review of the
written prevention and rescue plan will assure employees that help is never far away.

Fall protection equipment should be inspected each time it is used and by a qualified person once
every year — and that inspection should be documented. The equipment should be inspected
according to manufacturer’s recommendation and OSHA requirements. A thorough visual
inspection for signs of stress and wear should be performed every time a harness is used.

3 Ladder safety
The misuse of portable ladders can lead to injuries such as sprains and broken bones, but in
extreme cases also head and neck trauma — or even death. Ladders should be secured and
safely positioned at appropriate angles and prior to use be visually inspected for damaged
components including hinges, rungs/steps, side rails and feet. Side rails should extend at least 3
feet above the landing and be secured at the top to a sturdy support.

4 Respiratory safety
OSHA has established a respiratory protection standard covering detailed procedures for
reducing and eliminating respiratory hazards.

5 PPE
Personal protective equipment (PPE) is worn to reduce employees’ exposures to occupational
hazards and is required to be available on-site by OSHA. In fact, new OSHA regulations dictate
that where PPE is required, employers are now responsible for providing it. Otherwise,
employers are ultimately responsible for determining the level of PPE their employees use for
optimum protection. Hard hats, eye, ear and hand protection, earplugs and other protective
equipment provide protection from falling objects, head injuries, sparks, dust/fragments and
burns.

6 First aid and fire safety

It is common sense that first aid and fire safety are key programs on any given job site. However,
many sites lack enough first aid stations, kits and materials such as gauze, bandages, ice packs,
burn ointment and eyewash stations. Similarly, fire extinguishers should be kept in ample supply,
regularly inspected and used for the type of fire they are effective on. Workers should be
adequately trained about fire hazards on the construction site and what to do in an emergency.
Fire emergency plans should outline the assignments of key personnel, provide evacuation routes
and be reviewed regularly.

7 Confined spaces
Working in confined spaces can be an inconspicuous risk, as fatalities most often occur due to
invisible circumstances such as oxygen-deficient, toxic or combustible atmospheres. Also known
as permit-required confined spaces, they should be tested prior to entry and continuously
monitored using a properly configured and calibrated monitor. The monitors, once connected to
a docking station, also help maintain a proper calibration record for these confined spaces.

Workers must also use lockout/tagout (LOTO) to safeguard themselves from the unexpected
energization or startup of machinery and equipment, or the release of hazardous energy during
service or maintenance activities in confined spaces such as vessels. Approximately 3 million
workers service equipment and face the greatest risk of injury if every worker in the confined
space does not properly “lock out” the hazard and then “tag out” of the space once their work is
completed. Compliance with the OSHA lockout/tagout standard 29 CFR 1910.147 prevents an
estimated 120 fatalities and 50,000 injuries each year.

8 Recordkeeping
Maintaining up-to-date records of equipment inspections and injury logs is not only required by
OSHA, but is also the best way to protect employers from legal ramifications in the event of
injury and death.

9 Welding safety
Welding injuries, from minor flash burns to eye injuries, can be painful and cause disfigurement
or career-ending disabilities. Wearing the proper PPE is an easy way welders can protect
themselves against these risks and preserve their livelihood.

Unfortunately, overconfidence leads welders to think they are immune to such injury, or they
may choose not to use PPE because it is too expensive or the job is too small. Some welders
under-protect themselves because they feel the PPE is too warm or restrictive to wear.
Fortunately, workers now can find new PPE garments made of lightweight materials that wick
away sweat to stay comfortable. Welders now have many options in materials, flame-retardant
traits, fabric weight and accessories to suit up for the job.

Welding helmets should be equipped with the proper filter lens in either a passive or an
autodarkening style to shield against the arc’s bright light. Remember that ANSI Z87.1 lists
welding helmets as secondary eye protection that must be used with the primary protection
provided by safety glasses or goggles.

Airborne hazards should also be assessed and the necessary engineering controls implemented to
maintain acceptable exposure levels using ventilation, fans or fume extractors.

10 Training
The key to preventing many workplace accidents and injuries is frequent and effective employee
training programs. These programs exist for virtually all construction safety components
including fall protection, fire safety and welding safety among others.

Although many employers provide on-the-job training through their on-staff safety specialists,
there are voluntary educational programs available for additional certification such as OSHA’s
Outreach Training Program.

Concrete Technology

Concrete is made of aggregates, sand, cement and water.

The aggregates should be more than 5mm in diameter.

Good aggregates should be:

1. Clean, so that the cement can adhere to them

2. Strong enough to produce the final strength of concrete
3. Durable enough to resist extremes of heat and cold

Quantity of material required in 1m3 of concrete.

Mix Cement(kg) Sand (m3) Aggregates (m3)

1:3:6 172 0.36 0.72
1:2:4 238 0.33 0.67

Prestressed Concrete
Definitions::
 • “Pre-stressed concrete is a form of reinforced concrete that builds in
compressive stresses during construction to oppose those found when in
use.”
• In other words it is a combination of steel and concrete that takes
advantages of the strengths of each material.

Types of prestessed concrete

• Pre-Tension Concrete: pre-stressing steel is tension stressed prior to the
placement of the concrete and unloaded after concrete has harden to
required strength.
• Bonded post-tensioned concrete: unstressed pre-stressing steel is placed
with in the concrete and then tension stressed after concrete has harden
to required strength
• Un-bonded post-tensioned concrete: differs from bonded post-tensioning
by providing the pre-stressing steel permanent freedom of movement
relative to the concrete.

Forms of Prestressing Steel

Wires
Prestressing wire is a single unit made of steel.
Strands
Two, three or seven wires are wound to form a prestressing strand.
Tendon
A group of strands or wires are wound to form a prestressing tendon.
Cable
A group of tendons form a prestressing cable.
Bars
A tendon can be made up of a single steel bar. The diameter of a bar is much
larger than that of a wire.
The different types of prestressing steel are further explained in Section 1.7,
Prestressing Steel.
Advantages of Prestressing
The prestressing of concrete has several advantages as compared to traditional
reinforced concrete (RC) without prestressing. A fully prestressed concrete member is
usually subjected to compression during service life. This rectifies several deficiencies
of concrete.
The following text broadly mentions the advantages of a prestressed concrete member
with an equivalent RC member. For each effect, the benefits are listed.
 Reduction of steel corrosion
 Increase in durability.
 Full section is utilised
 Less deformations (improved serviceability).
 Increase in shear capacity.
 High span-to-depth ratios
Non-prestressed slab 28:1
Prestressed slab 45:1
 Reduction in self weight(dead load)
 More aesthetic appeal due to slender sections
 More economical sections.
Limitations of Prestressing
Although prestressing has advantages, some aspects need to be carefully addressed.
• Prestressing needs skilled technology. Hence, it is not as common as reinforced
concrete.
• The use of high strength materials is costly.
• There is additional cost in auxiliary equipments.
• There is need for quality control and inspection.

3) Suitable for precast construction

The advantages of precast construction are as follows.
• Rapid construction
• Better quality control
• Reduced maintenance
• Suitable for repetitive construction
• Multiple use of formwork
⇒ Reduction of formwork
• Availability of standard shapes.
The following figure shows the common types of precast sections.
Prestressed Concrete Structures Dr. Amlan K Sengupta and Prof. Devdas Menon
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
T-section Double T-section
Hollow core Piles
L-section Inverted T-section I-girders

CIVIL ENGINEERING PROFESSIONALS design, plan, organise and oversee

the construction of civil engineering projects

Most occupations in this unit group have a level of skill commensurate

with a bachelor degree or higher qualification.

Registration or licensing may be required.

Tasks Include:

 determining construction methods, materials and quality standards, and

drafting and interpreting specifications, drawings, plans, construction
methods and procedures
 organising and directing site labour and the delivery of construction
materials, plant and equipment, and establishing detailed programs for the
coordination of site activities
 obtaining soil and rock samples at different depths across sites and testing
samples to determine strength, compressibility and other factors that
 affect the behaviour of soil and rock when a structure is imposed and
determining the safe loading for the soil
 studying architectural and engineering drawings and specifications to
estimate total costs, and preparing detailed cost plans and estimates as
tools to assist in budgetary control
 monitoring changes to designs, assessing effects on cost, and measuring,
valuing and negotiating variations to designs
 analysing structural systems for both static and dynamic loads
 designing structures to ensure they do not collapse, bend, twist or vibrate
in undesirable ways
 assessing present and future travel flow patterns taking into account
population increase and needs change

Occupations:

1. CIVIL ENGINEER

Plans, designs, organises and oversees the construction and operation of civil
engineering projects.

2. GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEER

Plans, directs and conducts survey work to analyse the likely behaviour of soil
and rock when placed under pressure by proposed structures, and designs
above and below ground foundations.

3. QUANTITY SURVEYOR

Alternative Titles:
Building Economist
Construction Economist

Estimates and monitors construction costs from the project feasibility stage,
through tender preparation, to the construction period and beyond.

4. STRUCTURAL ENGINEER

Analyses the statical properties of all types of structures, tests the behaviour and
durability of materials used in their construction, and designs and supervises the
construction of all types of structures.

1. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS design, develop and supervise the manufacture,

installation, operation and maintenance of equipment, machines and systems for
the generation, distribution, utilisation and control of electric power.

Tasks Include:
  planning and designing power stations and power generation equipment
 determining the type and arrangement of circuits, transformers, circuit-
breakers, transmission lines and other equipment
 developing products such as electric motors, components, equipment and
appliances
 interpreting specifications, drawings, standards and regulations relating to
electric power equipment and use
 organising and managing resources used in the supply of electrical
components, machines, appliances and equipment
 establishing delivery and installation schedules for machines, switchgear,
cables and fittings
 supervising the operation and maintenance of power stations,
transmission and distribution systems and industrial plants
 designing and installing control and signalling equipment for road, rail and
air traffic
 may specialise in research in areas such as power generation and
transmission systems, transformers, switchgear and electric motors,
telemetry and control systems

6. ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS design, develop, adapt, install, test and

maintain electronic components, circuits and systems used for computer
systems, communication systems, entertainment, transport and other industrial
applications.
.

Tasks Include:

 designing electronic components, circuits and systems used for computer,

communication and control systems, and other industrial applications
 designing software, especially embedded software, to be used within such
systems
 developing apparatus and procedures to test electronic components,
circuits and systems
 supervising installation and commissioning of computer, communication
and control systems, and ensuring proper control and protection methods
 establishing and monitoring performance and safety standards and
procedures for operation, modification, maintenance and repair of such
systems
 designing communications bearers based on wired, optical fibre and
wireless communication media
 analysing communications traffic and level of service, and determining the
type of installation, location, layout and transmission medium for
communication systems
 designing and developing signal processing algorithms and implementing
these through appropriate choice of hardware and software

7. MECHANICAL ENGINEER
 Plans, designs, organises and oversees the assembly, erection, operation and
maintenance of mechanical and process plant and installations. Registration or
licensing may be required.

8. PRODUCTION OR PLANT ENGINEER

Plans, directs and coordinates the design, construction, modification, continued

performance and maintenance of equipment and machines in industrial plants,
and the management and planning of manufacturing activities.