Stainless Steel

1/29/2018 Stainless steel - Wikipedia
Stainless steel
In metallurgy, stainless steel, also known as inox steel or
inox from French inoxydable (inoxidizable), is a steel alloy
with a minimum of 10.5% chromium content by mass.[1]
Stainless steels are notable for their corrosion resistance, which

increases with increasing chromium content. Molybdenum
additions increase corrosion resistance in reducing acids and
against pitting attack in chloride solutions. Thus, there are
numerous grades of stainless steel with varying chromium and Stainless steel cladding is used on the Walt Disney
molybdenum contents to suit the environment the alloy must Concert Hall
endure.
Stainless steel differs from carbon steel due to the presence of chromium. Unprotected carbon steel rusts readily when
exposed to the combination of air and moisture. The resulting iron oxide surface layer (the rust) is porous and fragile.
Since iron oxide occupies a larger volume than the original steel this layer expands and tends to flake and fall away
exposing the underlying steel to further attack. In comparison, stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to undergo
passivation, spontaneously forming a microscopically thin inert surface film of chromium oxide by reaction with the
oxygen in air and even the small amount of dissolved oxygen in water. This passive film prevents further corrosion by
blocking oxygen diffusion to the steel surface and thus prevents corrosion from spreading into the bulk of the metal.[2]
This film is self-repairing if it is scratched or temporarily disturbed by an upset condition in the environment that exceeds
the inherent corrosion resistance of that grade[3][2] Thus stainless steels are used where both the strength of steel and
corrosion resistance are required.
Stainless steel’s resistance to corrosion and staining, low maintenance, and familiar lustre make it an ideal material for
many applications. Stainless steels are rolled into sheets, plates, bars, wire, and tubing to be used in cookware, cutlery,
surgical instruments, major appliances and as construction material in large buildings, such as the Chrysler Building. As
well as, industrial equipment (for example, in paper mills, chemical plants, water treatment), and storage tanks and
tankers for chemicals and food products (for example, chemical tankers and road tankers). Stainless steels corrosion
resistance, the ease with which it can be steam cleaned and sterilized and no need for other surface coatings has also
influenced its use in commercial kitchens and food processing plants.
Contents
Corrosion resistance
Acids
Bases
Organics
Localized corrosion
Oxidation
Properties
Electricity and magnetism
Galling
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel 1/16
History
Stainless steel families
Austenitic stainless steels,
Ferritic stainless steels
Martensitic stainless steels
Duplex stainless steels
Grades
Comparison of standardized steels
Standard finishes
Applications
Architecture
Water
Pulp, Paper and Biomass conversion
Locomotion
Medicine
Culinary use
Jewelry
Firearms
3D printing
Recycling and reusing
Nanoscale stainless steel
Health effects
See also
References
External links
Corrosion resistance
Stainless steels do not suffer uniform corrosion, like carbon steel, when
exposed to wet environments. However, they may suffer uniform corrosion
when exposed to acidic or basic solutions. Whether a stainless steel corrodes
depends on the kind and concentration of acid or base, and the solution
temperature. Uniform corrosion is typically easy to avoid because of extensive
published corrosion data or easy to perform laboratory testing. Unfortunately,
stainless steels are susceptible to localized corrosion under certain conditions,
which need to be recognized and avoided. Such localized corrosion is
problematic for stainless steels because it is unexpected and more difficult to
Stainless steel (bottom row) resists
predict.
salt-water corrosion better than
aluminium-bronze (top row) or
copper-nickel alloys (middle row)
Acids
Acidic solutions can be categorized into two general categories, reducing acids
such as hydrochloric acid and dilute sulfuric acid, and oxidizing acids such as nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid.
Increasing chromium and molybdenum contents provide increasing resistance to reducing acids, while increasing
chromium and silicon contents provide increasing resistance to oxidizing acids.
Sulfuric acid is the largest tonnage industrial chemical manufactured. At room

temperature Type 304 is only resistant up to 3% acid while Type 316 is
resistant up to 50oC and up to 20% acid at room temperature. Thus Type 304
is rarely used in contact with sulfuric acid. Type 904 and Alloy 20 are resistant
to sulfuric acid at even higher concentrations above room temperature.[4][5]
Hydrochloric acid will damage any kind of stainless steel, and should be
avoided.[6][7]
All types of stainless steel resist attack from phosphoric acid and nitric acid at Stainless steel is not completely
room temperature. At high concentration and elevated temperature attack will immune to corrosion in this
occur and higher alloy stainless steels are required.[8] [9] Concentrated sulfuric desalination equipment
acid possesses oxidizing characteristics like nitric acid and thus silicon bearing
stainless steels also find application.
In general, organic acids are less corrosive than mineral acids such as hydrochloric and sulfuric acid. As the molecular
weight of organic acids increase their corrosivity decreases. Formic acid has the lowest molecular weight and is a strong
acid. Type 304 can be used with formic acid though it will tend to discolor the solution. Acetic acid is probably the most
commercially important of the organic acids and Type 316 is commonly used for storing and handling acetic acid.[10]
Bases
Stainless steels Type 304 and 316 are unaffected by any of the weak bases such as ammonium hydroxide, even in high
concentrations and at high temperatures. The same grades of stainless exposed to stronger bases such as sodium
hydroxide at high concentrations and high temperatures will likely experience some etching and cracking.[11]
Increasing chromium and nickel contents provide increasing resistance.
Organics
All grades resist damage from aldehydes and amines, though in the latter case grade 316 is preferable to 304; cellulose
acetate will damage 304 unless the temperature is kept low. Fats and fatty acids only affect grade 304 at temperatures
above 150 °C (302 °F), and grade 316 above 260 °C (500 °F), while 317 is unaffected at all temperatures. Type 316L is
required for processing of urea.[6]
Localized corrosion
Localized corrosion can occur in a number of ways, e.g. pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion and stress corrosion cracking.
Such localized attack is most common in the presence of chloride ions. Increasing chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen
contents provide increasing resistance to localized corrosion and thus increasing chloride levels require more highly
alloyed stainless steels. In general, higher chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen contents provide greater resistance to
localized corrosion. Design and good fabrication techniques combined with correct alloy selection can prevent such
corrosion.[12]
Localized corrosion can be difficult to predict because it is dependent on many factors including:
Chloride ion concentration (Unfortunately, even when the chloride solution concentration is known, it is still possible
for chloride ions to concentrate, such as in crevices (e.g. under gaskets) or on surfaces in vapor spaces due to
evaporation and condensation.)
Increasing temperature increases susceptibility
Increasing acidity increases susceptibility

Stagnant conditions increase susceptibility
The presence of oxidizing species, such as ferric and cupric ions
Oxidation
High oxidation resistance in air at ambient temperature is normally achieved with addition of a minimum of 13% (by
weight) chromium, and up to 26% is used for harsh environments.[13] The chromium forms a passivation layer of
chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3) when exposed to oxygen. The layer is too thin to be visible, and the metal remains lustrous
and smooth. However, the layer does become visible when the temperatures are increased, first as colorful rainbow hues
(depending on alloying elements, temperature, time, and atmosphere), later as a rough, dull, mostly brown surface due to
the increased size of the metal oxide crystals.[14] The layer is impervious to water and air, protecting the metal beneath,
and this layer quickly reforms when the surface is scratched. This phenomenon is called passivation and is seen in other
metals, such as aluminium and titanium.
Properties
Electricity and magnetism

Like steel, stainless steel is a relatively poor conductor of electricity, with
significantly lower electrical conductivity than copper. Other metals in contact
with stainless steel, particularly in a damp or acidic environment, may suffer
galvanic corrosion even though the stainless metal may be unaffected.
Ferritic and martensitic stainless steels are magnetic. Annealed austenitic

stainless steels are non-magnetic. Work hardening can make austenitic
stainless steels slightly magnetic.
left nut is not in inox and is rusty

Galling
When stainless steel parts such as nuts and bolts are forced together, the oxide
layer can be scraped off, allowing the parts to weld together. When forcibly disassembled, the welded material may be torn
and pitted, a destructive effect known as galling.[15] Galling can be avoided by the use of dissimilar materials for the parts
forced together, for example bronze and stainless steel, or even different types of stainless steels (martensitic against
austenitic). However, two different alloys electrically connected in a humid, even mildly acidic environment may act as a
voltaic pile and corrode faster. Nitronic alloys, made by selective alloying with manganese and nitrogen, may have a
reduced tendency to gall. Additionally, threaded joints may be lubricated to provide a film between the two parts and
prevent galling. Low-temperature carburizing is another option that virtually eliminates galling and allows the use of
similar materials without the risk of corrosion and the need for lubrication.
History
The corrosion resistance of iron-chromium alloys was first recognized in 1821 by French metallurgist Pierre Berthier, who
noted their resistance against attack by some acids and suggested their use in cutlery. Metallurgists of the 19th century
were unable to produce the combination of low carbon and high chromium found in most modern stainless steels, and the
high-chromium alloys they could produce were too brittle to be practical.
In 1872, the Englishmen Clark and Woods patented an alloy that would today
be considered a stainless steel.[17]
In the late 1890s Hans Goldschmidt of Germany developed an aluminothermic

(thermite) process for producing carbon-free chromium. Between 1904 and
1911 several researchers, particularly Leon Guillet of France, prepared alloys
that would today be considered stainless steel.[18]
Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft built the 366-ton sailing yacht Germania

featuring a chrome-nickel steel hull in Germany in 1908.[19] In 1911, Philip
Monnartz reported on the relationship between chromium content and
corrosion resistance. On 17 October 1912, Krupp engineers Benno Strauss and
Eduard Maurer patented austenitic stainless steel as Nirosta.[20][21][22]
Similar developments were taking place contemporaneously in the United

States, where Christian Dantsizen and Frederick Becket were industrializing
ferritic stainless steel. In 1912, Elwood Haynes applied for a US patent on a
martensitic stainless steel alloy, which was not granted until 1919.[23]
In 1912, Harry Brearley of the

An announcement, as it appeared in
Brown-Firth research laboratory in the 1915 New York Times, of the
Sheffield, England, while seeking a development of stainless steel in
corrosion-resistant alloy for gun Sheffield, England.[16]
barrels, discovered and
subsequently industrialized a
martensitic stainless steel alloy. The discovery was announced two years later
in a January 1915 newspaper article in The New York Times.[16] The metal was
later marketed under the "Staybrite" brand by Firth Vickers in England and
Monument to Harry Brearley at the
was used for the new entrance canopy for the Savoy Hotel in London in
former Brown Firth Research
Laboratory in Sheffield, England 1929.[24] Brearley applied for a US patent during 1915 only to find that Haynes
had already registered a patent. Brearley and Haynes pooled their funding and
with a group of investors formed the American Stainless Steel Corporation,
with headquarters in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.[25]
In the beginning stainless steel was sold in the US under different brand names like "Allegheny metal" and "Nirosta steel".
Even within the metallurgy industry the eventual name remained unsettled; in 1921 one trade journal was calling it
"unstainable steel".[26] In 1929, before the Great Depression hit, over 25,000 tons of stainless steel were manufactured and
sold in the US.[27]
Stainless steel families

Within stainless steels, there are four families
Austenitic stainless steel (include the so-called super-austenitics)
When nickel is added, the austenite structure of iron is stabilized. This crystal structure
makes such steels virtually non-magnetic and less brittle at low temperatures.
Significant quantities of manganese have been used in many stainless steel compositions.
Manganese preserves an austenitic structure in the steel, similar to nickel, but at a lower
cost.
Ferritic stainless steel
Martensitic stainless steel
For greater hardness and strength, more carbon is added. With proper heat treatment,
these steels are used for such products as razor blades, cutlery, and tools.
Duplex stainless steel (also called austenitic- ferritic stainless steels)

Stainless steels are also classified by their crystalline structure:
Austenitic stainless steels,

Also called 200 and 300 series, stainless steels have an austenitic
crystalline structure, which is a face-centered cubic crystal structure.
Austenite steels make up over 70% of total stainless steel production. They
contain a maximum of 0.15% carbon, a minimum of 16% chromium, and
sufficient nickel and/or manganese to retain an austenitic structure at all
Pipes and fittings made of stainless
temperatures from the cryogenic region to the melting point of the alloy.
steel
200 Series—austenitic chromium-nickel-manganese alloys. Type
201 is hardenable through cold working; Type 202 is a general
purpose stainless steel. Decreasing nickel content and increasing manganese results in weak corrosion
resistance.[28]
300 Series. The most widely used austenite steel is the 304, also known as 18/8 for its composition of 18%
chromium and 8% nickel.[29] 304 may be referred to as A2 stainless (not to be confused with AISI grade A2 air
hardening alloy tool steel containing about 5% chromium). The second most common austenite steel is the 316
grade, also referred to as A4 stainless and called marine grade stainless, used primarily for its increased
resistance to corrosion. A typical composition of 18% chromium and 10% nickel, commonly known as 18/10
stainless, is often used in cutlery and high-quality cookware. 18/0 is also available.
Superaustenitic stainless steels, such as Allegheny Ludlum alloy AL-6XN and 254SMO, exhibit
great resistance to chloride pitting and crevice corrosion because of high molybdenum content
(>6%) and nitrogen additions, and the higher nickel content ensures better resistance to stress-
corrosion cracking versus the 300 series. The higher alloy content of superaustenitic steels
makes them more expensive. Other steels can offer similar performance at lower cost and are
preferred in certain applications. For example ASTM A387 is used in pressure vessels but is a
low-alloy carbon steel with a chromium content of 0.5% to 9%.[30] Low-carbon versions, for
example 316L or 304L, are used to avoid corrosion problems caused by welding. Grade
316LVM is preferred where biocompatibility is required (such as body implants and
piercings).[31] The "L" means that the carbon content of the alloy is below 0.03%, which reduces
the sensitization effect (precipitation of chromium carbides at grain boundaries) caused by the
high temperatures involved in welding.
Ferritic stainless steels

They generally have better engineering properties than austenitic grades, but have reduced corrosion resistance,
because of the lower chromium and nickel content. They are also usually less expensive. Ferritic stainless steels
have a body-centered cubic crystal system and contain between 10.5% and 27% chromium with very little nickel, if
any, but some types can contain lead. Most compositions include molybdenum; some, aluminium or titanium.
Common ferritic grades include 18Cr-2Mo, 26Cr-1Mo, 29Cr-4Mo, and 29Cr-4Mo-2Ni. These alloys can be degraded
by the presence of sigma chromium, an intermetallic phase which can precipitate upon welding.
Martensitic stainless steels

They are usually not as corrosion-resistant as the other two classes but
are extremely strong and tough, as well as highly machinable, and can be
hardened by heat treatment. Martensitic stainless steel contains chromium
(12–14%), molybdenum (0.2–1%), nickel (less than 2%), and carbon
(about 0.1–1%) (giving it more hardness but making the material a bit
more brittle). It is quenched and magnetic.
Duplex stainless steels

Swiss Army knives are made of
They have a mixed microstructure of austenite and ferrite, the aim usually martensitic stainless steel.
being to produce a 50/50 mix, although in commercial alloys the ratio may
be 40/60. Duplex stainless steels have roughly twice the strength
compared to austenitic stainless steels and also improved resistance to localized corrosion, particularly pitting,
crevice corrosion and stress corrosion cracking. They are characterized by high chromium (19–32%) and
molybdenum (up to 5%) and lower nickel contents than austenitic stainless steels.
The properties of duplex stainless steels are achieved with an overall lower alloy content than
similar-performing super-austenitic grades, making their use cost-effective for many
applications. Duplex grades are characterized into groups based on their alloy content and
corrosion resistance.
Lean duplex refers to grades such as UNS S32101 (LDX 2101), S32202 (UR2202), S32304, and S32003.
Standard duplex refers to grades with 22% chromium, such as UNS S31803/S32205, with 2205 being the most
widely used.
Super duplex is by definition a duplex stainless steel with a Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number (PREN) >
40, where PREN = %Cr + 3.3x(%Mo + 0.5x%W) + 16x%N. Usually super duplex grades have 25% or more
chromium. Some common examples are S32760 (Zeron 100 via Rolled Alloys), S32750 (2507), and S32550
(Ferralium 255 via Langley Alloys).
Hyper duplex refers to duplex grades with a PRE > 48. UNS S32707 and S33207 are the only grades currently
available on the market.
Precipitation-hardening martensitic stainless steels have corrosion resistance comparable to austenitic varieties, but
can be precipitation hardened to even higher strengths than the other martensitic grades. The most common, 17-
4PH, uses about 17% chromium and 4% nickel.
The designation "CRES" is used in various industries to refer to corrosion-resistant steel. Most mentions of CRES refer to
stainless steel, although the correspondence is not absolute, because there are other materials that are corrosion-resistant
but not stainless steel.[32]
Grades
There are over 150 grades of stainless steel, of which 15 are most commonly used. There are a number of systems for
grading stainless and other steels, including US SAE steel grades.
Comparison of standardized steels
EN-standard EN-standard
Steel no. k.h.s DIN Steel name SAE grade UNS
1.4512 X6CrTi12 409 S40900

410 S41000
1.4016 X6Cr17 430 S43000
1.4109 X65CrMo14 440A S44002
1.4112 440B S44003
1.4125 X105CrMo17 440C S44004
440F S44020
1.4310 X10CrNi18-8 301 S30100
1.4318 X2CrNiN18-7 301LN
1.4301 X5CrNi18-10 304 S30400
1.4307 X2CrNi18-9 304L S30403
1.4306 X2CrNi19-11 304L S30403
1.4311 X2CrNiN18-10 304LN S30453
1.4948 X6CrNi18-11 304H S30409
1.4303 X5CrNi18-12 305 S30500
X5CrNi30-9 312
1.4841 X22CrNi2520 310 S31000
1.4845 X 5 CrNi 2520 310S S31008
1.4401 X5CrNiMo17-12-2 316 S31600
1.4408 G-X 6 CrNiMo 18-10 316 S31600
1.4436 X3CrNiMo17-13-3 316 S31600
1.4406 X2CrNiMoN17-12-2 316LN S31653
1.4404 X2CrNiMo17-12-2 316L S31603
1.4432 X2CrNiMo17-12-3 316L S31603
1.4435 X2CrNiMo18-14-3 316L S31603
1.4571 X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2 316Ti S31635
1.4429 X2CrNiMoN17-13-3 316LN S31653
1.4438 X2CrNiMo18-15-4 317L S31703
1.4541 X6CrNiTi18-10 321 S32100
1.4878 X12CrNiTi18-9 321H S32109
1.4362 X2CrNi23-4 2304 S32304
1.4462 X2CrNiMoN22-5-3 2205 S31803/S32205
1.4501 X2CrNiMoCuWN25-7-4 J405 S32760
1.4539 X1NiCrMoCu25-20-5 904L N08904
1.4529 X1NiCrMoCuN25-20-7 N08926
EN-standard EN-standard
Steel no. k.h.s DIN Steel name SAE grade UNS
1.4547 X1CrNiMoCuN20-18-7 254SMO S31254
Standard finishes
Standard mill finishes can be applied to flat rolled stainless steel directly by the rollers
and by mechanical abrasives. Steel is first rolled to size and thickness and then
annealed to change the properties of the final material. Any oxidation that forms on the
surface (mill scale) is removed by pickling, and a passivation layer is created on the
surface. A final finish can then be applied to achieve the desired aesthetic appearance.
No. 0: Hot rolled, annealed, thicker plates

No. 1: Hot rolled, annealed and passivated
No. 2D: Cold rolled, annealed, pickled and passivated
No. 2B: Same as above with additional pass through highly polished rollers
No. 2BA: Bright annealed (BA or 2R) same as above then bright annealed under
oxygen-free atmospheric condition
No. 3: Coarse abrasive finish applied mechanically
316L stainless steel, with
No. 4: Brushed finish
an unpolished, mill finish
No. 5: Satin finish
No. 6: Matte finish (brushed but smoother than #4)
No. 7: Reflective finish
No. 8: Mirror finish
No. 9: Bead blast finish
No. 10: Heat colored finish—offering a wide range of electropolished and heat colored surfaces
Applications
Architecture
Stainless steel is used for buildings for both practical and aesthetic reasons. Stainless
steel was in vogue during the art deco period. The most famous example of this is the
upper portion of the Chrysler Building (pictured). Some diners and fast-food
restaurants use large ornamental panels and stainless fixtures and furniture. Because of
the durability of the material, many of these buildings still retain their original
appearance. Stainless steel is used today in building construction because of its
durability and because it is a weldable building metal that can be made into
aesthetically pleasing shapes. An example of a building in which these properties are
exploited is the Art Gallery of Alberta in Edmonton, which is wrapped in stainless steel.
Type 316 stainless is used on the exterior of both the Petronas Twin Towers and the Jin
The 630-foot-high (190 m),
Mao Building, two of the world's tallest skyscrapers.[34]
stainless-clad (type 304)
Gateway Arch defines St.
The Parliament House of Australia in Canberra has a stainless steel flagpole weighing
Louis's skyline
over 220 metric tons (240 short tons).
The aeration building in the Edmonton Composting Facility, the size of 14 hockey rinks,
is the largest stainless steel building in North America.
Bridges
The Helix Bridge is a pedestrian bridge linking Marina Centre with Marina South in the
Marina Bay area in Singapore.
Cala Galdana Bridge in Menorca (Spain) was the first stainless steel road bridge.
Sant Fruitos Pedestrian Bridge (Catalonia, Spain), arch pedestrian bridge.
Padre Arrupe Bridge (Bilbao, Spain) links the Guggenheim museum to the
University of Deusto.[35]
Monuments and sculptures The pinnacle of New York's

Chrysler Building is clad
Unisphere, constructed as the theme symbol of the 1964 New York World's Fair, is
with Nirosta stainless steel,
constructed of Type 304L stainless steel as a spherical framework with a diameter
of 120 feet (37 m) (New York City) a form of Type 302[33][34]
Gateway Arch (pictured) is clad entirely in stainless steel: 886 tons (804 metric
tons) of 0.25 in (6.4 mm) plate, #3 finish, type 304 stainless steel.[36] (St. Louis,
Missouri)
United States Air Force Memorial has an austenitic stainless steel structural skin
(Arlington, Virginia)
Atomium was renovated with stainless-steel cladding in a renovation completed in
2006; previously the spheres and tubes of the structure were clad in aluminium
(Brussels, Belgium)
Cloud Gate sculpture by Anish Kapoor (Chicago, Illinois)
Sibelius Monument is made entirely of stainless steel tubes (Helsinki, Finland)
The Kelpies (Falkirk, Scotland)
Man of Steel (sculpture) under construction (Rotherham, England)
Juraj Jánošík monument (Terchova, Slovakia)
Airports An art deco sculpture on

the Niagara-Mohawk Power
Stainless steel is a modern trend for roofing material for airports due to its low glare building in Syracuse, New
reflectance to keep pilots from being blinded, also for its properties that allow thermal York
reflectance in order to keep the surface of the roof close to ambient temperature. The
Hamad International Airport in Qatar was built with all stainless steel roofing for these
reasons, as well as the Sacramento International Airport in California.
Water
Stainless steels have a long history of application in contact with water[37] due to their excellent corrosion resistance.
Applications include a range of conditions from plumbing[38], potable[39] and waste water treatment[40] to desalination[41].
Types 304 and 316 stainless steels are standard materials of construction in contact with water. However, with increasing
chloride contents higher alloyed stainless steels such as Type 2205 and super austenitic and super duplex stainless steels
are utilized.
Important considerations to achieve optimum corrosion performance are[42]:
choose the correct grade for the chloride content of the water;
avoid crevices when possible by good design;
follow good fabrication practices, particularly removing weld heat tint;
drain promptly after hydrotesting.
Pulp, Paper and Biomass conversion

Stainless steels are used extensively in the Pulp and Paper industry for two
primary reasons, to avoid iron contamination of the product and their
corrosion resistance to the various chemicals used in the paper making
process[43].
A wide range stainless steels are used throughout the paper making process.
For example, duplex stainless steels are being used in digesters to convert
wood chips into wood pulp. 6% Mo superaustenitics are used in the bleach
plant and Type 316 is used extensively in the paper machine. Stainless steel is used for industrial
equipment when durability and
cleanability are important
Locomotion
Automotive bodies
The Allegheny Ludlum Corporation worked with Ford on various concept cars with stainless steel bodies from the 1930s
through the 1970s to demonstrate the material's potential. The 1957 and 1958 Cadillac Eldorado Brougham had a stainless
steel roof. In 1981 and 1982, the DeLorean DMC-12 production automobile used Type-304 stainless steel body panels over
a glass-reinforced plastic monocoque. Intercity buses made by Motor Coach Industries are partially made of stainless
steel. The aft body panel of the Porsche Cayman model (2-door coupe hatchback) is made of stainless steel. It was
discovered during early body prototyping that conventional steel could not be formed without cracking (due to the many
curves and angles in that automobile). Thus, Porsche was forced to use stainless steel on the Cayman.
Some automotive manufacturers use stainless steel as decorative highlights in their vehicles.
Passenger rail cars
Rail cars have commonly been manufactured using corrugated stainless steel panels (for additional structural strength).
This was particularly popular during the 1960s and 1970s, but has since declined. One notable example was the early
Pioneer Zephyr. Notable former manufacturers of stainless steel rolling stock included the Budd Company (USA), which
has been licensed to Japan's Tokyu Car Corporation, and the Portuguese company Sorefame. Many railcars in the United
States are still manufactured with stainless steel, unlike other countries who have shifted away.
Aircraft
Budd also built two airplanes, the Budd BB-1 Pioneer and the Budd RB-1 Conestoga, of stainless steel tube and sheet. The
first, which had fabric wing coverings, is on display at the Franklin Institute, being the longest continuous display of an
aircraft ever, since 1934. The RB-2 Was almost all stainless steel, save for the control surfaces. One survives at the Pima
Air & Space Museum, adjacent to Davis–Monthan Air Force Base.
The American Fleetwings Sea Bird amphibious aircraft of 1936 was also built using a spot-welded stainless steel hull.
Due to its thermal stability, the Bristol Aeroplane Company built the all-stainless steel Bristol 188 high-speed research
aircraft, which first flew in 1963. However, the practical problems encountered meant that Concorde employed aluminium
alloys.
The use of stainless steel in mainstream aircraft is hindered by its excessive weight compared to other materials, such as
aluminium.
Medicine
Surgical tools and medical equipment are usually made of stainless steel, because of its durability and ability to be
sterilized in an autoclave. In addition, surgical implants such as bone reinforcements and replacements (e.g. hip sockets
and cranial plates) are made with special alloys formulated to resist corrosion, mechanical wear, and biological reactions
in vivo.
Stainless steel is used in a variety of applications in dentistry. It is common to use stainless steel in many instruments that
need to be sterilized, such as needles,[44] endodontic files in root canal therapy, metal posts in root canal–treated teeth,
temporary crowns and crowns for deciduous teeth, and arch wires and brackets in orthodontics.[45] The surgical stainless
steel alloys (e.g., 316 low-carbon steel) have also been used in some of the early dental implants.[46]
Culinary use
Stainless steel is often preferred for kitchen sinks because of its ruggedness, durability, heat resistance, and ease of
cleaning. In better models, acoustic noise is controlled by applying resilient undercoating to dampen vibrations. The
material is also used for cladding of surfaces such as appliances and backsplashes.
Cookware and bakeware may be clad in stainless steels, to enhance their cleanability and durability, and to permit their
use in induction cooking (this requires a magnetic grade of stainless steel, such as 432). Because stainless steel is a poor
conductor of heat, it is often used as a thin surface cladding over a core of copper or aluminium, which conduct heat more
readily.
Cutlery is normally stainless steel,[47] for low corrosion, ease of cleaning, negligible toxicity, as well as not flavoring the
food by electrolytic activity.
Jewelry
Stainless steel is used for jewelry and watches, with 316L being the type commonly used for such applications. It can be re-
finished by any jeweler and will not oxidize or turn black.
Valadium, a stainless steel and 12% nickel alloy is used to make class and military rings. Valadium is usually silver-toned,
but can be electro-plated to give it a gold tone. The gold tone variety is known as Sun-lite Valadium.[48] Other "Valadium"
types of alloy are trade-named differently, with such names as "Siladium" and "White Lazon".
Firearms
Some firearms incorporate stainless steel components as an alternative to blued or parkerized steel. Some handgun
models, such as the Smith & Wesson Model 60 and the Colt M1911 pistol, can be made entirely from stainless steel. This
gives a high-luster finish similar in appearance to nickel plating. Unlike plating, the finish is not subject to flaking, peeling,
wear-off from rubbing (as when repeatedly removed from a holster), or rust when scratched.
3D printing
Some 3D printing providers have developed proprietary stainless steel sintering blends for use in rapid prototyping. One
of the more popular stainless steel grades used in 3D printing is 316L stainless steel. Due to the high temperature gradient
and fast rate of solidification, stainless steel products manufactured via 3D printing tend to have a more refined
microstructure; this in turn results in better mechanical properties. However, stainless steel is not used as much as
materials like Ti6Al4V in the 3D printing industry; this is because manufacturing stainless steel products via traditional
methods is currently much more economically competitive.
Recycling and reusing

Stainless steel is 100% recyclable.[49] An average stainless steel object is composed of about 60% recycled material of
which approximately 40% originates from end-of-life products and about 60% comes from manufacturing processes.[50]
According to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report, the per capita stock of stainless steel in use
in society is 80–180 kg in more developed countries and 15 kg in less-developed countries.
There is a secondary market that recycles usable scrap for many stainless steel markets. The product is mostly coil, sheet,
and blanks. This material is purchased at a less-than-prime price and sold to commercial quality stampers and sheet metal
houses. The material may have scratches, pits, and dents but is made to the current specifications.
Nanoscale stainless steel

Stainless steel nanoparticles have been produced in the laboratory.[51] This synthesis uses oxidative Kirkendall diffusion to
build a thin protective barrier which prevent further oxidation.[52] These may have applications as additives for high
performance applications. For examples, sulfurization, phosphorization and nitridation treatments to produce nanoscale
stainless steel based catalysts could enhance the electrocatalytic performance of stainless steel for water splitting.[53]
Health effects
Stainless steel is generally considered to be biologically inert, but some sensitive individuals develop a skin irritation due
to a nickel allergy caused by certain alloys.
Stainless steel leaches small amounts of nickel and chromium during cooking.[2] (http://healthybuildingscience.com/201
3/11/22/safe-cookware-2/)
Chromium is an essential mineral.[3] (https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Chromium-HealthProfessional/)
See also
Argon oxygen decarburization
Crucible Industries
List of blade materials
List of steel producers
Panel edge staining
Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number
Marine grade stainless
Pilling–Bedworth ratio
Rouging
Stainless steel fiber
Stainless steel soap
References
1. "The Stainless Steel Family" (http://www.worldstainless.org/Files/issf/non-image-files/PDF/TheStainlessSteelFamily.p
df) (PDF). Retrieved 8 December 2012.
2. Stone, P.G. (1994). "Stainless Steel – the modern material with a 60 year track record" (https://nickelinstitute.org/~/me
dia/Files/TechnicalLiterature/StainlessSteelinABC_GuidelinesforMaintenanceandCleaning_11014_.ashx). Nickel
Institute.
3. acom 2-2006 Passive Films on Stainless Steel – Recent Nano-Range Research, Claes-Olsson, Outokumpu, Avesta
Research Center.
4. International Nickel Company (1983). "The Corrosion Resistance of Nickel-Containing Alloys in Sulphuric Acid and
Related Compounds" (https://nickelinstitute.org/~/media/Files/TechnicalLiterature/TheCorrosionResistanceofNickel_C
ontainingAlloysinSulphuricAcidandRelatedCompounds_1318_.ashx). Nickel Institute.
5. C.M. Schillmoller (1990). "Selection and Performance of Stainless Steel and other Nickel-Bearing Alloys in Sulphuric
Acid" (https://nickelinstitute.org/~/media/Files/TechnicalLiterature/SelectionandPerformatceofStainlessSteelandotherN
ickel_BearingAlloysinSulphuricAcid_10057_.ashx). Nickel Institute.
6. Davis (1994), Stainless Steels, Joseph R. (https://books.google.com/books?id=OrlG98AHdoAC&pg=PA118), ASM
International, p. 118, ISBN 978-0-87170-503-7
7. C.M. Schillmoller (1988). "Alloys to Resist Chlorine, Hydrogen Chloride and Hydrochloric Acid" (https://nickelinstitute.
org/~/media/Files/TechnicalLiterature/AlloystoResistChlorine_HydrogenChlorideandHydrochloricAcid_10020_.ashx).
Nickel Institute.
8. International Nickel Company. "Corrosion Resistance of Nickel-Containing Alloys in Phosphoric Acid" (https://nickelins
titute.org/~/media/Files/TechnicalLiterature/CorrosionResistanceofNickel_ContainingAlloysinPhosphoricAcid_415_.as
hx). Nickel Institute.
9. C.M. Schillmoller. "Selection and Use of Stainless Steel and Ni Bearing Alloys in Nitric Acid" (https://nickelinstitute.or
g/~/media/Files/TechnicalLiterature/SelectionandUseofStainlessSteelandNiBearingAlloysinNitricAcid_10075_.ashx).
Nickel Institute.
10. C.M. Schillmoller (1992). "Selection and Use of Stainless Steel and Nickel-Bearing Alloys in Organic Acids" (https://ni
ckelinstitute.org/~/media/Files/TechnicalLiterature/SelectionandUseofStainlessSteelandNickel_BearingAlloysinOrgani
cAcids_10063_.ashx). Nickel Institute.
11. C.M. Schillmoller (1988). "Alloy Selection for Caustic Soda Service" (https://nickelinstitute.org/~/media/Files/Technical
Literature/AlloySelectionforCausticSodaService_10019_.ashx). Nickel Institute.
12. "Material Selection and Use in Water" (https://nickelinstitute.org/NickelUseInSociety/MaterialsSelectionAndUse/Water/
AlloySelection.aspx). Nickel Institute.
13. Ashby, Michael F.; David R. H. Jones (1992) [1986]. "Chapter 12". Engineering Materials 2 (with corrections ed.).
Oxford: Pergamon Press. p. 119. ISBN 0-08-032532-7.
14. Rose, L. (2011). On the Degradation of Porous Stainless Steel in Low and Intermediate Temperature Solid Oxide Fuel
Cell Support Materials. p. 62ff. doi:10.14288/1.0071732 (https://doi.org/10.14288%2F1.0071732).
15. British Stainless Steel Association (2001). "Galling and Galling Resistance of Stainless Steels" (http://www.bssa.org.u
k/publications.php?id=17). SSAS Information Sheet No.5.60.
16. "A non-rusting steel". New York Times. 31 January 1915.
17. "It's Complicated: The Discovery of Stainless Steel - Airedale Springs" (http://www.airedalesprings.co.uk/its-complicat
ed-the-discovery-of-stainless-steel/).
18. "The Discovery of Stainless Steel" (http://www.bssa.org.uk/about_stainless_steel.php?id=31).
19. "A Proposal to Establish the Shipwreck Half Moon as a State Underwater Archaeological Preserve" (http://dhr.dos.stat
e.fl.us/archaeology/underwater/preserves/HM_Prop3.pdf) (PDF). Bureau of Archaeological Research, Division of
Historical Resources, Florida Department of State. May 2000.
20. "ThyssenKrupp Nirosta: History" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070902202906/http://www.nirosta.de/History.22.0.ht
ml?&L=1). Archived from the original (http://www.nirosta.de/History.22.0.html?&L=1) on 2 September 2007. Retrieved
13 August 2007.
21. "DEPATISnet-Dokument DE000000304126A" (https://depatisnet.dpma.de/DepatisNet/depatisnet?action=pdf&docid=

DE000000304126A).
22. "DEPATISnet-Dokument DE000000304159A" (https://depatisnet.dpma.de/DepatisNet/depatisnet?action=pdf&docid=
DE000000304159A).
23. Carlisle, Rodney P. (2004) Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries (https://books.google.com/books?id=pDbQ
VE3IdTcC&pg=PA380), p. 380, John Wiley and Sons, ISBN 0-471-24410-4
24. Howse, Geoffrey (2011) A Photographic History of Sheffield Steel, History Press, ISBN 0752459856
25. Cobb, Harold M. (2010). The History of Stainless Steel. ASM International. p. 360. ISBN 1-61503-010-7.
26. Moneypenny, J.H.G. (1921). "Unstainable Steel" (https://archive.org/details/miningscientific122sanfuoft). Mining and
Scientific Press. Retrieved 17 February 2013.
27. Bonnier Corporation (1930). Popular Science (https://books.google.com/books?id=sygDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA31).
Bonnier Corporation. pp. 31–. ISSN 0161-7370 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0161-7370).
28. Habara, Yasuhiro. Stainless Steel 200 Series: An Opportunity for Mn (http://www.manganese.org/__data/assets/pdf_fi
le/0016/81061/07-_Stainless_Steel_200_Series_An_Opportunity_for_Mn_-_Y_Habara_Nippon_Metal_Industry_Co.p
df) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140308060654/http://www.manganese.org/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/8
1061/07-_Stainless_Steel_200_Series_An_Opportunity_for_Mn_-_Y_Habara_Nippon_Metal_Industry_Co.pdf) 8
March 2014 at the Wayback Machine.. Technical Development Dept., Nippon Metal Industry, Co., Ltd.
29. Stainless Steel – Grade 304 (UNS S30400) (http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=965). azom.com
30. ASTM A 387/ A387M – 06a Standard Specification for Pressure Vessel Plates, Alloy Steel, Chromium-Molybdenum
31. Material Properties Data: Marine Grade Stainless Steel (http://www.makeitfrom.com/data/?material=316_Stainless_St
eel). Makeitfrom.com. Retrieved on 29 June 2012.
32. Specialty Steel Industry of North America (SSINA), Frequently asked questions (http://www.ssina.com/faq/), retrieved
2017-04-06.
33. "Start of production: First coil on new mill" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130530232431/http://www.thyssenkrupp-nir
osta.de/index.php?id=576). Archived from the original on 30 May 2013. Retrieved 14 September 2012. .
thyssenkrupp-nirosta.de
34. "What is Stainless Steel?" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060924043735/http://www.nickelinstitute.org/index.cfm/ci_i
d/11021.htm). Archived from the original (http://www.nickelinstitute.org/index.cfm/ci_id/11021.htm) on 24 September
2006. Retrieved 31 December 2005. nickelinstitute.org
35. "Stainless Steel Bridge in Bilbao" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130122234023/http://www.outokumpu.com/en/Custo
merIndustries/CaseStudies/Pages/Bilbao-Bridge.aspx/). Outokumpu. "Stainless steel bridge". Archived from the
original (http://www.outokumpu.com/en/CustomerIndustries/CaseStudies/Pages/Bilbao-Bridge.aspx/) on 22 January
2013.
36. Gateway Arch Fact Sheet (http://www.nps.gov/jeff/planyourvisit/gateway-arch-fact-sheet.htm). Nps.gov. Retrieved on
29 June 2012.
37. Nickel Institute. "Stainless Steel In The Water Industry" (https://nickelinstitute.org/NickelUseInSociety/MaterialsSelecti
onAndUse/Water.aspx). Nickel Institute.
38. NiDI (1997). "Stainless Steel Plumbing" (https://nickelinstitute.org/TechnicalLibrary/Reference%20Book%20Series/11
019_StainlessSteelPlumbing.aspx). Nickel Institute.
39. R.E. Avery, S. Lamb, C.A. Powell and A.H. Tuthill. "Stainless steel for potable water treatment plants" (https://nickelin
stitute.org/TechnicalLibrary/Technical%20Series/StainlessSteelforPotableWaterTreatmentPlants_10087_.aspx).
Nickel Institute.
40. A. H. Tuthill ans S. Lamb. "Guidelines for the Use of Stainless Steel in Municipal Waste Water Treatment Plants" (http
s://nickelinstitute.org/TechnicalLibrary/Technical%20Series/GuidelinesfortheUseofStainlessSteelinMunicipalWasteWat
erTreatmentPlants_10076_.aspx). Nickel Institute.
41. Water Research Foundation (2015). "Guidelines for the Use of Stainless Steel in the Water and Desalination
Industries" (https://nickelinstitute.org/TechnicalLibrary/Other%20Series/GuidelinesUseSSDesalination.aspx). Nickel
Institute.
42. Nickel Institute. "Guidelines for Alloy Selection for Waters and Waste Water Service" (https://nickelinstitute.org/Nickel
UseInSociety/MaterialsSelectionAndUse/Water/AlloySelection.aspx). Nickel Institute.
43. A. H. Tuthill (2002). "Stainless Steels and Specialty Alloys for Modern Pulp and Paper Mills" (https://nickelinstitute.org/
TechnicalLibrary/Reference%20Book%20Series/11025_StainlessSteelsandSpecialtyAlloysforModernPulpandPaperMi
lls.aspx). Nickel Institute.
44. Malamed, Stanley (2004). Handbook of Local Anesthesia, 5th Edition. Mosby. ISBN 0323024491. p. 99
45. Anusavice, Kenneth J. (2003) Phillips' Science of Dental Materials, 11th Edition. W.B. Saunders Company.
ISBN 0721693873. p. 639
46. Misch, Carl E. (2008) Contemporary Implant Dentistry. Mosby. ISBN 0323043739. pp. 277–278
47. McGuire, Michael F. (2008). Stainless Steels for Design Engineers (https://books.google.com/books?id=QzJDRxLLxN
IC&pg=PA240&dq=Cutlery+is+normally+stainless+steel&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwihlOCa-tDXAhWIsFQKHczDCp
gQ6AEIKDAA#v=onepage&q=Cutlery%20is%20normally%20stainless%20steel&f=false). ASM International.
ISBN 9781615030590.
48. "What is Valadium?" (http://www.danielsjewelers.com/militaryringsfaq.aspx#valadium).
49. Johnson, J., Reck, B.K., Wang, T., Graede, T.E. (2008), "The energy benefit of stainless steel recycling", Energy
Policy, 36: 181–192, doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2007.08.028 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.enpol.2007.08.028)
50. "The Recycling of Stainless Steel ("Recycled Content" and "Input Composition" slides)" (http://www.worldstainless.or
g/ISSF/Files/Recycling08/Flash.html) (Flash). International Stainless Steel Forum. 2006. Retrieved 19 November
2006.
51. Wu, Wenjie; Maye, Mathew M. (2014-01-01). "Void Coalescence in Core/Alloy Nanoparticles with Stainless
Interfaces". Small. 10 (2): 271–276. doi:10.1002/smll.201301420 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fsmll.201301420).
52. [1] (https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=), Maye, Mathew M. & Wenjie Wu, "United States
Patent Application: 0140272447 – METHOD TO CONTROL VOID FORMATION IN NANOMATERIALS USING
CORE/ALLOY NANOPARTICLES WITH STAINLESS INTERFACES"
53. Liu, Xuan. "Facile Surface Modification of Ubiquitous Stainless Steel Led to Competent Electrocatalysts for Overall
Water Splitting". ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering. 5: 4778–4784. doi:10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b00182 (ht
tps://doi.org/10.1021%2Facssuschemeng.7b00182).
External links
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stainless_steel&oldid=822845890"
This page was last edited on 28 January 2018, at 21:10.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this
site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

Stainless Steel

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Stainless Steel

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

1/29/2018 Stainless steel - Wikipedia

Stainless steels are notable for their corrosion resistance, which

Sulfuric acid is the largest tonnage industrial chemical manufactured. At room

Increasing chromium and nickel contents provide increasing resistance.

Increasing acidity increases susceptibility

Electricity and magnetism

Ferritic and martensitic stainless steels are magnetic. Annealed austenitic

left nut is not in inox and is rusty

In the late 1890s Hans Goldschmidt of Germany developed an aluminothermic

Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft built the 366-ton sailing yacht Germania

Similar developments were taking place contemporaneously in the United

In 1912, Harry Brearley of the

Stainless steel families

Austenitic stainless steel (include the so-called super-austenitics)

Ferritic stainless steel

Martensitic stainless steel

Duplex stainless steel (also called austenitic- ferritic stainless steels)

Austenitic stainless steels,

Ferritic stainless steels

Martensitic stainless steels

Duplex stainless steels

Comparison of standardized steels

1.4512 X6CrTi12 409 S40900

1.4547 X1CrNiMoCuN20-18-7 254SMO S31254

No. 0: Hot rolled, annealed, thicker plates

Monuments and sculptures The pinnacle of New York's

Airports An art deco sculpture on

Important considerations to achieve optimum corrosion performance are[42]:

drain promptly after hydrotesting.

Pulp, Paper and Biomass conversion

Passenger rail cars

Recycling and reusing

Nanoscale stainless steel

Chromium is an essential mineral.[3] (https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Chromium-HealthProfessional/)

21. "DEPATISnet-Dokument DE000000304126A" (https://depatisnet.dpma.de/DepatisNet/depatisnet?action=pdf&docid=

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stainless_steel&oldid=822845890"

This page was last edited on 28 January 2018, at 21:10.

Вам также может понравиться