Finite Element Course

3 Weighted Residuals

Prof. Raul Durand

 Finite Method of Weighted Residuals
Elements

Method of Weighted Residuals

The method of weighted residual (WRM) is frequently used to approximate the solution of
differential equations subject to boundary conditions (boundary value problems - BVP).
For instance, given a differential equation below, where D is a linear differential operator:
D(u(x)) = P (x)

We approximate u by a trial function U (x) using a linear combination of basis functions

Ni (x), thus
n
u(x) ≈ U (x) = ci Ni (x) + N0 (x)
X

i=1
where ci are constants to be determined.
Substituting into the differential equation, equality is frequently not satisfied. Hence, an
error or residual can be stated as:
R(x) = D(u(x)) − P (x)

The main idea of the MWR is to force the residual to zero in average over the domain by
means of weighted integrals.

Z
wi (x)R(x) dx = 0 i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n
Ω
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 Finite Method of Weighted Residuals
Elements

If we guarantee a priori that the approximate solution satisfies the boundary conditions of
the BVP, then the number of weighting functions wi (x) is exactly the number of unknowns.
Thus, the result of the use of weighted integrals is a set of n algebraic equations for the n
unknown constants ci .
In this regard, the basis functions must be properly chosen in order to the approximate
solution satisfies the boundary conditions.
Also, the weighting functions must be defined. The way how these functions are chosen
defines different sub-methods of weighted residuals. Among the most common methods we
have:

• Collocation method
• Lest squares method
• Galerkin method
• Petrov-Galerkin method
• Sub-domain method
• Method of moments

We will focus on the first three methods.

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 Finite Collocation Method
Elements

Collocation Method
In the collocation method, the weight functions are taken from the family of Dirac delta
functions in the domain.
wi (x) = δ̄(x − xi )

Dirac’s delta function is defined as:

0, if t 6= 0
(
δ̄(t) =
∞, if t = 0

and one important properly of this function is:

Z
δ̄(x − xi )f (t) dt = f (x)

Using the weight functions into the weighted integral we have:

Z
δ̄(x − xi )R(x) dx = 0
Ω

Applying the integral properly of the Dirac’s delta function we arrive to R(xi ) = 0
This means that the collocation method corresponds to setting the residual equal to zero
at the singularity of the Dirac delta function. That is, residual is equal to zero at specific
points xi in the domain.
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 Finite Least Squares Method
Elements

Least Squares Method

In this method, the least squares technique is applied in the form of integral in order to
minimize R(x). For this purpose the following scalar function is defined:
Z
S(ci ) = [R(x)]2 dx = 0
Ω

where ci are the unknown parameters in the residual function R(x). In order to minimize
this scalar function, the derivatives of S with respect to all the unknowns parameters must
be equal to zero:
∂S
∂ci =0
Z
∂
∂ci [R(x)]2 dx = 0
ZΩ
2 R(x) ∂R(x)
∂ci = 0
ZΩ
R(x) ∂R(x)
∂ci = 0
Ω

By comparisons with the weighted integral formula, it is possible to notice that the weighting
function in this method are equal to:
∂R(x)
wi (x) = ∂ci

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 Finite Galerkin Method
Elements

Galerkin Method
The Galerkin method is one of the most used methods to find approximate solutions of BVP.
This method can be viewed as a modification of the least squares method. In this case, the
weighting functions are taken as the derivatives of the approximation function U (x) with
respect to the unknown parameters ci .
Thus:
∂U (x)
wi (x) = ∂ci
n
!
= ci Ni (x) + N0 (x)
X
∂
∂ci
i=1
= ∂U
∂ci

Notice that this results into the original basis functions:

wi (x) = Ni (x)

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 Finite Example 1
Elements

Example 1
Consider the following boundary value problem with homogeneous boundary conditions:
d2 u
dx2
− 4x2 = 1, x ∈ (0, 1)
u(0) = 0
u(1) = 0

For reference, the solution of this problem is given by:

x4 x2
u(x) = 3 + 2 − 65 x

To find an approximate solutions using the MWR first we need to choose the basis functions
Ni (x) in order to compose a trial function U (x).
For homogeneous boundary conditions at x = a and x = b, the general form:

N (x) = (x − a)p (x − b)q

with p and q being positive integers greater than zero, automatically satisfies the boundary
conditions and is continuous in x ∈ (a, b). For a single basis function, the simplest form is
N1 (x) = x(x − 1) so the trial function is given by

U (x) = c1 x(x − 1)
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 Finite Example 1
Elements

Then, substituting U (x) into the differential equation yield the residual:

R(x) = 2c1 − 4x2 − 1

We also need to define a weighting function w1 (x) to perform a weighted integral and obtain
the equation to solve for c1 . Let’s use the weighting functions provided by the methods of
weighted integrals.
Collocation method
In this method we need to provide the points where we want the residual equal to zero. In
this case, since we have only one unknown value and x ∈ (0, 1) let’s choose the midpoint
x = 12 , thus:

R( 21 ) = 0
2c1 − 4( 12 )2 − 1 = 0

Solving this equation leads to c1 = 1. Then, then the approximate solution is given by:

U (x) = x(x − 1)

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 Finite Example 1
Elements

Comparison between approximate and real solution using the collocation method

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 Finite Example 1
Elements

Weighted residuals functions and error on the approximated solution using the collocation method

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 Finite Example 1
Elements

Least squares method

For this method, the weighting function becomes:
∂R(x)
w(x) = ∂c1
= ∂c1 (2c1
∂
− 4x2 − 1)
=2

Performing the weighted integral we obtain

Z 1
2(2c1 − 4x2 − 1) dx = 0
0
4c1 − 14
3 =0

In this case, since the weighting function is equal to a constant, we could choose to integrate
only the residual function.
Solving the last equation we have c1 = 76 , thus the approximate solution is:

U (x) = 76 x(x − 1)

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 Finite Example 1
Elements

Comparison between approximate and real solution using the least squares method

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 Finite Example 1
Elements

Galerkin method
For the case of the Galerkin method, the weighting function is given by:

w(x) = ∂U
∂c1
= ∂c1 (c1 x(x
∂
− 1))
= x(x − 1)
= N1 (x)

Performing the weighted integral

Z 1
x(x − 1)(2c1 − 4x2 − 1) dx = 0
0
11
30 − 13 c1 = 0

Finally, solving this equation we obtain c1 = 10 .

11
Then the approximate solution is:

U (x) = 11
10 x(x − 1)

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 Finite Example 1
Elements

Comparison between approximate and real solution using the Galerkin method

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 Finite Example 1
Elements

Weighted residuals functions and error on the approximated solution using the Galerkin method

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 Finite Example 2
Elements

Example 2
As a second example consider the boundary value problem:
d2 u
dx2
− du
dx = 0, x ∈ (0, 1)
u(0) = 0
u(1) = 1

For reference, the solution of this problem is given by:

ex − 1
u(x) =
e−1

Notice that the boundary conditions are not homogeneous. In this case, we can establish an
approximate solution of the form:

n
U (x) = ci Ni (x) + N0 (x)
X

i=1

Let’s consider two basis functions for this example, thus the trial function assumes the
following form:
U (x) = c1 N1 (x) + c2 N2 (x) + N0 (x)

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 Finite Example 2
Elements

N1 (x) and N2 (x) should satisfy the homogeneous boundary conditions and N0 (x) is chosen
to satisfy the nonhomogeneous condition. In this case we have:

N1 (x) = x(x − 1)
N2 (x) = x2 (x − 1)
N0 (x) = x

Therefore the trial solution is given by

U (x) = c1 x(x − 1) + c2 x2 (x − 1) + x

To find the residual function for the problem, we substitute U (x) into the differential equa-
tion, thus
R(x) = −3c2 x2 + 8c2 x − 2c1 x + 3c1 − 2c2 − 1

Now we need to define the weighting functions to be used. In this case, since we have two
unknown constants, we will need two weighting functions w1 (x) and w2 (x). Let’s chose these
functions according to the weighted residual methods.

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 Finite Example 2
Elements

Collocation method
For this method, we choose two points along the domain: x = 1
3 and 23 .
Substituting into the residual expression, for the first point we have

R( 13 ) = 0
7
3 c1 + 31 c2 − 1 = 0

Likewise, for the second point

R( 23 ) = 0
5
3 c1 + 2c2 − 1 = 0

Those are the two equation that compose the system of equations for finding c1 and c2 .
Solving the system we obtain c1 = 37
15
and c2 = 37
6
.
Finally, the approximate solution can be written as

U (x) = 6 3
37 x + 9 2
37 x + 22
37 x

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 Finite Example 2
Elements

Comparison between approximate and real solution using the collocation method

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 Finite Example 2
Elements

Weighted residuals functions and error on the approximated solution using the collocation method

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 Finite Example 2
Elements

Least squares method

Performing the corresponding derivatives to find the weighting functions, for the first one
we have

w1 (x) = ∂R
∂c1
= ∂c1 (−3c2 x
∂ 2
+ 8c2 x − 2c1 x + 3c1 − 2c2 − 1)
= 3 − 2x

and the second one

w2 (x) = ∂R
∂c2
= ∂c1 (−3c2 x
∂ 2
+ 8c2 x − 2c1 x + 3c1 − 2c2 − 1)
= −3x + 8x − 2
3

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 Finite Example 2
Elements

Later we need to evaluate the weighted integrals for each case, thus
Z 1
w1 (x)R(x) dx = 0
0
Z 1
(3 − 2x)(−3c2 x2 + 8c2 x − 2c1 x + 3c1 − 2c2 − 1) dx = 0
0
13
3 c1 + 76 c2 − 2 = 0

Z 1
w2 (x)R(x) dx = 0
0
Z 1
(−3x3 + 8x − 2)(−3c2 x2 + 8c2 x − 2c1 x + 3c1 − 2c2 − 1) dx = 0
0
7
6 c1 + 47
15 c2 −1=0

Solving the system of equations we have c1 = 306

733 and c2 = 733 .
120
Finally, the approximate
solution using the least squares method is:

U (x) = 120 3
733 x + 186 2
733 x + 427
733 x

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 Finite Example 2
Elements

Comparison between approximate and real solution using the Least Squares method

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 Finite Example 2
Elements

Weighted residuals functions and error on the approximated solution using the Least Squares method

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 Finite Example 2
Elements

Galerkin method
In the Galerkin method the weight functions are the same as the basis functions, so

w1 (x) = N1 (x) = x(x − 1)

w2 (x) = N2 (x) = x2 (x − 1)

Performing the weighted integrals for each case we have

Z 1
w1 (x)R(x) dx = 0
0
Z 1
x(x − 1)(−3c2 x2 + 8c2 x − 2c1 x + 3c1 − 2c2 − 1) dx = 0
0
1
3 c1 − 11
60 c2 + 1
6 =0

Z 1
w2 (x)R(x) dx = 0
0
Z 1
x2 (x − 1)(−3c2 x2 + 8c2 x − 2c1 x + 3c1 − 2c2 − 1) dx = 0
0
3
− 20 c1 − 2
15 c2 + 1
12 =0

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 Finite Example 2
Elements

Solving these equations the constants in the trial function are found as c1 = 25
61 and c2 = 61 .
10

Then, the approximate solution using the Galerkin method is given by

U (x) = 10 3
61 x + 15 2
61 x + 36
61 x

Comparison between approximate and real solution using the Galerkin method

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 Finite Example 2
Elements

Weighted residuals functions and error on the approximated solution using the Galerkin method

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 Finite Exercises
Elements

Exercises
1. Solve the boundary value problem stated below using the three studied methods of
weighted residuals and one basis function.
d2 y
dx2
+ y = 2x, x ∈ (0, 1)
y(0) = 0
y(1) = 0

Plot together the three approximation functions obtained.

2. Solve the problem above using the Galerkin method with two basis functions. You may
need symbolic manipulation software in order to speed up your calculations.
3. Solve the boundary value problem using the Galerkin method and two basis function.
d2 u
dx2
− du
dx = 2x, x ∈ (0, 1)
u(0) = 1
u(1) = 0

Compare the results with the analytical solution. Explain why the Galerkin method was
able to match the analytical result.

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 Finite Domain subdivision
Elements

Domain subdivision
N1 (x)
To introduce the concept of domain subdivision let’s
consider the following boundary value problem:
d2 U
dx2
+ f (x) = 0 x ∈ (a, b) x1 x2 x3 x4 x
u(a) = ua N2 (x)
u(b) = ub

The domain can be divided, for example, in three sub-

domains (n = 3) bounded by points x1 , x2 , x3 and x4 , x1 x2 x3 x4 x
and we we can assume an approximated function where N3 (x)
the unknown parameters ci are given by discrete values
ui of the solution at points xi .
n
U (x) = ui Ni (x)
X
x1 x2 x3 x4 x
1 N4 (x)

The, we can choose n piece-wise basis functions along

the domain. The simplest case is given by linear inter-
polation functions as shown in the figure. x1 x2 x3 x4 x

A set of four linear basis functions

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 Finite Domain subdivision
Elements

The definition for each basis function Ni (x) will be:

 x−x
i−1
 xi −xi−1

 if xi−1 ≤ x ≤ xi
xi+1 −x
Ni (x) = if xi ≤ x ≤ xi+1
 xi+1 −xi
0 otherwise



Now, we can proceed with the weighted residuals method. Thus, substituting the approxi-
mate solution into the differential equation the residual function is:
n  
d2 U
R(x) = + f (x)
X
dx2
i=1
n  
d2
= (ui Ni (x)) + f (x)
X
dx2
i=1

Using the Galerkin method, the weighted integrals, for i = 1, ..., 4, are:
Z b
Ni (x)R(x) dx = 0
a
Z b n  
d2
Ni (x) (ui Ni (x)) + f (x) dx = 0
X
dx2
a i=1

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 Finite Domain subdivision
Elements

For a particular point (node) i we can limit the integral into the subdomains (xi−1 , xi ) and
(xi , xi+1 ), thus
Z xi  
d2
Ni (x) dx2
(ui−1 Ni−1 (x) + ui Ni ) + f (x) dx +
xi−1
Z xi+1  
d2
Ni (x) dx2
(ui Ni (x) + ui+1 Ni+1 ) + f (x) dx = 0
xi

Considering all nodes, these integrals lead to a system of n equations, so we are able to find
the unknown parameters ui .

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 Finite Element formulation
Elements

Element formulation
If we find the exact solution of a differential equation in the domain (a, b), this solution must
satisfy for any subdomain (xi , xi+1 ) ∈ (a, b). Then, to solve a BVP, we can start formulating
the approximate solution for each subdomain instead to formulate a solution for the whole
domain. This introduces the concept of finite element.
For the given subdomain, the boundary conditions are:

y(xi ) = ui y(xi+1 ) = ui+1

where ui and ui+1 are discrete values of the solution.

For simplicity it is convenient to adopt a local numbering for each subdomain (element), so
in this case we have a subdomain (x1 , x2 ) and basis functions:

U (e) (x) = u1 N1 (x) + u2 N2 (x)

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 Finite Element formulation
Elements

Considering the element limits x1 and x2 , the basis func-

tions associated with this single element domain are:
x2 − x
N1 (x) =
x2 − x1 N (x)
x − x1 N1 (x) N2 (x)
N2 (x) =
x2 − x1

x1 x2 x
Note that the interpolation functions Ni satisfy the fol-
lowing conditions: Basis functions for a subdomain

N1 (x1 ) = 1 N1 (x2 ) = 0
N2 (x1 ) = 0 N2 (x2 ) = 1

Later, substituting the approximate solution for an element into the differential equation we
have the residual
d2 U
R(e) (x) = dx2
+ f (x)
2
= d
dx2
(u1 N1 (x) + u2 N2 (x)) + f (x)

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 Finite Element formulation
Elements

Applying the Galerkin method we will get a set of two equations, for nodes i = 1 and i = 2:
Z x2
Ni (x)R(x) dx = 0
x
Z x2 Z 1x2
2 (
Ni (x) d dx
U e)
2 dx + Ni (x)f (x) dx = 0
x1 x1

Applying integration by parts to the first integral we get:

Z x2 Z x2
(e) x2

dNi dU (e)
Ni dUdx  − dx dx dx + Ni f (x) dx = 0
x 1 x1 x1

After evaluation of the nonintegral term the two equations are:

Z x2 Z x2 
dN1 dU (e) dU (e) 
dx dx dx = N1 f (x) dx + dx x
x x 1
Z x1 2 Z x1 2 
dU (e) dU (e)
dN2
dx = N2 f (x) dx + dx 

dx dx x2
x1 x1

or
Z x2   Z x2 
dU (e) 
dx + u2 dx dx = N1 f (x) dx +
dN1
dx u1 dN 1 dN2
dx x
x x 1
Z x1 2   Z x1 2 
dU (e)
dx + u2 dx dx = N2 f (x) dx + dx 
dN1
u1 dN 1 dN2 
dx x2
x1 x1
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 Finite Element formulation
Elements

We can rearrange the terms inside the integrals using matrix-vector notation in order to joint
both equations, thus:
Z x2 ( ) ( ) ( ) Z x2 ( )
N1 N1 u N 
dU (e) 
d
dx
d
dx · 1 dx = 1
f (x) dx + dx x
x1 N2 N2 u2 x1 N2 1

Introduction a vector U = [U1 U2 ]T and a row matrix N = [N1 N2 ], we can rewrite the
equation above as:
Z x2 Z x2 
dNT dN dU (e) 
dx dx dx U (e)
= NT f (x) dx + dx x
x1 x1 1

Later, we arrive to the following system

K(e) U(e) = F(e)

where K is frequently called as the element stiffness matrix and F as the right-hand side
term.

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 Finite Example
Elements

Example
As an example, let’s solve the BVP below using two subdomains (elements):
2
x ddxu2 + du
dx −x=0
u(2) = 0
d
dx u(4) =1

For reference, the analytical solution of the problem is given by:

x2
u(x) = 4 − 4 ln(x) + 4 ln(2) − 1

Note that the differential equation can be written as:

 
dx − x = 0
d
dx x du

By dividing the domain in two, we can define the subdomain (2, 3) for the first element
and the subdomain (3, 4) for the second one. Later, for each element, assuming linear basis
functions and local numbering we have
x2 − x
N1 (x) =
x2 − x1
x − x1
N2 (x) =
x2 − x1
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 Finite Example
Elements

thus, the approximate solution for an element is:

U (x)(e) = u1 N1 (x) + u2 N2 (x)

Using the weighted integral and the Galerkin method:

Z x2 h   i
dx − x dx = 0 i = 1, 2
d
Ni dx x du
x1

Integrating by parts
Z x2 Z x2
 x2
Ni x du 
dx x1 − x dN i du
dx dx dx − xNi dx = 0
x1 x1
Z x2 Z x2
 x2
x dN i du
dx dx dx = Ni x du 
dx x1 − xNi dx
x1 x1

Substituting with the approximate solution for each node i = 1, 2 we have

Z x2 Z x2
(e) x2
  
x dN
dx
1
u1 dN
dx
1
+ u2 dN
dx
2
dx = xN1 dUdx  − xN1 dx
x x 1 x
Z x1 2    x2 Z x1 2
(e)
x dN dx + u2 dx
u1 dN dx = xN2 dUdx 
dN2
2 1
− xN2 dx

dx x1
x1 x1

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 Finite Example
Elements

Then we join both equation into matrix form as

Z x2 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) Z x2 ( )
N1 N1 u N  x2 N1
dU (e) 
d
x dx d
dx · 1 dx = x 1 dx x − x dx
x1 N2 N2 u2 N2 1 x1 N2

or
Z x2    x2 Z x2
T dN (e)
x dN dx U (e)
= xNT dUdx  − xNT x dx

dx dx x1
x1 x1

Applying this equation for the first element x ∈ (2, 3) we obtain the local system of equations
" # ( (1)) ( )( )
2.5 −2.5 u1 dx |x=2 − 1.167
−2 du dx |x=2 − 1.167
−2 du
−2.5 2.5 (1) = 3 dx |x=3 − 1.333 3 du
dx |x=3 − 1.333
du
u2

For the second element x ∈ (3, 4) we have

" # ( (2)) ( )
3.5 −3.5 u1 dx |x=3 − 1.667
−3 du
−3.5 3.5 (2) = 4 du
u2 dx |x=4 − 1.833

Using the superposition principle we arrive to the global system of equations

   
2.5 −2.5 0  −2 dx |x=2 − 1.167 

du
 U1 
   
 −2.5 6 −3.5  U2 = −3
 
0 −3.5 3.5 U3   4 du
dx |x=4 − 1.833

   


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 Finite Example
Elements

Applying the given boundary conditions: u(0) = 0 and d

dx u(4) = 1, we have
   
2.5 −2.5 0  0   −2 dx |x=2 − 1.167 

 du
  
 −2.5 6 −3.5  U2 = −3
 
0 −3.5 3.5 2.167
   
 U3   

After solving the system we have du

dx |x=2 = −1, U2 = −0.333 and U3 = 0.286
The solution is then a piece-wise function:

U (1) (x) = U N (1) (x) + U N (1) (x) if x ∈ (2, 3)
1 1 2 2
U (x) =
U (2) (x) = U2 N (2) (x) + U3 N (2) (x) if x ∈ (3, 4)
1 2

or
U (1) (x) = −0.333(x − 2)
(
U (x) =
U (2) (x) = −0.333(4 − x) + 0.286(x − 3)

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 Finite Example
Elements

Comparison between weighted residual and analytical results

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 Finite Exercises
Elements

Exercises
1. Solve the following BVP using the Galerkin method and two elements.
d2 u
dx2
−x=0
u(0) = 0
u(3) = 1

2. Solve the problem above using three elements and compare the results with the two
elements solution and the analytical solution.
3. Solve the following BVP using the Galerkin method and two elements.
 
dx = 6x
d
dx x du
u(1) = 1
du
dx u(2) =2

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 Finite Bar element
Elements

Bar element
The Galerkin method can be used to derive the equa-
tions of an element for the one dimensional elastic-
ity problem. The constitutive relation is given by
σx = Eεx . The resulting element is called bar element 1 2
(also rod or truss element). F1 F2
0 L
Essential boundary conditions are axial displacement Bar element forces
at both ends, u1 and u2 . On the other hand, natural
boundary conditions are given by corresponding axial
forces F1 and F2 .

First let’s consider the differential equilibrium equation:

dσx
dx =0

The constitutive model for axial deformation is σx = Eεx , where E is the Young’s modulus.
Also, the strain definition gives εx = du
dx . Thus, the problem differential equation is
2
E d dx
u(x)
2 = 0, x ∈ (0, L)
with L as the element lenght.
The approximate solution is assumed as:
u(x) = u1 N1 (x) + u2 N2 (x)
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 Finite Bar element
Elements

Assuming a domain where x ∈ (0, L), the interpolation functions are given by:

N1 (x) = 1 − x
L
N2 (x) = x
L

Since the interpolation functions are linear, it is said that this element has C 0 continuity
functions. That means that there is continuity of displacements between adjacent elements
but there is not continuity of displacement derivatives.
Applying the Galerkin method we get the weighted integral defined over the bar element
volume:
Z  
2
Ni (x) E ddxu2 dV = 0 i = 1, 2
V
Z L  
2
Ni (x) E ddxu2 A dx = 0 i = 1, 2
0

By integrating by parts we arrive to the bar element weak formulation:

Z L h iL
AE dNi du
dx dx dx = Ni AE du
dx i = 1, 2
0 0

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 Finite Bar element
Elements

Substituting the approximate solution we get the following two equations

Z L  
dx + u2 dx dx = −AE du
dN1
u1 dN dN2

AE dx
1 
dx x=0
0
Z L  
dx + u2 dx dx = AE du
dN2
u1 dN dN2

AE dx
1 
dx x=L
0

The right hand side terms are related with the natural boundary conditions, external forces
in this case.
Writing in matrix form and considering E du
dx = σx and σx A = F we obtain the following
system
Z L " dN1 dN1 dN1 dN2 # ! !
dx dx dx dx u1 F1
AE dx =
0 dN2 dN1 dN2 dN2 u2 F2
dx dx dx dx

Since the interpolation functions are linear, all derivatives are constant. Thus the system
becomes
" # ! !
1 −1 u1 F1
AE
=
L −1 1 u2 F2

This system can be used later to analyze a one dimensional problem where the domain has
been subdivided in several elements. Each element will contribute to mount a global system
of equations.
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 Finite Beam element
Elements

Beam element
q(x)
A beam element is intended to be used to estimate de- V1
flections due to flexure. No axial strain is considered. M1 M2
x
0 L
Essentials boundary conditions are displacements and V2
rotations at endpoints. Natural boundary conditions
are given by the distributed force q(x), endpoints mo- dV
= q(x) d2 M
= q(x)
dx dx2
ments ans shear forces.
Beam element forces

The governing equation for beam flexure is the fourth order differential equation
 
d2 2
dx2
d v
EI dx2 = q(x)

In this case the approximate solution is defined with four interpolation functions

v(x) = v1 N1 (x) + θ1 N2 (x) + v2 N3 (x) + θ2 N4 (x)

These interpolation functions are known as cubic Hermite polynomials. For this reason, this
element is also called Hermitian beam element. They are C 1 continuity elements since the
first derivative of interpolation functions is continuous between adjacent elements. In other
words, slopes are continuous between elements.

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 Finite Beam element
Elements

Hermite interpolation
The Hermite interpolation allows to find an interpolating polynomial that matches an un-
known function at observed values and at the observed values of its first m derivatives.
Assuming x ∈ (0, L), for any deformation state in a
beam element, the interpolation should satisfy: 1

v(0) = v1 , v(L) = v2 N1
0 0
v (0) = θ1 , v (L) = θ2 N3

The interpolation function that satisfy the above con- 0 L

ditions are 0.2
3x2 2x3
N1 (x) = 1 − L2
+ L3
2
N2
x3
N2 (x) = x − 2xL + L2
3x2 3
N3 (x) = L2
− 2xL3 N4
x3 2
N4 (x) = L2
− xL
-0.2
0 L
Note that functions N1 and n3 vary from 0 to 1. Also,
Beam element interpolation functions
the derivatives of functions N2 and N4 vary from 0 to
1.

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 Finite Beam element
Elements

Applying the Galerkin method on the residual of the beam differential equation and using
the Hermite interpolation functions, we have:
Z L h   i
d2 2
Ni (x) dx2
d v
EI dx2 − q(x) dx = 0 i = 1, 4
0

After integrating by parts twice we arrive to the weak form of the beam element:
Z L Z L L L
d2 Ni d2 v 3 d2 v 
EI dx = 3 +
d v
Ni q(x)dx − Ni EI dx dNi
dx EI dx2 0 i = 1, 4

dx2 dx2 0
0 0

After substituting the approximate into this equation, performing the integrations, assuming
q(x) as constant and writing in matrix form we finally obtain:

12 6L −12 6L 6
      
v1 V1
 6L 4L2 −6L 2L2 
 θ1  M1 
     L 
qL
EI
  =  +
  
L3 −12 −6L 12 −6L v2   V2   6 
12 
 

6L 2L2 −6L 4L2 θ2 M2 −L

3 2
where the definition of shear force V = EI dx3 and moment M = EI dx2 were taken into
d v d v

account.
Note that in this element shear force and moment distributions are noncontinuous. Also,
they are constant and linear, respectively.
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 Finite Exercises
Elements

Exercises
1. Consider a uniaxial member subjected to axial loads where the cross-sectional area
varies according to A = A0 (1 + Lx ) with x ∈ (0, L). Given the governing equation
2
E ddxu2 = 0, determine the Galerkin finite element equations.
2. A 2 m lenght rod fixed at the left end is being pulled at the right end by a force
FA = 2 kN. At the middle of the rod another force FB = 1 kN is also applied and is
pulling to the right. Plot the resulting displacement field for the whole rod. Consider
EA = 2 kN/m for the left half of the rod and EA = 1 kN/m for the other half.
3. A cantilever beam is embedded at the left end and subject to a vertical load q(x) =
−1 kN/m. Plot the resulting deflection field for the beam. Consider EI = 1 kN m2
and L = 1 m.
4. For the last exercise, find the functions for the shear force and moment along the beam
based on the approximate solution for the deflection. Plot both functions together with
the corresponding analytical expressions.

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 Finite Bibliography
Elements

Bibliography
1. J.N. Reddy, An Introduction to the Finite Element Method, Third edition, McGraw
Hill, 2005.
2. T.J.R. Hughes, The Finite Element Method, Dover, 2000.

Things should be described as simply as possible,

but no simpler.
A. Einstein

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