Materials and Structures (2006) 39:655–664
DOI 10.1617/s11527-006-9093-0
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
On relationships between the mechanical properties of
recycled aggregate concrete: An overview
J.-Zh. Xiao · J.-B. Li · Ch. Zhang
Received: 23 May 2005 / Accepted: 18 November 2005

C RILEM 2006
Abstract In this paper, a detailed investigation is con-
ducted to analyze the relationships between the me-
chanical properties of recycled aggregate concrete
(RAC). Based on a large number of experimental re-
sults published worldwide in literature from 1985 to
2004, an experimental database is developed with re-
gard to the main mechanical properties of RAC. In par-
ticular, the relations between the compressive strength,
the density, the splitting tensile strength, the flexural
strength, and the elastic modulus are investigated and
discussed in detail. It is found that the interrelation-
ships between the mechanical properties of RAC could
be quite different from those of normal concrete. Some
improved new equations are proposed for the predic-
tion of the relations between the mechanical properties
of RAC based on the statistical regression analysis with
the least squares method.
Résumé La recherche avancée présentée ici, anal-
yse les relations entre les propriétés mécaniques des
Bétons à Granulat Recyclé (BGR). En s’appuyant sur la
bibliographie importante des résultats expérimentaux
publiés au niveau international de 1985 à 2004, une
base de données a été élaborée sur les propriétés
mécaniques du BGR. Et, de façon plus approfondie,
J.-Zh. Xiao · J.-B. Li
Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
Ch. Zhang
University of Siegen, D-57068 Siegen, Germany
les relations entre ses qualités à la compression, à la
tension, à la flexion, ou entre sa densité et le module
d’élasticité ont été plus particulièrement su set d’études
et de remise en question. Il en résulte que les rela-
tions entre les propriétés mécaniques du BGR sont as-
sez différentes par rapport aux bétons normaux. De
nouvelles équations améliorées sont avancée dans ce
domaine a l’aide de la méthode des moindres carrés.
1. Introduction
Reuse of waste concrete as recycled aggregates in new
concretes is beneficial from the view point of environ-
mental protection and resources reservation. To the best
knowledge of the authors, the investigation on recy-
cled waste concrete was initiated by Glushge in Russia
1946 [1]. In the following years, a large amount of ex-
perimental works have been carried out worldwide to
investigate the recycling of waste concrete. Previous
studies were mainly engaged in the processing of de-
molished concrete, mix-proportion design, mechanical
properties, durability aspects and improvements. Re-
cently, structural performances and economic aspects
of using recycled aggregate concrete are also analyzed.
Some previous research results on the mechanical
behaviour of recycled aggregate concrete have been re-
viewed by Hansen [2] and Li [3]. It was revealed that,
in fact, none of the previous results indicated that the
recycled aggregate concrete is unsuitable for structural
applications. Recent investigations on the performance
656
of beams [4–6], columns [7], beam-column joints [8],
and slabs [9] made from recycled aggregate concrete
all gave positive results, which further supports and
encourages the possibilities of applying recycled ag-
gregate concrete in civil engineering structures.
The interrelationships of the main mechanical prop-
erties of recycled aggregate concrete are important is-
sues for the design, construction and analysis of struc-
tures when this kind of materials is applied. In the case
of normal concretes, the relationships between their
mechanical properties have been well established and
described in detail within various design codes, stan-
dards and handbooks. However, some previous studies
[10–13] have indicated that such existing relationships
for normal concrete may not be valid for recycled ag-
gregate concrete. Therefore, a reliable establishment
of the relationships between the various physical and
mechanical properties of recycled aggregate concrete
is desirable and has to be performed. With this aim
in mind, this paper provides an attempt in this direc-
tion. Previous experimental results including our own
results for recycled aggregate concrete published in lit-
erature are collected and compared carefully. Based on
these results, a database is developed and some novel
equations for describing the relations between the main
mechanical properties of recycled aggregate concrete
are derived by using a statistical regression analysis.
It should be remarked here that a considerably large
amount of experimental works have been done in past
years, and it is beyond the scope of this investigation to
collect and discuss all of the published results. The re-
sults presented in this paper are neither exhaustive nor
complete. Some recent and even very important results
may still be missing in our discussion.
Table 1 Properties of collected test results
Parameters Value range and test conditions
Compressive strength 10–65 MPa
at 28 day (cylinder/cube)
Cure condition Air/standard/water
Density 1800–2450 kg/m3
Water/cement ratio 0.2–1.2
Cement content 90–550 kg/m3
Type of cement used CEM I 32.5R/CEM II 42.5NA OPC 32.5R/OPC 42.5R CEM I A 52.5/CEM III B 42.5
Fly ash content 0–97 kg/m3
Recycled aggregates content 10–100%
Recycled aggregates used Crushed concrete/crushed brick
Percentage of masonry rubble 0–80%
Materials and Structures (2006) 39:655–664
2. Scope of the investigations
Based on a large number of experimental works pub-
lished in literature, over 1200 test results were collected
to get a wide spread database. Our aim was to take
as many types of recycled aggregates as possible into
account, and simultaneously to establish as simple as
possible relationships between the various mechani-
cal properties. The most important mechanical param-
eters and the corresponding test conditions collected
are briefly described and given in Table 1. Due to the
large variety of the aggregate combinations, regional
differences, different production methods and storage
conditions, as well as other influencing factors such as
different curing/test methods and used standards, the
test results had to be selected from an engineering point
of view in order to get a reasonably good fitting equa-
tion for concrete with all kinds of recycled concrete
aggregates. The selection was completed according to
the rules illustrated in Table 2. After that, only 528 test
results from Refs. [6, 12, 14–38] were kept for further
consideration.
Even for the left 528 test results, a strict statistical
evaluation of all the test results was hardly possible
due to the following reasons: (1) most of the informa-
tion about the test results and the test conditions were
somewhat incomplete, (2) the number of the test speci-
mens was often too small or the conditions were gained
on different mixtures, and (3) the objectives of the test
programs were quite different and they were not the
same as in this investigation. Despite these difficulties,
it is still useful to keep the database as general as pos-
sible, and it is also practicable to do some statistical
analysis from the developed database. In this paper,
Materials and Structures (2006) 39:655–664 657

Table 2 Conditions for selecting the test results for the database

Parameters Value range and test conditions

28 Day compressive strength (cube) 15–55 MPa

Cure condition Standard/water
Density 2200–2450 kg/m3
Age 28 days or more
Water/cement ratio 0.3–1.2
Cement content 90–550 kg/m3
Type of cement used CEM I 32.5R/ CEM I 42.5NA OPC 32.5R/OPC 42.5R CEM I A 52.5/CEM IIIB 42.5
Fine aggregate Natural sand
Fly ash content 0
Recycled aggregates content 10–100%
Source of recycled aggregates Demolished concrete/laboratory-cast concrete/airport pavement/rejected structural
precast element
Percentage of masonry rubble 0–5%

the least squares method was applied to derive the new
equations for the relationships between the mechanical
properties of recycled aggregate concrete.
3. Relationships between the mechanical
properties
3.1. Relationship between the compressive
strength and the mass density
Generally speaking, the compressive strength of the
normal concrete increases with a rising of the mass
density. Within the data investigated, Fig. 1 shows the
values of the cube compressive strength obtained by
various investigators as a function of the mass density.
It can be assumed here that there exists approximately
a linear relationship between the compressive strength
and the mass density. A statistical regression analysis
is undertaken to establish the empirical relationship be-
tween the compressive strength and the mass density,
where a linear regression model is used. The result is
given by
f cu = aρ + b, (1)

Fig. 1 Relationship
between the compressive
strength and the mass
density of RAC
658
where a and b are the regression coefficients, fcu is
the compressive strength in MPa, and ρ is the mass
density in kg/m3 of the recycled concrete. With a
correlation coefficient R = 0.92, the constants a and
b are obtained as a = 0.069 and b = −116.1. Thus,
the relation between the compressive strength and the
mass density of recycled concrete can be established
as
f cu = 0.069ρ − 116.1. (2)
Equation (2) is drawn in Fig. 1, which shows that it can
describe the test results quite well.
3.2. Relationship between the splitting tensile
strength and the compressive strength
The splitting tensile strength test is often used to ob-
tain the tensile strength of concrete, rather than by a
direct tensile strength test because the former is eas-
ier to perform. In practical applications, however, the
tensile strength of concrete is often estimated from the
compressive strength. The splitting tensile strength of
the recycled aggregate concrete obtained by previous
investigators as a function of the compressive strength
is summarized and shown in Fig. 2. Although the re-
sults show a considerable scatter, the tendency that the
splitting tensile strength increases with increasing com-
pressive strength can still be recognized.
Fig. 2 Relationship
between the splitting tensile
strength and the
compressive strength of
RAC
Materials and Structures (2006) 39:655–664
In the ACI Code [40] and Chinese Code GB 50010-
2002, the relationships between the splitting tensile
strength and the compressive strength (both in MPa)
for normal concrete are expressed as
ACI : f sp = 0.49 f cu
0.50
, (3)
GB : f sp = 0.19 f cu
0.75
. (4)
It should be noted here that in Equation (3), a con-
version factor of 0.76 from the cylinder to the cube
compressive strength has been undertaken according
to Ref. [41].
By using Equations (3, 4), the relationship between
fsp and fcu for the recycled aggregate concrete is plotted
in Fig. 2. From Fig. 2, it can be seen that Equations (3,
4) results in a significant overestimation of the splitting
tensile strength of the recycled aggregate concrete. To
improve Equations (3, 4), a regression analysis of the
test results was performed by using the following re-
gression equation
f sp = c f cu
d
, (5)
where c and d are the regression coefficients to be deter-
mined. By using a correlation coefficient R = 0.87, the
regression analysis yields c = 0.24 and d = 0.65. Hence,
the following equation is proposed for the relation be-
tween the splitting tensile strength and the compressive
Materials and Structures (2006) 39:655–664 659

Fig. 3 Relationship
between the flexural
strength and the
compressive strength of
RAC

strength of the recycled aggregate concrete It should be noted here that in Equations (7, 8), a conver-
sion from the cylinder to the cube compressive strength
f sp = 0.24 f cu
0.65
. (6) has been undertaken. According to Ref. [41], the cylin-
der compressive strength is taken as 0.76 times of the
cube compressive strength.
Comparisons between the test results and that predicted
It can be seen from Fig. 3 that the ACI equation
by Equation (6) are illustrated in Fig. 2. It can be seen
leads to an underestimation, while the CEB equation
that the proposed Equation (6) can provide a better
yields an overestimation of the flexural strength of the
agreement with the experimental results than Equations
recycled aggregate concrete.
(3, 4) do.
Based on the collected test results and by using the
following regression equation
3.3. Relationship between the flexural strength
and the compressive strength 
ff = e f cu , (9)
The flexural strength of concrete is another mechani-
cal quantity which is often used to calculate the tensile
a statistical regression analysis was performed. With
strength of concrete. The test results for the flexural
a correlation coefficient R = 0.91, the regression
strength of the recycled aggregate concrete obtained
coefficient e was determined as e = 0.75. There-
by various investigators are given in Fig. 3 versus the
fore, the following equation is suggested for describ-
compressive strength. Although unavoidable discrep-
ing the relation between the flexural strength and
ancies exist amongst the results, there exists a tendency
the compressive strength of the recycled aggregate
that the flexural strength increases with increasing the
concrete
compressive strength.
In the CEB Code [39] and the ACI Code [40], the 
empirical relationships between the flexural strength f f = 0.75 f cu . (10)
and the compressive strength (both in MPa) for normal
concrete are given by the following equations
Compared with Equations (7) and (8), Equation (10)
 provides a much better description of the relation
CEB : f f = 0.81 f cu , (7) between the flexural strength and the compressive

ACI : f f = 0.54 f cu . (8) strength of the recycled aggregate concrete.
660 Materials and Structures (2006) 39:655–664

3.4. Relationship between the elastic modulus Zilch and Roos [42]:
and the compressive strength  2
ρ
E c = 9100 × ( f cu + 8)1/3 × (15)
The elastic modulus of concrete reflects the linear elas- 2400
tic stress-strain relation which is very important in both
Mellmann [43]:
the static and the dynamic analysis of reinforced con-
crete structures. In the past, different equations have
E c = 378 f cu + 8242 (16)
been suggested by various investigators for describing
the relationship between the elastic modulus and the It should be noted here that in Equation (13) a con-
compressive strength (both in MPa) of recycled aggre- version factor of 0.79 from the cylinder to the cube
gate concrete, and some of them are given in Equations compressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete
(11–16). has been made according to Ref. [21]. In Equations
Ravindrarajah and Tam [12]: (13, 14), the mass density of the recycled aggregate
concrete can be calculated by using Equation (2).
E c = 7770 f cu
0.33
(11) Equations (11–16) are displayed in Fig. 4 for the
elastic modulus versus the compressive strength of re-
Dhir et al. [14]: cycled aggregate concrete. It can be seen that there
exists a remarkably high diversity in the results. The
reason for the discrepancies is quite simple: the refer-
E c = 370 f cu + 13100 (12) enced author/authors has/have proposed his/their equa-
tion, just to best fit his/their own experimental results.
Kakizaki et al. [20]: However, some of the reported results ware obtained
only from a limited number of test specimens or lim-
 1.5  ited types of recycled aggregates, while some other
ρ f cu
E c = 1.9 × 10 ×5
× (13) suggested equations are hardly in accordance with the
2300 2000
experimental findings.
The collected test results of elastic modulus of recy-
Dillmann [25]: cled aggregate concrete by different investigators are
summarized and their variation with the compressive
E c = 634.43 f cu + 3057.6 (14) strength is shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 4 Different equations

proposed for the elastic
modulus of RAC
Materials and Structures (2006) 39:655–664 661

Fig. 5 Relationship between the elastic modulus and the compressive strength of RAC

In the ACI code [40] and Chinese Code GB50010– where g and h are the regression coefficients to be de-
2002, the following equations are adopted to estimate termined. With a correlation coefficient R = 0.91, the
the elastic modulus of normal concrete, respectively. regression coefficients are obtained as g = 2.8 and
h = 40.1. Thus, the following relation is suggested
ACI : E c = 4127 f cu
0.50
(17) to estimate the relation between the elastic modulus
and the compressive strength of the recycled aggregate
105 concrete
GB : E c = (18)
2.2 + 34.7
f cu

105
Similar to Equation [3], a conversion factor of 0.76 Ec = . (20)
from the cylinder to the cube compressive strength is 2.8 + 40.1
f cu
used. Results obtained by using Equations (17, 18) are
also presented in Fig. 5 and compared with the exper-
A comparison of the results predicted by Equation (20)
imental results. It can be seen in Fig. 5 that Equation
with the experimental ones and that provided by Equa-
(17) provides an underestimation of the elastic mod-
tion (16) shows that Equation (20) gives a satisfactorily
ulus when the compressive strength is relatively low,
adequate estimation of the relation between the elastic
whereas Equation (18) leads to an overestimation of
modulus and the compressive strength of recycled ag-
the elastic modulus.
gregate concrete.
In this investigation, an alternative regression anal-
In addition, Equation (20) is also compared with
ysis was performed based on the collected test results
Equations (11–16) and it is found that the predicted
using the following regression equation
results by Equation (11) are very close to that by Equa-
tion (20), which is also drawn in Fig. 5 for compar-
105 isons. Therefore, both Equation (11) and Equation (20)
Ec = , (19)
g + fhcu can be used to describe the relation between the elastic
662
Table 3 Difference between proposed relations and
equations suggested by ACI
This paper ACI Code
f sp = 0.65
0.24 f cu f sp = 0.49 f cu
0.50
√ √
f f = 0.75 f cu f f = 0.54 f cu
5
E c = 2.810
+ 40.1
or E c = 7770 f cu
0.33
E c = 4127 f cu0.50
f cu
modulus and the compressive strength of recycled ag-
gregate concrete.
4. Summary
Based on our collected experimental results published
worldwide in literature, a database for the mechanical
properties of recycled aggregate concrete is developed.
Our investigation shows that the commonly used equa-
tions for relating the mechanical properties of normal
concrete cannot be directly applied to the recycled ag-
gregate concrete. A statistical regression analysis of
the collected experimental results is performed to de-
rive improved equations for describing the relations
between the mechanical properties of recycled aggre-
gate concrete. In particular, approximate equations for
the following relationships are presented:
1. The relationship between the compressive strength
and the mass density of recycled aggregate concrete.
2. The relationship between the tensile strength and
the compressive strength of recycled aggregate con-
crete.
3. The relationship between the flexural strength and
the compressive strength of recycled aggregate con-
crete.
4. The relationship between the elastic modulus and
the compressive strength of recycled aggregate
concrete.
The presented approximate relations that are sum-
marized and compared with ACI equations for nor-
mal concrete in Table 3, may be used for reference
and comparison purposes in the structural design and
applications of recycled aggregate concrete in civil
engineering.
It should be emphasized that the conditions of re-
cycled aggregate and the mix proportion adopted are
very complicated, especially in in-situ concrete produc-
tion. Therefore, a single statistical regression analysis
Materials and Structures (2006) 39:655–664
of huge test data is often not sufficient and further study
is still needed in the future to investigate the relation-
ships between the mechanical properties of recycled
aggregate concrete.
Acknowledgements The comments from the two anonymous
reviewers are greatly appreciated. Jianzhuang Xiao would like
to express his sincere appreciate to the Alexander von Hum-
boldt Foundation in Germany, which granted him to work for
more than one year in Germany. Special thanks are extended to
Prof. Dr.-Ing. H. Falkner who provided Jianzhuang Xiao very
convenient work facilities during his visiting the Institute of
Building Materials, Structural Concrete and Fire Protection of
TU Braunschweig.
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