Analysis on Manifolds

Course Notes and Reading Guide

Gert Vegter

November 2017
Chapter 1

Exterior Algebra

1.1 Dual space of a vector space.

Let V be a real n-dimensional vector space with basis {v1 , . . . , vn }. The dual
vector space V ∗ of V is the set of linear functions f : V → R, which is a vector
space on which addition and multiplication by (real) scalars are dened by
(f + g)(v) = f(v) + g(v), for v ∈ V,
(λf)(v) = λ (f(v)), for v ∈ V,

where f, g : V → R are linear functions on V (in other words, f and g are

elements of V ∗ ), and λ ∈ R is a scalar.
Definition 1.1. Let {v1 , . . . , vn } be a basis of an n-dimensional real vector
space V . The dual basis {v◦1 , . . . , v◦n } of the dual vector space V ∗ is dened
by
v◦i (vj ) = δij .

Obviously, we still have to justify the use of the term dual basis. Before we
do so, we note that a dual basis can be used to express every vector in V as a
linear combination of the basis vectors v1 , . . . , vn , and every linear function on
V (i.e., every element of V ∗ ) as a linear combination of the dual basis vectors
v◦1 , . . . , v◦n .

Lemma 1.2. In the notation of Denition 1.1:

1. A vector w ∈ V can be written as w = v◦1 (w)v1 + · · · + v◦n (w)vn .
2. A linear function f ∈ V ∗ can be written as f = f(v1 )v◦1 + · · · + f(vn )v◦n .
Obviously, the rst decomposition is unique, since every vector can be written
uniquely as a linear combination of basis vectors. The second decomposition is
also unique, as will be clear from the following result.
Proposition 1.3. The system {v◦1 , . . . , v◦n } associated with a basis {v1 , . . . , vn }
of an n-dimensional real vector space V is a basis of V ∗ .

1
Proof. It follows from Lemma 1.2, part 2, that the system {v◦1 , . . . , v◦n } spans
V ∗ . To see that it is an independent system, consider a linear combination
X
n
f := λj v◦j ,
j=1

and suppose f = 0. We have to show that λi = 0, for i = 1, . . . , n. This follows

from the fact that
X
n X
n
0 = f(vi ) = λj v◦j (vi ) = λj δji = λi .
j=1 j=1

Exercise 1.4. (Dual basis of R3 .)

Let {e1 , e2 , e3 } be the standard basis of R3 . Consider the basis {v1 , v2 , v3 } of R3
given by
v1 = e1 + e2 + e3 ,
v2 = e2 + e3 ,
v3 = e3 .
1. Let the linear function f : R3 → R be given by f(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = a1 x1 +
a2 x2 + a3 x3 . Here a1 , a2 and a3 are real constants. Write f as a linear
combination of the dual basis vectors e◦1 , e◦2 , e◦3 .
Note: f(x1 , x2 , x3 ) is the usual notation for the value f(x1 e1 + x2 e2 + x3 e3 ).
2. Express e◦1 , e◦2 and e◦3 as a linear combination of v◦1 , v◦2 and v◦3 .
3. Write f as a linear combination of the dual basis vectors v◦1 , v◦2 , v◦3 .
4. Express v◦1 , v◦2 and v◦3 as a linear combination of e◦1 , e◦2 and e◦3 .

1.2 Alternating bilinear maps and the wedge prod-

uct
Alternating bilinear maps. We now consider bilinear maps on a real vector
space, which are alternating, or, equivalently, antisymmetric.
Definition 1.5. Let V be a real vector space. Then Λ2 (V)∗ is the real vector
space of bilinear maps ω : V × V → R which are alternating, i.e., for which
ω(v, w) = −ω(w, v), for v, w ∈ V .
The vector space structure of Λ2 (V)∗ is given by
(ω1 + ω2 )(v, w) = ω1 (v, w) + ω2 (v, w), for v, w ∈ V,
(cω)(v, w) = c ω(v, w), for v, w ∈ V.
Here ω, ω1 , ω2 ∈ Λ2 (V)∗ , and c ∈ R.

2
Exercise 1.6. (Checking whether a map is bilinear and alternating.)
Which of the following maps ωi : R2 × R2 → R is an element of Λ2 (R2 )∗ ?
1. ω1 (v, w) = v1 w2 + v2 w1 ;
2. ω2 (v, w) = v1 w2 − v2 w1 ;
3. ω3 (v, w) = v1 w22 − v22 w1 .
Here v = v1 e1 + v2 e2 and w = w1 e1 + w2 e2 .
Exercise 1.7. (An alternating bilinear map on R3 .)
Let u ∈ R3 be a xed vector. Show that the map ω : R3 × R3 → R, given by
ω(v, w) = u · (v × w),

belongs to Λ2 (R3 )∗ . Here · denotes the inner product (aka scalar product), and
× the cross product.

Exercise 1.8. (A criterion for antisymmetry of a bilinear map.)

Let V be a real vector space. Prove that a bilinear map ω : V × V → R is
alternating i ω(v, v) = 0, for all v ∈ V . (Compare [Do Carmo], chapter 1,
exercise 1.)

The wedge product of two linear maps. The wedge product of two linear
maps ϕ, ψ ∈ V ∗ is the map
ϕ∧ψ:V ×V →R

dened by  
ϕ(v) ϕ(w)
(ϕ ∧ ψ)(v, w) =  .
ψ(v) ψ(w)
The right hand side of the last identity is the determinant with value ϕ(v)ψ(w)−
ϕ(w)ψ(v).
The proofs of the following properties are straightforward (exercise!).
Proposition 1.9. Let V be a real vector space, and let ϕ, ψ, σ ∈ V ∗ . Then
1. ϕ ∧ ψ ∈ Λ2 (V)∗ .
2. ϕ ∧ ψ = −ψ ∧ ϕ. In particular, ϕ ∧ ϕ = 0.
3. The wedge product is bilinear. More precisely,
(ϕ1 + ϕ2 ) ∧ ψ = ϕ1 ∧ ψ + ϕ2 ∧ ψ,

(cϕ) ∧ ψ = c(ϕ ∧ ψ), for c ∈ R,

ϕ ∧ (ψ1 + ψ2 ) = ϕ ∧ ψ1 + ϕ ∧ ψ2 ,

ϕ ∧ (cψ) = c(ϕ ∧ ψ), for c ∈ R.

3
Just like a basis {v1 , . . . , vn } of V gives rise to a basis {v◦1 , . . . , v◦n } of V ∗ , it
also generates a basis of Λ2 (V)∗ . As a rst step, we evaluate ω ∈ Λ2 (V)∗ at
(v, w) ∈ V × V , using

X
n X
n
v= v◦i (v)vi , w= v◦j (w)vj .
i=1 j=1

Using bilinearity of ω and of the wedge-product we get

X
n X
n
ω(v, w) = ω(vi , vj )v◦i (v)v◦j (w)
i=1 j=1
X X

= + ω(vi , vj )v◦i (v)v◦j (w)
1≤i<j≤n 1≤j<i≤n
X X
= ω(vi , vj )v◦i (v)v◦j (w) + ω(vj , vi )v◦j (v)v◦i (w)
1≤i<j≤n 1≤i<j≤n
X
= ω(vi , vj )(v◦i (v)v◦j (w) − v◦j (v)v◦i (w))
1≤i<j≤n
X
= ω(vi , vj )(v◦i ∧ v◦j )(v, w)
1≤i<j≤n
X
ω(vi , vj )(v◦i ∧ v◦j ) (v, w).


=
1≤i<j≤n

Therefore, X
ω= ω(vi , vj ) v◦i ∧ v◦j .
1≤i<j≤n

The fact that this decomposition of ω is unique is the content of the following
proposition.
Proposition 1.10. Let {v1 , . . . , vn } be a basis of the real vector space V .
Then
{v◦i ∧ v◦j | 1 ≤ i < j ≤ n} (1.1)
is a basis of Λ2 (V)∗ . In particular, ω ∈ Λ2 (V)∗ can be written (uniquely)
as the following linear combination of these basis vectors:
X
ω= ω(vi , vj ) v◦i ∧ v◦j .
1≤i<j≤n

Proof. The preceding calculation shows that the system (1.1) spans Λ2 (V)∗ .
To see that this system is independent, assume that
X
ω := ωij v◦i ∧ v◦j = 0,
1≤i<j≤n

where ωij ∈ R. We have to show that ωkl = 0, for 1 ≤ k < l ≤ n. This

will follow from the fact that ωkl = ω(vk , vl ). To see this, observe that, for

4
1 ≤ i < j ≤ n,
 ◦
v (vk ) v◦ (vl )

i i
(v◦i ∧ v◦j )(vk , vl ) = 
 

v◦ (vk ) v◦ (vl )
j j

= δik δjl − δil δjk



 if (i, j) = (k, l),
1,


= −1, if (i, j) = (l, k),




0, otherwise.

Since i < j and k < l, the second alternative in the last right-hand side does
not occur. Therfore,

1, if (i, j) = (k, l),
(v◦i ∧ v◦j )(vk , vl ) =
0, otherwise,
so ω(vk , vl ) = ωkl .
Exercise 1.11. (Decomposition of an alternating bilinear form.)
Let the map ω : Rn × Rn → R be dened as follows: If v = x1 e1 + · · · + xn en
and w = y1 e1 + · · · + yn en , then
X
ω(v, w) = (xi yj − xj yi ).
1≤i<j≤n

1. Prove that ω ∈ Λ2 (Rn )∗ .

P
2. Prove that ω = ◦
1≤i<j≤n ei ∧ e◦j .

1.3 Alternating multilinear maps

The theory of Section 1.2 can be generalized to the context of alternating mul-
tilinear maps, as we shall see in this section. First we generalize 1.5.
Definition 1.12. Let V be a real vector space. Then Λk (V)∗ is the real
vector space of k-linear maps ω : V · · × V} → R which are alternating. In
| × ·{z
k factors
particular, if σ is a permutation of the sequence 1, . . . , k and v1 , . . . , vk ∈ V ,
then
ω(vσ(1) , . . . , vσ(k) ) = sign(σ)ω(v1 , . . . , vk ).

Here sign(σ) denotes the signature of the permutation σ. As in Section 1.2, the
space Λk (V)∗ has an obvious vector space structure.

5
Exercise 1.13. (A 3-linear maps on R4 )
Prove that the map ω : R4 ×R4 ×R4 → R, given by ω(u, v, w) = det(e1 , u, v, w)
(the determinant of the matrix with column vectors e1 , u, v and w), is an ele-
ments of Λ3 (R4 )∗ : Here the components of u ∈ R4 with respect to the standard
basis {e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 } of R4 are denoted by u1 , u2 , u3 and u4 .
Exercise 1.14. (A criterion for antisymmetry of multilinear maps)
Prove that a k-linear map ω is alternating if ω(v1 , . . . , vk ) = 0 for all v1 , . . . , vk ∈
V with vi = vi+1 , for some i with 1 ≤ i < k.

The wedge product of a finite number of linear maps. The wedge

product of linear maps ϕ1 , . . . , ϕk ∈ V ∗ is the map
ϕ 1 ∧ · · · ∧ ϕk : V · · × V} → R
| × ·{z
k factors

dened by
 
ϕ1 (v1 ) ϕ1 (v2 ) · · · ϕ1 (vk )

 
ϕ2 (v1 ) ϕ2 (v2 ) · · · ϕ2 (vk )
(ϕ1 ∧ · · · ∧ ϕk )(v1 , . . . , vk ) =  . (1.2)

 ..
.. ..  ,

 . . 
 
ϕk (v1 ) ϕk (v2 ) · · · ϕk (vk )
for v1 , . . . , vk ∈ V .
Exercise 1.15. (Wedge product of a finite number of linear functions)
Let ϕ1 , . . . , ϕk ∈ V ∗ . Prove the following properties.
1. ϕ1 ∧ · · · ∧ ϕk ∈ Λk (V)∗ .
2. If σ is a permutation of the sequence 1, . . . , k, then
ϕσ(1) ∧ · · · ∧ ϕσ(k) = sign(σ)ϕ1 ∧ · · · ∧ ϕk .
Exercise 1.16. (Wedge product of dual basis vectors)
Let {v1 , . . . , vn } be a basis of the real vector space V , and let 1 ≤ i1 < . . . <
ik ≤ n and 1 ≤ j1 < . . . < jk ≤ n.
1. Prove that

1, if i1 = j1 , . . . , ik = jk ,
(v◦i1 ∧ · · · ∧ v◦ik )(vj1 , . . . , vjk ) =
0, otherwise.
Compare [Do Carmo], chapter 1, exercise 2.
2. The following slightly generalized version is sometimes useful. Let 1 ≤
j1 < · · · < jk ≤ n, and consider indices 1 ≤ i1 , . . . , ik ≤ n (not necessarily
dierent, not necessarily monotone). Prove that
(v◦i1 ∧ · · · ∧ v◦ik )(vj1 , . . . , vjk ) 6= 0

6
 i there is a permutation σ of the sequence j1 , . . . , jk such that σ(jh ) =
ih for h = 1, . . . , k. If such a permutation exists, then (v◦i1 ∧ · · · ∧
v◦ik )(vj1 , . . . , vjk ) = sign(σ). (Hint: you may want to use the result of
Exercise 1.15, part 2.)
Using the wedge product of elements of V ∗ , we can build a basis of Λk (V)∗ ,
and decompose elements of Λk (V)∗ with respect to this basis. The follow-
ing proposition, which is a straightforward generalization of Proposition 1.10,
makes this claim more precise.
Proposition 1.17. Let {v1 , . . . , vn } be a basis of the real vector space V .
Then
{v◦i1 ∧ · · · ∧ v◦ik | 1 ≤ i1 < · · · < ik ≤ n} (1.3)
is a basis of Λk (V)∗ . In particular, ω ∈ Λk (V)∗ can be written (uniquely)
as the following linear combination of these basis vectors:
X
ω= ω(vi1 , . . . , vik ) v◦i1 ∧ · · · ∧ v◦ik .
1≤i1 <···<ik ≤n

The proof is a straightforward generalization of the proof of Proposition 1.10.

See also [Do Carmo], Proposition 1.
Exercise 1.18. (Decomposition of elements of Λ3 (R4 )∗ )
Let ω ∈ Λ3 (R4 )∗ be as in Exercise 1.13. Write ω as a linear combination of
the basis elements
e◦1 ∧ e◦2 ∧ e◦3 , e◦1 ∧ e◦2 ∧ e◦4 , e◦1 ∧ e◦3 ∧ e◦4 , e◦2 ∧ e◦3 ∧ e◦4

of Λ3 (R4 )∗ . Here e1 , . . . , e4 denote the standard basis vectors of R4 .

The wedge product of alternating multilinear maps. Do Carmo intro-

duces the wedge product of two alternating multilinear maps on a real vector
space V by decomposing each map with respect to a basis generated by a basis
{v1 , . . . , vn } of V . More precisely, let ω ∈ Λk (V)∗ and η ∈ Λl (V)∗ . According
to Proposition 1.17, these maps have unique decompositions
X
ω= ωi1 ,...,ik v◦i1 ∧ · · · ∧ v◦ik ,
1≤i1 <...<ik ≤n
X
η= ηj1 ,...,jl v◦j1 ∧ · · · ∧ v◦jl .
1≤j1 <...<jl ≤n

The wedge product of ω and η is then dened by

X
ω∧η= ωi1 ,...,ik ηj1 ,...,jl v◦i1 ∧ · · · ∧ v◦ik ∧ v◦j1 ∧ · · · ∧ v◦jl .
1≤i1 <...<ik ≤n
1≤j1 <...<jl ≤n

7
Obviously, the right hand side is an element of Λk+l (V)∗ . Note that all terms
in the right hand side in which {i1 , . . . , ik } and {j1 , . . . , jl } contain at least one
common index are zero.
The drawback of this denition is the fact that it is dened in terms of a
specic basis {v1 , . . . , vn } of V . To show that the denition is sound we would
have to prove that another choice of basis vectors {w1 , . . . , wn } of V leads to the
same k + l-linear map on V . This can be done, but the proof is quite involved,
so we will give a 'basis-independent' denition of the wedge product later on.
The advantage of the denition is its suitability in computations. For in-
stance, let V = R3 , and let ω = a1 e◦1 + a2 e◦2 + a3 e◦3 ∈ Λ1 (R3 )∗ and η =
a1 e◦1 ∧ e◦2 + e◦1 ∧ e◦3 ∈ Λ2 (R3 )∗ . Then

ω ∧ η = a2 e◦2 ∧ e◦1 ∧ e◦3 + a3 a1 e◦3 ∧ e◦1 ∧ e◦2

= (a1 a3 − a2 ) e◦1 ∧ e◦2 ∧ e◦3 .

Compare [De Carmo], Chapter 1, Example 2. Note that, like Do Carmo, we

tacidly used the fact that the wedge product is linear in each of its arguments,
e.g., (ω1 + ω2 ) ∧ η = ω1 ∧ η + ω2 ∧ η.

We now give a basis-independent denition of the wedge product of an

element of Λk (V)∗ and an element of Λl (V)∗ , which also goes by the name of
exterior product. To this end, we rst introduce a special subset of the set of
permutations of the sequence 1, . . . , k + l. A (k, l)-shue is a permutation σ of
the sequence 1, . . . , k + l such that
σ(1) < · · · < σ(k) and σ(k + 1) < · · · < σ(k + l).

The set of (k, l)-shues is denoted by S(k, l).

Definition 1.19. The exterior product ω ∧ η of ω ∈ Λk (V)∗ and η ∈ Λl (V)∗
is the map
ω∧η:V · · × V} → R
| × ·{z
k + l factors

dened by
X
(ω ∧ η)(v1 , . . . , vk+l ) = sign(σ) ω(vσ(1) , . . . , vσ(k) ) η(vσ(k+1) , . . . , vσ(k+l) ).
σ∈S(k,l)

It seems that we now have two denitions of the wedge product: one for
a nite number of elements of Λ1 (V)∗ (which is equal to V ∗ ), and one for the
wedge product ∧ : Λk (V)∗ × Λl (V)∗ → Λk+l (V)∗ (we still have to prove that
the range of this map is indeed Λk+l (V)∗ , cf Lemma 1.20). It will turn out
that both wedge products are the same, but until we have proven this fact it is
important to keep the distinction in mind. We could have made the distinction
explicit, e.g., by using the notation ∧ for the wedge product of a number of
elements of Λ1 (V)∗ , but this would clutter our notation unnecessarily.

8
Lemma 1.20. If ω ∈ Λk (V)∗ and η ∈ Λl (V)∗ , then ω ∧ η ∈ Λk+l (V)∗ .
Proof. It is obvious that the right hand side is multilinear. According to Ex-
ercise 1.14, we have to prove that
ω ∧ η(v1 , . . . , vk+l ) = 0

whenever vi = vi+1 for some index i, 1 ≤ i < k + l. We give the proof in case
v1 = v2 . We rst note that, for σ ∈ S(k, l),

ω(vσ(1) , . . . , vσ(k) ) = 0

if 1, 2 ∈ {σ(1), . . . , σ(k)}, i.e., if σ(k + 1) > 2. Similarly,

η(vσ(k+1) , . . . , vσ(k+l) ) = 0

if 1, 2 ∈ {σ(k + 1), . . . , σ(k + l)}, i.e., if σ(1) > 2. So we partition S(k, l) into
the sets
S0 = {σ ∈ S(k, l) | σ(1) > 2 or σ(k + 1) > 2},

S12 = {σ ∈ S(k, l) | σ(1) = 1 and σ(k + 1) = 2},

S21 = {σ ∈ S(k, l) | σ(1) = 2 and σ(k + 1) = 1}.

Furthermore, every permutation in S21 can be written as τσ, where τ = (1, 2),
the transposition of 1 and 2 in the sequence 1, . . . , k+l, and σ ∈ S12 . Therefore,

(ω ∧ η)(v1 , . . . , vk+l )
X
= sign(σ) ω(vσ(1) , . . . , vσ(k) ) η(vσ(k+1) , . . . , vσ(k+l) )
σ∈S12
X
− sign(σ) ω(vτσ(1) , . . . , vτσ(k) ) η(vτσ(k+1) , . . . , vτσ(k+l) )
σ∈S12
X
= sign(σ) ω(v1 , vσ(2) , . . . , vσ(k) ) η(v2 , vσ(k+2) , . . . , vσ(k+l) )
σ∈S12
X
− sign(σ) ω(v2 , vτσ(2) , . . . , vτσ(k) ) η(v1 , vτσ(k+2) , . . . , vτσ(k+l) ).
σ∈S12

Since τσ(i) = σ(i) for i 6= 1, k + 1, and v1 = v2 , we see that the two sums in the
last right hand side cancel, i.e., (ω ∧ η)(v1 , . . . , vk+l ) = 0. The case vi = vi+1 ,
with i > 1, is treated similarly.
The following result states that our basis-free denition of the exterior prod-
uct implies the denition given in [Do Carmo].

9
Proposition 1.21. Let {v1 , . . . , vn } be a basis of the vector space V , and let
ω ∈ Λk (V)∗ and η ∈ Λl (V)∗ be of the form
X
ω= ωi1 ,...,ik v◦i1 ∧ · · · ∧ v◦ik ,
1≤i1 <...<ik ≤n
X
η= ηj1 ,...,jl v◦j1 ∧ · · · ∧ v◦jl .
1≤j1 <...<jl ≤n

The wedge product of ω and η is of the form

X
ω∧η= ωi1 ,...,ik ηj1 ,...,jl v◦i1 ∧ · · · ∧ v◦ik ∧ v◦j1 ∧ · · · ∧ v◦jl .
1≤i1 <...<ik ≤n
1≤j1 <...<jl ≤n

Again, note that the wedge product in the left hand side of the last identity
is the one of Denition 1.19, whereas the (multiple) wedge product in the right
hand side is given by (1.2). In the proof, we also use the fact that the exterior
product, as given by Denition 1.19, is multilinear in each of its arguments.
See Corollary 1.22, part 3.
Proof. Since the wedge product is multilinear in each of its factors, it is suf-
cient to prove that, for ω = v◦i1 ∧ · · · ∧ v◦ik and η = v◦ik+1 ∧ · · · ∧ v◦ik+l , with
1 ≤ i1 < . . . < ik ≤ n and 1 ≤ ik+1 < . . . < ik+l ≤ n, we have

ω ∧ η = v◦i1 ∧ · · · ∧ v◦ik ∧ v◦ik+1 ∧ · · · ∧ v◦ik+l . (1.4)

To this end, we evaluate both the left hand side and the right hand side at
a (k + l)-tuple (vj1 , . . . , vjk , vjk+1 , . . . , vjk+l ), with 1 ≤ j1 < . . . < jk+l ≤ n.
According to the result of Exercise 1.16, part 2, the right hand side is non-zero
at this (k + l)-tuple i the sequence i1 , . . . , ik+l is a permutation of the sequence
j1 , . . . , jk+l . Let τ be this permutation, i.e., let τ(jh ) = ih , for h = 1, . . . , k + l.
Then
(v◦i1 ∧ · · · ∧ v◦ik+l ) (vj1 , . . . , vjk+l ) = sign(τ). (1.5)
According to Denition 1.19, the left hand side of (1.4), evaluated at (vj1 , . . . , vjk+l ),
is equal to
X
sign(σ) ω(vσ(j1 ) , . . . , vσ(jk ) ) η(vσ(jk+1 ) , . . . , vσ(jk+l ) ). (1.6)
σ∈S(k,l)

A term in the latter sum is non zero i the sequence σ(j1 ), . . . , σ(jk ) is a per-
mutation of the sequence i1 , . . . , ik and the sequence σ(jk+1 ), . . . , σ(jk+l ) is a
permutation of the sequence ik+1 , . . . , ik+l , again according to Exercise 1.16,
part 2. Since the sequence j1 , . . . , jk+l is strictly increasing, and both sequences
i1 , . . . , ik and ik+1 , . . . , ik+l are strictly increasing, only the term in the right
hand side of (1.6) corresponding to σ = τ is non-zero. Since
ω(vτ(j1 ) , . . . , vτ(jk ) ) = ω(vi1 , . . . , vik ) = 1

10
and
η(vτ(jk+1 ) , . . . , vτ(jk+l ) ) = η(vik+1 , . . . , vik+l ) = 1,
we see that
(ω ∧ η) (vj1 , . . . , vjk+l ) = sign(τ). (1.7)
Identity (1.4) follows from (1.5) and (1.7).
Using Proposition 1.21, it is not hard to prove the following basic properties
of the wedge product (see also [Do Carmo], Proposition 2):
Corollary 1.22. Let ω ∈ Λk (V)∗ , η ∈ Λl (V)∗ and ϕ ∈ Λm (V)∗ . Then
1. (ω ∧ η) ∧ ϕ = ω ∧ (η ∧ ϕ).
2. ω ∧ η = (−1)kl (η ∧ ω).
3. The wedge product is linear in each of its arguments, e.g.:
ω ∧ (cη) = c (ω ∧ η), for c ∈ R, and
ω ∧ (η + ϕ) = ω ∧ η + ω ∧ ϕ, in case l = m.

Finally we prove that the wedge product of k linear functions satises (1.2).
For k > 1, we dene the k-fold wedge product (in the sense of Denition 1.19)
inductively as follows:
ϕ1 ∧ ϕ2 ∧ · · · ∧ ϕk = ϕ1 ∧ (ϕ2 ∧ · · · ∧ ϕk ),

Lemma 1.23. The k-fold wedge product of ϕ1 , . . . , ϕk ∈ V ∗ = Λ1 (V)∗ sat-

ises (1.2).
Proof. The proof goes by induction with respect to k. The case k = 1 is trivial.
We show that the right hand side, evaluated at (v1 , . . . , vk ) (not necessarily basis
vectors), is equal to the determinant in (1.2). To this end, observe that the
set S(1, k − 1) consists of k permutations, where σ ∈ S(1, k − 1) is completely
determined by the value j = σ(1), 1 ≤ j ≤ k. Note that for this permutation

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sign(σ) = (−1)j−1 . So we have
(ϕ1 ∧ (ϕ2 ∧ · · · ∧ ϕk ))(v1 , v2 , . . . , vk ) =
X
k
(−1)j−1 ϕ1 (vj ) (ϕ2 ∧ · · · ∧ ϕk )(v1 , . . . , v^j , . . . , vk ) =
j=1
 
 \
ϕ2 (v1 ) . . . ϕ2 (vj ) . . . ϕ2 (vk )

Xk
 . . .
 
(−1) ϕ1 (vj )  ..
j−1 .. ..  =


j=1 



\
ϕk (v1 ) . . . ϕ k (vj ) . . . ϕk (vk )
 
ϕ1 (v1 ) ϕ1 (v2 ) · · · ϕ1 (vk )

 
ϕ2 (v1 ) ϕ2 (v2 ) · · · ϕ2 (vk )

 .. .. ..  ,
 
 . . . 

 
ϕk (v1 ) ϕk (v2 ) · · · ϕk (vk )

where the last equality follows from Laplace expansion of the nal determinant
with respect to the rst row.

1.4 Additional exercises

Exercise 1.24. (Pull-back)
Let V and W be real vector spaces. For a linear map f : V → W and a
non-negative integer k we dene the map
f∗ : Λk (W)∗ → Λk (V)∗ ,

as follows. For ω ∈ Λk (W)∗ :

(f∗ ω)(v1 , . . . , vk ) = ω(f(v1 ), . . . , f(vk )), for v1 , . . . , vk ∈ V.
The image f∗ ω is called the pull-back of ω under f. Prove the following
properties:
1. f∗ ω ∈ Λk (V)∗ .
2. If ω ∈ W ∗ , then f∗ ω = ω ◦ f. (Note that Λ1 (W)∗ = W ∗ .)
3. f∗ is a linear map.
4. If f : V → V is the identity map, then f∗ is the identity map on Λk (V)∗ .
5. If Z is a vector space, and f : V → W and g : W → Z are linear maps,
then
(g ◦ f)∗ = f∗ ◦ g∗ .

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 6. If f : V → V is linear, and ω ∈ Λn (V)∗ with n = dim(V), then
f∗ ω = det(f) ω.

7. If f : V → W is linear, and ω ∈ Λk (W)∗ and η ∈ Λl (W)∗ , then

f∗ (ω ∧ η) = (f∗ ω) ∧ (f∗ η).

Exercise 1.25. (A concrete example)

Let the linear map f : R2 → R3 be given by
f(x1 , x2 ) = (x1 + x2 , x1 − x2 , 2x1 ).

Let {e1 , e2 , e3 } be the standard basis of R3 , and let {e1 , e2 } be the standard basis
of R2 .
1. Prove that f∗ (e◦1 ) = e◦1 +e◦2 . Find similar expressions for f∗ (e◦2 ) and f∗ (e◦3 ).
(Hint: use, among other things, Property 2 of Exercise 1.24.)
2. Let η = a1 e◦1 + a2 e◦2 + a3 e◦3 ∈ Λ1 (R3 )∗ . Compute f∗ η, i.e., express the
pull-back of η under f in terms of the basis of Λ1 (R2 )∗ associated with
the basis {e1 , e2 } of R2 .
3. Let ω = e◦1 ∧ e◦2 + e◦2 ∧ e◦3 ∈ Λ2 (R3 )∗ . Compute f∗ (ω).
(Hint: use, among other things, Property 7 of Exercise 1.24.)
4. Let ϕ = e◦1 ∧ e◦2 ∧ e◦3 ∈ Λ3 (R3 )∗ . Determine f∗ (ϕ).
Exercise 1.26. (The Hodge star operator ([Do Carmo], Exercise 1:11))
Let {e1 , . . . , en } be the standard basis of Rn . We dene the Hodge star operator
∗ : Λk (Rn )∗ → Λn−k (Rn )∗ ,

for 1 ≤ k < n, as follows. For a basis element e◦i1 ∧ · · · ∧ e◦ik , with 1 ≤ i1 <
. . . < ik ≤ n, let σ ∈ S(k, l) be the (unique) permutation with σ(h) = ih , for
h = 1, . . . , k. Then we dene

∗(e◦σ(1) ∧ · · · ∧ e◦σ(k) ) = (−1)sign σ e◦σ(k+1) ∧ · · · ∧ e◦σ(n) ,

and extend ∗ linearly to Λk (Rn )∗ . Prove that:

1. If ω = a12 e◦1 ∧ e◦2 + a13 e◦1 ∧ e◦3 + a23 e◦2 ∧ e◦3 ∈ Λ2 (R3 )∗ , then
∗ω = a12 e◦3 − a13 e◦2 + a23 e◦1 .

2. If ω = a1 e◦1 + a2 e◦2 ∈ Λ1 (R2 )∗ , then

∗ω = a1 e◦2 − a2 e◦1 .

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 3. If ω ∈ Λk (Rn )∗ , then ∗∗ω = (−1)k(n−k) ω.
Exercise 1.27. (A geometric definition of the star operator)
Do Exercise 1:11 from Do Carmo's book. In a few places, adjust the notation
as follows:
1. Replace Rnp with Rn .
2. In part g, replace dxik with e◦ik , and replace \ a k-form ω in Rn " with
\ an element ω of Λk (Rn )∗ ".
Exercise 1.28. (Decomposability of elements of Λn−1 (V)∗ )
Let V be an n-dimensional real vector space, with n > 1. The goal of this exer-
cise is to show that every non-zero element of Λn−1 (V)∗ is decomposable, i.e.,
for every ω ∈ Λn−1 (V)∗ , with ω 6= 0, there are n−1 elements ϕ1 , . . . , ϕn−1 ∈ V ∗
such that
ω = ϕ1 ∧ · · · ∧ ϕn−1 .
1. Prove that the set Uω = {σ ∈ Λ1 (V)∗ | σ ∧ ω = 0} is a subspace of Λ1 (V)∗ =
V ∗ of dimension n − 1.
Hint: Let {σ1 , . . . , σn } be a basis of V ∗ , and write ω as
X
n
ω= (−1)i ai σ1 ∧ · · · ∧ σbi ∧ · · · ∧ σn ,
i=1

where a1 , . . . , an are real constants uniquely determined by ω. Furthermore,

every σ ∈ Λ1 (V)∗ can be written (uniquely) as
X
n
σ= sj σj ,
j=1

where s1 , . . . , sn ∈ R. Then show that the equation σ ∧ ω = 0 is equivalent to

an equation in s1 , . . . , sn .
2. Let {ϕ1 , . . . , ϕn−1 } be a basis of Uω Prove that there is a non-zero constant
c ∈ R such that
ω = c ϕ1 ∧ · · · ∧ ϕn−1 .

Hint: Take ϕn ∈ Λ1 (V)∗ \ Uω , and use that {ϕ1 , . . . , ϕn−1 , ϕn } is a basis of

Λ1 (V)∗ .

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