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 Energy 140 (2017) 224e239

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Dynamic balancing and experience during the development of a single

cylinder Beta-configuration Stirling engine using rhombic drive
D.J. Shendage a, *, S.B. Kedare b, S.L. Bapat a
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, 400 076, India
b
Department of Energy Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, 400 076, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The present work starts with analysis, and culminates in the development of engine. Hydrogen is
Received 24 March 2017 selected as working fluid due to its favorable thermodynamic and thermo-physical properties. During
Received in revised form fabrication and sub-assembly engine was run by electrical motor as in motoring test. It provided cooling
9 June 2017
at the cylinder head and confirmed that all the system components were performing well under low
Accepted 16 August 2017
Available online 16 August 2017
charge pressure. Dynamic balancing analysis is done to eliminate unbalanced couple. The same was
included in the system by removal of pre-decided part of the gears which also acted as the flywheel. The
engine performance was demonstrated by operating the centrifugal pump. LPG burner assembly
Keywords:
Beta configuration Stirling engine
designed, especially for this Stirling engine, is successfully demonstrated. Preliminary trials for
Rhombic drive approximately 3e5 min, with loading condition in engine mode, with LPG were conducted. The flame
Balancing temperature near the cylinder head was maintained at about 1100 K. It needs to be ensured that uniform
Overlapping volume but sufficient heat input should be provided. In short, an experimental set-up is built in accordance with
geometrical dimensions specified in the theoretical design. Theoretically predicted performance and
experimental results have been compared and validated for the developed unit for a particular set of
operating parameter with H2.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The present work is the logical extension of the thermodynamic
analysis of the 1.5 kWe Beta configuration rhombic drive engine.
The thermodynamic analysis provides the working space di-
mensions, the strokes of the piston and the displacer etc. However,
if the same is to be realized practically, many more aspects such as
the mechanical design of the components, fabrication drawings
with rhombic drive arrangement, the design of the gears and use of
a flywheel etc. need to be considered. These aspects are essentially
required to provide Beta Stirling Engine of 1.5 kWe capacity with a
long running life, silent operation, multi-fuel capability and overall
better performance. Due to inherent property of overlapping vol-
ume being available with rhombic drive, the same has been used to
improve the pressure ratio, mass flow rates and in turn the per-
formance. The present work culminates in the development of the
Beta engine. The speed of engine was fixed at 1440 rpm in the
design stage itself, so that the alternator/generator or a centrifugal
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: shendagedj@gmail.com (D.J. Shendage).
pump can be mounted on the same shaft directly or through the
coupling. Hydrogen is selected as working fluid due to its favorable
thermodynamic and thermo-physical properties.
2. Beta configuration of Stirling engine
The ideal Stirling cycle consists of two isothermal and two iso-
choric processes as depicted on P-V diagram in Fig. 1(a). The
compression space is maintained at ambient temperature (TC);
while the expansion space is maintained at hot temperature (TE).
Beta configuration engine schematically shown in Fig. 1(b) is
selected for development. It has the specific advantages like being
compact, possible use of overlapping volume and keeping the dead
space volume low. It has been shown that the Beta engine can have
almost 29% larger heat exchangers than that for Gamma engine for
the same compression ratio [2]. The disadvantage with the Gamma
configuration being that the volume generated during the upward
movement of the displacer acts as additional dead volume in the
compression space. In Beta configuration, the suction volume in-
creases and allows a larger mass of the gas to be compressed, also
using the overlapping volume and hence the advantage mentioned

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2017.08.072
0360-5442/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 D.J. Shendage et al. / Energy 140 (2017) 224e239 225

Nomenclature €
x Acceleration, m/s2
W Mass flow rate, kg/s
CP Specific heat of the gas at constant pressure, J/kg K WC[i] Mass flow rate of the fluid in the compression space
Cm Specific heat of the regenerator matrix at constant during the interval, kg/s
pressure, J/kg K WE[i] Mass flow rate of the fluid in the expansion space
f Frequency of the engine, Hz during the interval, kg/s
e Eccentricity in piston-displacer drive mechanism, m
Fpis Gas forces on piston, N Greek letters
Fdis Gas forces on displacer, N J Modified crank angle, radian
h Heat transfer coefficient between fluid and the matrix, Е Eccentricity ratio, e/r
W/m2 K F Crank angle, radian
i ith Interval in the cycle u Angular velocity, rad/sec
k Thermal conductivity, W/m K a Mechanical phase shift between the piston and the
km Thermal conductivity of the matrix, W/m K displacer movements, radians
Kg Thermal conductivity of the working fluid, W/m K g Ratio of the specific heats
L Length, m r Density of fluid at particular interval, kg/m3
L Length of connecting rod for piston, m m Dynamic viscosity of the working fluid, N-s/m2
Mw Molecular weight of fluid, kg l Ratio of crank radius, r to the length of connecting rod,
mco Mass of counterweight, kg L
mp Total mass of piston, piston rod, and piston yoke, kg ε Eccentricity ratio, e/r
md Total mass of displacer, displacer rod, and displacer ε Effectiveness of the heat exchanger or regenerator
yoke, kg rg Density of gear material, kg/m3
n Rotational Speed (n ¼ f x 60), rpm u Angular velocity, rad/sec
P[i] Pressure in engine at a particular interval, bar u_ Angular acceleration, rad/sec2
Pmean Mean pressure of the system, bar
Pavg Average pressure of the system, bar Subscripts
Pmax Maximum pressure in the working space, bar amb Ambient
Pmin Minimum pressure in the working space, bar avg Average
r Crank radius of rhombic drive, m Comp, c Compression space
S Stroke, m crankcase Crankcase
Sd Stroke of displacer, m co Counterweight
Sp Stroke of piston, m dis Displacer
T Temperature, K disrod Displacer rod
TC Compression space temperature, K dead Dead volume
TE Expansion space temperature, K e Electrical output
t Time, seconds Exp, e Expansion Space
tg2 Thickness of mass attached to gearwheel for balancing, g Working fluid
m i Inner
V Volume, m3 o Outer
VComp Instantaneous compression space volume, m3 max Maximum
VExp Instantaneous expansion space volume, m3 min Minimum
Vreg Gas volume of the regenerator, m3 pis Piston
VT Total volume of the working fluid, m3 co Counterweight for balancing
x_ Velocity, m/s

above in allowing larger heat exchangers in the system without
affecting the pressure ratio.
3. Rhombic drive linkages
Out of the many different mechanisms available, including the
crankshaft-connecting rod mechanism, the rhombic drive mecha-
nism is considered as the most suitable for the Beta engine under
consideration to avoid side forces. In ideal system, these are not just
reduced but eliminated completely. The schematic diagram of the
Stirling engine with rhombic drive mechanism is shown in Fig. 2.
Rhombic drive was originally developed around 1900 for the twin
cylinder Lanchester car engine, where it allowed perfect balancing
of the inertial forces on both pistons [3e5]. It was used for Stirling
engine by Meijer of Philips, Holland in 1959 and was used exten-
sively for Beta type engines by Philips, Netherlands and their
licensees [3].
The arrangement of components and the linkages used to pro-
vide reciprocating motion without side thrust for both, the piston
(1) and the displacer (6) shown in Fig. 2 is explained as follows. The
two spur gears (10 and 100 ) mesh together and rotate in opposite
directions. The whole drive arrangement is symmetric with respect
to center line of the piston as well as the displacer housed and
reciprocating, in the same cylinder. The two cranks (5 and 50 ) are of
equal length r. Similarly, the connecting rods (4 and 40 ) of equal
length provide the link between the crank and the piston yoke (3).
Piston rod (2) connects the piston yoke (3) with the piston (1) and
thus provides the reciprocating motion to the piston (1). Similar to
piston, the connecting rods (9 and 90 ) of equal length provide the
link between the cranks (5 and 50 ) and the displacer yoke (8). When
both the pairs of connecting rod i.e. 4, 40 and 9, 90 are made of
identical lengths, they form a rhombus and hence the name
226 D.J. Shendage et al. / Energy 140 (2017) 224e239
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1. (a) P-V diagram of ideal Stirling cycle (b) Three basic mechanical configurations
for Stirling engine [1].
“rhombic drive”. The displacer rod (7), connecting the displacer (6)
to displacer yoke (8) has to pass through the piston 1 and also the
compression space formed between the top surface of the piston
and the bottom surface of displacer. The volume variation of the
compression space is not only due to movement of the piston, but
also due to that of the displacer. However, the expansion space
variation over a cycle is due to movement of the displacer alone.
This movement of displacer rod through the piston needs a proper
sealing arrangement, as provided by bush (11). The proper func-
tioning of the seal within the bush is an absolute essential
requirement for the continuous operation of the engine. Due to
large inertia of the linkages driven mechanism and the heavy
masses of the reciprocating components, one of the shafts is
generally used for cranking during ‘engine start up’ using a starting
motor, and the same shaft can also be used to provide electrical
energy output using the alternator, or mechanical output to drive a
pump or similar work consuming device.
4. Literature review
After going through the literature, the following general con-
clusions are arrived at and used in the present work.
1. Linkages driven/kinematic engines, in general, have long
running life, silent operation, multi-fuel capability and good
performance. Further, Beta configuration with rhombic drive
17
13
15 12
6
14
16 19
20
1 11
2
7
10 3 10'
L
L
4 4'
Crank
r 5 L 5' length, r
L
O 9 9' O'
8
e e
18
Fig. 2. Schematic of Stirling engine with the rhombic drive mechanism [6]. 1: Piston; 2:
Piston rod; 3: Piston yoke; 4, 4': Connecting rod (for piston yoke); 5, 5': Crank; 6: Displacer;
7: Displacer rod; 8: Displacer yoke; 9, 9': Connecting rod (for displacer yoke); 10, 10': Spur
Gears; 11: Bush, 12: Regenerator, 13: Multiple heater tubes, 14: Connecting duct, 15:
Expansion space, 16: Compression space, 17: Cylinder head, 18: Crankcase, 19: Cooler, 20:
Coolant.
has compactness and proper balancing of the mechanism for
kinematic engine seems possible and hence chosen for present
study.
2. For the thermodynamic analysis, the ambient temperature
considered is 300 K and the high temperature of heat source as
750 K or more. The higher temperature is limited only by
metallurgical constraints of available fabrication materials, such
as SS316 or Inconel. These can withstand temperatures of this
order, and are considered for cylinder head and heating section,
in the present engine. The second order cyclic analysis for Stir-
ling engine is used. It considers the various losses on the power
output as well as heat input side, and is more realistic.
For analysis of pressure drop and losses in regenerator, cooler
and heater tubes, Miyabe and Martini's approach have been used.
It can be said that, the thermodynamic design using second
order cyclic analysis is used to obtain the major dimensions such as
the strokes and diameters of the piston and displacer, Miyabe's
analysis for the computation of effectiveness of SS mesh regener-
ator and subsequently for its geometry (mesh number and wire
size) for the optimum regenerator performance.
It is essential to link thermodynamic analysis with the me-
chanical design of the chosen drive mechanism (rhombic drive) to
provide desired strokes and phase difference between their mo-
tions for a Beta configuration engine to produce 1.5 kWe output.
The geometrical dimensions are obtained from the theoretical
design and efforts are made towards building an experimental set-
up in accordance with these dimensions. The theoretical predicted
performance and experimental results are then compared and
 D.J. Shendage et al. / Energy 140 (2017) 224e239 227

Table 1 assumed as 85% each. The thermal efficiency calculated as the ratio
Major geometrical and operational input parameters after optimisation. of the net power output and the net required heat input. Results of
Sr. no. Parameter Unit Value the cyclic analysis based on mean pressure were partly validated in
1 Piston Stroke (sp) of piston cm 5.1
the initial stages of programming with GPU-3 Engine [5]. The de-
2 Diameter of piston cm 7.2 tails of the thermodynamic analysis are discussed in the thesis [7].
3 Piston bush length cm 8 The results of the cyclic analysis carried out to accomplish the
4 Displacer Stroke (sd) of displacer cm 5.1 engine performance are presented in Table 1 and Table 2 along with
5 Diameter of displacer cm 7.2
geometrical and operating parameters employed. Though engine is
6 Diameter to stroke ratio e 1.411
7 Diameter of displacer rod m 0.007 optimised for 30 bar as mean pressure using hydrogen as working
8 Length of displacer m 0.12 fluid, one can get 1.5 kWe output at 24 bar with hydrogen. This
9 Hollow displacer inside cm3 235.3 result obtained from thermodynamic analysis predicts the perfor-
volume of gas
mance of designed engine. In Table 1, the volume filled by gas
10 Thickness of displacer wall m 0.001
11 Clearance volume above displacer cm3 3.462
taking into account presence of glass-wool (its porosity) is defined
12 Regenerator Regenerator ID cm 8.32 as hollow displacer inside volume. The maximum and minimum
13 Regenerator OD cm 11.52 working spaces exists when piston is at bottom dead centre (BDC)
14 Regenerator length cm 2.2 and top dead centre (TDC) respectively. Table 2 show the theoret-
15 Regenerator mesh material SS 304
ical performance of engine with hydrogen (Pmean ¼ 24 bar) as
16 Density of SS 304 mesh kg/m3 7500
17 Filler factor of regenerator e 0.266 working fluid to provide the net electrical power output around
18 Regenerator mesh size per inch 200 1.5kWe.
19 Wire diameter of mesh 106 m 41
20 Specific heat of SS 304 mesh kJ/kg.K 0.502 6. Some modifications/innovations practiced in the present
21 Regenerator dead volume 106 m3 80.52
22 Number of mesh in regenerator e 268
engine
23 Cooler Thickness of cooler slit cm 0.04
24 Length of cooler slit cm 3 On validating the cyclic analysis computer code, a few in-
25 Width of cooler slit cm 0.5 novations related to the arrangement of heat receiving tubes,
26 Number of cooler slits e 250
regenerator, cooler and drive mechanism is chosen such that sys-
27 Engine Number of heat receiving tubes e 20
28 operating Heater tube inside diameter cm 0.302 tem could be quite compact and more reliable. The modifications in
29 parameter Heater tube outside diameter cm 0.483 the arrangement allow either eliminating or reducing the number
30 Heat receiving tube length cm 22.0 of welded/brazed joints to ensure the desired higher reliability.
31 Maximum working space volume 106 m3 682.605 Even though the thermodynamic analysis is presented else-
(at piston BDC position)
32 Minimum working space volume 106 m3 476.447
where, some of the results linked with the drive mechanism are
(at piston TDC position) provided here to maintain the link between the thermodynamic
33 Minimum compression K 350 analysis and the drive requirements.
space temperature Figs. 3 and 4 show volume variations for expansion space,
34 Expansion space temperature K 750
compression space and overlapping stroke respectively. It is
35 Speed rpm 1440
36 Mechanical phase angle degree 78.5 noticed that compression space volume curve remains sinusoidal
37 Rhombic Crank cm 2.06 for any phase difference. The compression curve can be shifted
38 drive Length of connecting rod cm 5.8 towards left to (i) increase displacer dwelling period at compres-
39 Eccentricity cm 3.08 sion piston, and (ii) increase in overlapping volume. However, it is
40 Eccentricity ratio e 1.5
not recommended because it will indirectly increase the length of
connecting rod and acceleration of related links.
It will cause buckling of connecting rods and its intensity will be
validated for the developed unit at lower than design pressures, higher due to cyclic stresses. For solid displacer instead of hollow
under the part load conditions. A centrifugal pump is operated to displacer, same unit can give substantially higher pressure ratio and
demonstrate the functioning of the system. hence provide higher power output but conduction heat loss will
also increase substantially.
5. Cyclic analysis of Stirling engine and optimisation of The geometrical dimensions of the regenerator play vital role in
design parameters engine performance. The practical number of screens (48 SWG) in
regenerator is determined by taking into account the pressure drop,
The present second order cyclic analysis is based on the quite dead volume and the thermal penetration depth. It is noticed that
realistic assumptions simulating the actual conditions prevailing in the flow losses increases remarkably to attain higher value of
the Beta Stirling engine with rhombic drive. All known individual regenerator effectiveness. It is also ensured for selected regenerator
losses such as the losses due to reheat, shuttle conduction, gas and screen that the thermal penetration depth should be greater than
solid conduction, pumping, temperature swing and heat exchanger wire radius of mesh.
ineffectiveness, are estimated. Analysis is modified to consider Hydrogen is investigated in this study for use in the engine to be
detailed heat losses and pressure drop for non-sinusoidal motion of developed.
displacer and piston. It is assumed that all these losses are inde-
pendent of each other and hence can be calculated separately. 7. An analysis and design of rhombic drive mechanism for
Thereafter, the net heat input is calculated as the sum of the ideal Beta Stirling engine
heat input plus losses. Similarly, the fluid friction (pressure drop)
losses are calculated for each component such as heater tubes, Rhombic drive mechanism for Stirling engine application is
cooler slits, regenerator etc., and the analysis provides the gas work analyzed. Eccentricity ratio in the rhombic drive mechanism is an
output by a cycle. The mechanical efficiency is assumed to provide important parameter. As the eccentricity ratio increases, the power
for the losses such as friction in the drive mechanism. In present output increases but requires longer connecting rods (4, 40 and 9, 90
case, efficiency of the drive mechanism and alternator are both in Fig. 2). In this case, the buckling problem for the connecting rod
228 D.J. Shendage et al. / Energy 140 (2017) 224e239

Table 2
Theoretical performance with H2 as working fluid using input data from Table 1 (for minimum output of 1.5 kWe).

No. Parameter H2 at 24 bar Design condition

(mean pressure) H2 at 30 bar

1 Theoretical electrical output (W) 1507 1901

2 Working fluid H2 H2
3 Mean pressure in engine system (bar) 24 30
4 Basic output power (W) 2304.98 2881.22
5 Pressure drop losses Heat receiving tubes (W) 153.828 183.904
Regenerator (W) 60.231 61.203
Cooler (W) 3.92724 4.53393
6 Total pressure drop losses (W) 217.986 249.642
7 Net output power (W) 2086.99 2631.58
8 Basic heat input required (from pressure - expansion space volume area) (W) 4770.95 5963.70
9 Heat losses Temperature swing loss (W) 132.332 206.718
Shuttle conduction loss (W) 165.36 165.359
Reheat or regenerator ineffectiveness loss (W) 498.331 762.799
Pumping loss (W) 7.126 10.185
Total conduction loss (including displacer material, cylinder and 78.315 78.315
regenerator matrix material) (W)
10 Net heat input required (W) 5652.42 7187.08
11 Estimated thermal efficiency (%) 36.92 36.615
12 Ratio of specific heat of working fluid 1.43 1.43
13 Molecular weight of working fluid (g/gmol) 2.02 2.02
14 Theoretical charging pressure (bar) 11.12 13.900
15 Theoretical maximum pressure (bar) 30.7478 38.4344
16 Theoretical minimum pressure (bar) 17.1211 21.4003
17 Theoretical average pressure (bar) 23.93 29.91
18 Pressure ratio 1.795 1.795
19 Average effectiveness of regenerator by Miyabe's analysis 0.972 0.965

The ‘Net output power’, ‘Net heat input required’, and ‘Estimated thermal efficiency’ are major parameters and generally specifies the performance of system. Hence, it is bold
to highlight.

becomes predominant and will result into an unsymmetrical wear
of the pins or joints of the drive arrangement leading to severe
damage to the engine [4,6]. Hence, eccentricity ratio is fixed as 1.5.
It is noticed that variation of compression space volume (VComp)
with phase angle (a) remains sinusoidal for any phase difference. It
improves power output for same geometrical and operating pa-
rameters. The effect of masses of displacer, piston, connecting rods
and yokes is considered along with pressure forces on components
for plotting the turning moment diagram [6]. The turning moment
diagram also provides the basis for the flywheel design.
The dimensions of various linkages in order to obtain the
desired piston and displacer stroke of 51 mm each, and the phase
difference of 78.5 are calculated and known for the further anal-
ysis. The linkage dimensions of crank (r), the length of connecting
rod (L), eccentricity (e), and eccentricity ratio (ε) are as 20.6 mm,
58 mm, 30.8 mm and 1.5 respectively. The continuous engine
operation at high temperature can cause aging of material. This
aspect is also considered during selection of materials. The
mechanical design only provides the materials and dimensions for
various parts but the dynamic balancing still needs to be achieved.
8. Development of engine
This section considers balancing of drive mechanism and as-
sembly of engine setup.
8.1. Balancing of engine with rhombic drive mechanism
The various forces acting on the sub-assemblies of crankshaft
and gearwheel of a single cylinder beta-type Stirling engine with
rhombic drive mechanism are considered. Counter-balancing is
required to eliminate unbalanced couple and/or to make crank-
shaft's center of gravity lie on the axis of rotation. As known from
the literature, this can be achieved by counterbalancing the
crankshaft and gearwheel assemblies. The present work addresses
the analysis to include additional two aspects which are i) to use

Expansion
Maximum compression
space volume
3
Volume, m

0
180
Compression

-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Crankangle, degree

Fig. 3. Expansion and compression volume variations [6]. Fig. 4. Movements of piston and displacer [6,8].
 D.J. Shendage et al. / Energy 140 (2017) 224e239 229

tg2

2
1
Fig. 5. Part of drive mechanism with counterweight position.

pair of gears used for the drive as the flywheels in two parts and ii)
to remove the material from gear and put it at suitable position on
the same gear in order to avoid additional mass and thereby the
increased inertia of the components.
X
8.1.1. Balancing procedure
The eccentricity ratio, stroke of piston and displacer, mechanical
phase angle between them, overlapping volume and its significance
is discussed in detail by Shendage et al. [9,10]. The analysis is based
on the energy balance and calculates the torque at the crankshaft.
Procedure for calculation of the velocities and accelerations of the
drive linkages is discussed there in detail. The summation of inertia
forces in horizontal plane is zero due to drive symmetry. To balance
the forces (excluding torques due to inertia forces in the direction of
3
crankshaft axis) in vertical plane, the summation of forces in ver-
tical plane should also be zero.
A body dynamically balanced will also be in state of static bal-
ance, but the converse is not necessarily true [10,11]. In the present
analysis, couples developed on crankshafts are tackled by i) using
self aligned bearings and keeping minimum distance between the
two bearings ii) designing cranks and crankshafts with factor of
safety and using SS 304 for fabrication. Hence, focus is on balancing
of forces mainly in vertical planes. In short, the summation of
4
inertia forces in y as well as z direction is zero (i.e. S Y ¼ 0 and S
Z ¼ 0) as shown in Fig. 5.
Keeping in mind the various assembly and geometrical con-
straints of the system, different feasible design options can be
identified. The option chosen is to modify the gearwheels keeping
same crankcase structure in the present work. Theoretically, the
effect of modified gear is by way of considering change in mass and
its centroid. The methods used a) to calculate the velocities, ac- Fig. 6. Gearwheel separated in four parts for calculation of centroid [8].
celerations and forces of gearwheels for each interval b) and to
evaluate the effect of segmentation (of circular sector) after mass
removal or addition, are discussed in brief in following section. The xCO ¼ rCO sinðJ þ FCO Þ (1)
counterweight (mco) attached in drive mechanism is represented
by point mass as shown in Fig. 5. The formulae given below are used
to calculate the velocities, accelerations for each interval. The ob- x_ CO ¼ rCO cosðJ þ FCO Þu (2)
jectives of this analysis are to compute the mass (mco) to be
attached and the angle between crank and counterweight radius

€CO ¼ rCO u2 ð  sinðJ þ FCO ÞÞ þ u
x _ ðcosðJ þ FCO ÞÞ (3)
(фco). Fig. 6 shows the construction of gearwheel divided in four
parts for calculation of centroid. It also shows the arrangement of
gearwheel and location of mass removal (part 4). where,
230 D.J. Shendage et al. / Energy 140 (2017) 224e239

Fig. 7. (a) Bell shape material removal over 92 dividing as 4 segments, on 23 (each
with mass 0.1932 kg) (b) Bell shape material removal over 92 as single segment.

Table 3
Effect of circular sector angle on centroid.

Circular sector angle x1 (mm) x2 (mm) X (mm)

92 14.93 44.79 48.072

120 13.78 41.34 44.78
Fig. 8. Effect of number of segments on force imbalance [8].

is revealed that more precise result is obtained as number of seg-

du ments considered increases.
u_ ¼
dt The suggested design methodology can generate and evaluate a
range of possible alternatives, which provides a clear understand-
For centroid calculation, following formulae are used (Equation
ing of the system unbalancing phenomenon. The experience during
(4)),
balancing of engine with rhombic drive is divided in four cases for
v1 x1 þ v2 x2 þ v3 x3  v4 x4 better physical perceptive.
x¼ ¼ rCO (4)
v1 þ v2 þ v3  v4
Case 1: Effect on force imbalance by full gear weight
The portion 2 and 4 are circular arc sectors as shown in Fig. 6. Case 2: Effect on force imbalance by adding mass without un-
From Fig. 7 and Table 3, it is noticed that instead of considering it as settling full gear weight
a single segment, if the same is split in to increased number of Case 3: Effect on force imbalance by removing calculated mass
segments, a different picture emerges and provides more practical from gear
insight. Current design is restricted to 92 arc angle instead of 120 Case 4: Effect on force imbalance by removing calculated mass
which increases radius of counterweight (rco) at particular фco with from gear and adding the same mass on desired location on the
mco. A sample calculation for bell shape material removal over 92 opposite side of the same gear.
in single segment a shown in Fig. 7(b) i.e. X2 and V2 are shown as
below (Equations (5) and (6)): Fig. 9 elucidate the variation of force in vertical plane after
h
adding mass without unsettling full gear weight and show the
p 
p  i
v2 ¼ ðtg2Þ aCO * ðrg1Þ2  aCO * ðrg2Þ2 (5) photographs of gearwheel after removing calculated mass from
180 180 gearwheel by EDM and the gearwheel assembly in crankcase where

    
 
p ðrg1Þ2 * 2*rg1*sinðaCO Þ  
p ðrg2Þ2 * 2*rg2*sinðaCO Þ
ðtg2Þ aCO *180 3ðaCO *180
p
Þ
 aCO *180
3ðaCO *180Þ
p
x2 ¼ (6)
v2

the gears have been used as flywheel. Fig. 10 give details about i)
For balancing the forces in vertical plane, amplitude of the variation of force in vertical plane after material removal and
imbalanced forces should be zero (i.e. SX ¼ 0) and can be calculated considering segmentation ii) and the variation of gas force on pis-
using Equation (7). It will reduce the fluctuations in the running ton and displacer with respect to crank angle.
speed which will ensure reduced vibrations. It will also ensure
reduced load on starting motor. It may permit us to i) charge the 8.1.2. Investigations and validation of balancing analyses
engine at higher pressure ii) and/or start the engine with low po- Fig. 11(a) and (b) shows the theoretical and experimental trends
wer starting motor. of force (which are proportional to system pressure) for counter-
weight of 0.77 kg. Counter-balancing is done to eliminate unbal-
   
mpis Fpis
€ pis þ mdis *x
*x €dis þ mco *x
€ co þ þ
Fdis
¼0
anced couple or to make crankshaft's center of gravity lie on the
2 2 2 gas 2 gas axis of rotation. This is achieved by counterbalancing the crankshaft
and gearwheel assemblies.
(7)
The geometrical dimensions of the gearwheel play vital role in
Fig. 8 shows effect of number of segments on force imbalance. It smooth engine operation. The mass and shape of calculated mass to
 D.J. Shendage et al. / Energy 140 (2017) 224e239 231

8.2. Assembly of engine test setup

Fig. 12 shows the final engine assembly with LPG burner and
engine test set up. After an initial heating period of around
20e25 min; the engine starts using starting motor.

9. Experimental investigations

Initially, the engine is assembled and checked for the leak. The
engine system is charged at 30 bar with helium during detecting
and repairing the leaks. However, the subassemblies like the
crankcase, cooler assembly, and cylinder head were subjected to
hydraulic pressure test before initiating final assembly of engine.
During fabrication and sub-assembling the engine was run by
electrical motor as is done in the motoring test. The engine is
operated in cooler mode (i.e. motoring test) for sufficient time
(>50 h) in intervals, using induction motor with variable frequency
drive after completion of assembly without charging the working
(a)
fluid. This was done to ensure that the operation of drive mecha-
nism and tolerances/clearances in between moving parts are up to
the mark at various speeds. The system worked as the cooler when
powered by the motor under low charge pressure. It provided the
cooling and confirmed that all the system components were per-
forming well. The motoring test with helium (at charge
pressure ¼ 6 bar) showed the temperature drop of 34 K [11].

9.1. Experimentation using electrical heater as heat source

The system is assembled along with the instrumentation and

(b) (c)
Fig. 9. (a) The variation of force in vertical plane after adding mass without unsettling
full gear weight [8] (b) Photo of gearwheel after removing calculated mass by EDM (c)
Photo of gearwheel assembly in crankcase where gears are used as flywheel.
be removed from gearwheel is determined by taking into account
the pressure variation and speed of engine. The analysis computes
the mass (mco) to be attached and angle between crank and
counterweight radius (фco). As mentioned earlier, two innovations
have been tried out here i) to use gears as the flywheels in pair and
ii) to remove the material from gear and put it at suitable position
on the same gear.
tested for leaks up to pressure of 30 bar. In the present experi-
mental set-up, charge pressure is one of the parameters available
for variation. The experiments are conducted considering the lim-
itations of the starting motor and balancing of drive mechanism.
Initially, in the very first trial, engine operated for 11 s after 2 s of
start, using heat input through the electrical heaters, at 10 bar mean
pressure using helium. It was concluded that a) the engine operated
for a short time, using the stored heat in the cylinder head, b) and
this operation confirmed that all the components functioned
properly. Engine stopped after 11 s due to (i) temperature drop at
cylinder head as shown in Fig. 13; (ii) load of disconnected motor
was more than that of power produced by engine at that instance;
(iii) electrical heater of 1 kW out of total capacity of 5.4 kW was
shorted, and hence unable to maintain required heat input as seen

3000 60
Mean pressure = 24 bar
500 Speed = 1440 rpm
2000 Fluid = H2 40
Gas force on displacer, N
Gas force on piston, N

0
1000 20
0
160 150
0
Force, N

-500 0 0
Gas force
on displacer
10 bar -1000 -20
-1000
Helium 0
170
1.5 kg
-2000 -40
478 kWe at 1440 rpm 0
-1500 180 Gas force on piston
-3000 -60
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Interval/crank angle, deg Interval/crank angle, deg

Fig. 10. (a) The variation of force in vertical plane after material removal and considering segmentation (b) Illustrative graph for the variation of gas force on piston and displacer
with respect to crank angle [8].
232 D.J. Shendage et al. / Energy 140 (2017) 224e239

(a) (b)
Fig. 11. (a) The theoretical trend force variation with respect to crank angle (b) The experimental trend of pressure variation with respect to time [8].

Fuel in

Air in
a b
Combustion Cylinder head with heater tubes
Cylinder head with heater tubes
(a) L = 220 mm (b) L= 380 mm
chamber (a) L= 220 mm, (b) L = 380 mm
Centrifugal pump

Charging port Cylinder block

Data acquisition
system Crankcase

Starting motor
DisplaceratatTDC
Displacer TDC position
position

Fig. 12. Stirling engine experimental test set up.

from Fig. 13. Cylinder head is modified by increasing length of The set-up proved to be leak-proof and ready for heating trial (i.e.
heater tube from 220 mm to 380 mm and assembled again.

9.2. Preparation of set-up for experimentation in engine mode with

Experiment conducted on 24.01.2011 at 4 pm
LPG flame as heat source 810
Temperature of cylinder head, c
o

The smooth drive mechanism operation is ensured before

heating the engine cylinder head by motoring test each time. In this 805
process, initially the speed of rotation of the driving shaft (and
thereby the motor shaft) is checked using a non-contact type
tachometer. The direction of rotation of the motor shaft should be 800
same as that of designed engine. This is ensured during motoring
test. The tachometer reading corresponds to the observed input
frequency at each step. The motoring tests are conducted at the 795
various motor speeds up to 750 rpm. The pressure wave generated,
and the cooling of cylinder head assembly (including heat receiving
tubes) is observed during the operation. Thus, the mechanical 790
working of system is verified. After the drive mechanism and the
engine assembly are successfully tested for mechanical working,
the system is charged with helium at 27 bar to test for gas leaks. The 785
0 5 10 15 20 25
pressure of 27 bar was within permissible limit for the system
components. The pressure indicator is connected to the pressure Time, sec
sensor, which is mounted in the system. The gas pressure in the
Fig. 13. Cylinder head temperature drop with respect to time from engine start.
system is reduced to 9 bar and then drive mechanism and system
are tested for mechanical working under pressurized condition.
 D.J. Shendage et al. / Energy 140 (2017) 224e239
Table 4
List of major instruments used for measurement.
SN Instrument
1 High temperature sensor
K-type thermocouple
2 RTD for ambient temperature and cooling water temperature measurement
3 Bourdon gauge (for static pressure)
4 Piezoresistive type pressure transducer (for Instantaneous pressure)
5 Variable frequency drive (for measuring operating frequency);
The speed of engine is also confirmed by analyzing
pressure variations with respect to time
for engine mode). The starting sequence for current engine set-up
was as follows:
1. The blower motor is run for 5 s to vent any leaked hydrogen
from the air and combustor. This step is recommended specially
during engine trial with hydrogen as working fluid.
2. The combustor is started by the candle. The cylinder head
temperature begins to rise. It stabilizes at 1100 K.
3. The starting motor cranks the engine for about 2 s, after which it
runs at 1000 rpm with 0.5 hp load for 3e5 min. The engine
produces a limited power output during this time span.
A set of instruments (as given in Table 4) is used for experi-
mental investigation. The parameters to be measured directly
during experimentation are pressures, temperatures, frequency of
engine. The heat input and power output are derived from the
measured data. The experimentation conducted on this set-up, and
the experimental results are discussed in the subsequent section.
9.3. Validation with theoretical analysis with LPG as heat source
Experimental results are presented for a particular case only.
Fig. 14. Photograph of screen during experimentation (on 19.10.2011 with H2 as working fluid) for pressure variations during operation (Note: Pressures are in barg).
233
Specification
Range: 0e1200  C
Least count: 1  C
Range: 0e200  C
Least count: 0.1  C
Range: 0e35 bar (0e500 psi)
Least count: 1 bar (14.5 psi)
Model ¼ U5151-000002-050 BG; Range ¼ 0e50 bar; Accuracy ¼ 0.1% F.S.D.
Output ¼ 4e20 mA; Power supplied ¼ 24 VDC operated; Environmental
condition e calibration was carried out at room temperature of 25  C (±2  C)
Make: Yaskawa, Japan; Model: VS min J7; Range: 0e50 Hz (can be set to 0
e60 Hz); Least count: 0.1 Hz; Specifications: 3 phase, 400 V, 1.5 kWmax
The engine test is conducted with hydrogen as working fluid while
running in engine mode (with length of heat receiving
tube ¼ 220 mm). The test was set up with following major pa-
rameters: Pcrankcase,avg ¼ Pcharge ¼ 9.36 bar. Figs. 14 and 15 illustrate
photograph of screen during experimentation (with H2 as working
fluid). Fig. 14 shows the pressure variations during engine opera-
tion while Fig. 15 captures the pressure variations while slowing
down and coming to standstill condition. Fig. 16 shows pressure
variation in compression space and crankcase during trial with H2
as working fluid. It uses a centrifugal pump (0.5 hp) as the load. It
needs to be emphasised here that the crankcase pressure and the
average pressure are quite different, during functioning of the en-
gine. It may be due to cumulative effect of (i) non sinusoidal motion
of the drive, (ii) the dimensions of various working spaces and, (iii)
the clearance between piston and liner.
Fig. 16 gives the value of speed. It is obtained by considering the
enlargement of Fig. 14. The peak to peak nodes have been consid-
ered on x-axis (i.e. time), which completes one cycle.
60
Speed ¼ n ¼ (8)
Time required for cycle in second
It is observed that the crankcase pressure is considerably less
234 D.J. Shendage et al. / Energy 140 (2017) 224e239

Working fluid: Hydrogen

19 Hot side dead Heater tube length = 220 mm
-6 3 Theoretical result
18 volume = 37.88x10 m
Pressure ratio = 2.186
17 Pmean = 12.9075 bar,
16 Texp=850 K
15

Pressure, bar
14
13
12 Experimental result
Flame average
11
temperature = 1130 K
10 Pressure ratio = 2.15
9
Fig. 15. Photograph of screen during experimentation (on 19.10.11 with H2 as working
fluid) for pressure variations while coming to a standstill (Note: Pressures are in barg). 8
7

than the average pressure in crankcase during engine operation. 6

The engine speed is about 350 rpm while starting by the starting
motor and reached 714 rpm after discontinuing starting motor
power supply. The increase in speed from 350 rpm to 714 rpm
confirms that the system has worked as the engine.
The temperature of the cylinder head of the engine was noted as
1130 K. The thermocouple may or may not be touching the cylinder
head; however, it was within the flame itself. Hence, the flame
temperature near engine cylinder head is considered as 1130 K.
Figs. 17e19 show the theoretical and experimental pressure vari-
ation in expansion space, compression space, and total volume in
working space with H2 as working fluid. It uses 0.5 hp centrifugal
pump as load (at Pavg ¼ 10.978 bar). The area under the P-V curve
for total volume (P-Vtot) matches with the difference between area
under the P-V curve for expansion space volume (P-Vexp), and area
under the P-V curve for compression space volume (P-Vcomp).
It can be noticed from Figs. 17e19 that the actual expansion
space temperature of working fluid (TE) during trial is far less than
theoretical TE (850 K). Practically, it's challenging to measure TE of
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270
3
Expansion space volume, cm
Fig. 17. Theoretical and experimental pressure variation in expansion space (with H2
as working fluid using 0.5 hp centrifugal pump as load at Pavg ¼ 10.978 bar).
gas (the expansion space gas temperature) during trial as a) engine
is pressurized and operating at the higher temperature; b) the
temperature measurement system will require some volume which
will act as dead volume and may significantly reduce power output.
Hence, one can only predict experimental TE of working fluid by
keeping all operating and the geometrical parameters same and
changing the theoretical TE in the cyclic analysis and observing the
pressure ratio to match the experimental value.
However, in next step, the cyclic analysis is carried out by using
TE ¼ 750 K (i.e. design condition). Figs. 20 and 21 illustrate the
theoretical and experimental pressure variation in the working
space (i) with respect to the crank angle at different charge

g
Working fluid: Hydrogen Experimental Result
16 Flame average temperature = 1130 K
Heater tube length = 22 cm, Pressure ratio = 2.15
15
6.195,14.848
14
6.111, 14.994
13 Compression
Pressure, bar

space presssure
12
6.027,14.975 Pavg=10.978 bar Speed
11 = 60/(6.195-6.111)
~ 714 rpm
10

8 Crankcase presssure
Pavg, crankcase=9.36 bar
7
6.076,7.002 6.164, 6.962
6
6.000 6.025 6.050 6.075 6.100 6.125 6.150 6.175 6.200 6.225
Time, sec
Fig. 16. Pressure variation in compression space and crankcase during trial (with H2 as working fluid using centrifugal pump (0.5 hp) as load at Pavg ¼ 10.978 bar).
 D.J. Shendage et al. / Energy 140 (2017) 224e239 235

Cold side dead ii) the theoretical pressure drop and the heat losses and iii) the
-6 3 Engine test: Date: 19.10.11 Time: 11 am
volume = 148 x 10 m experimental result at 10.978 bar (Pavg) of Stirling engine with H2 as
Working fluid: Hydrogen
19 working fluid, using the centrifugal pump (0.5 hp) as the load. It is
18
Heater tube length = 220 mm noticed that experimental indicated efficiency (40.1%) is more than
17
theoretically predicted (36.5%). It is again, in a way, confirming that
TE of working fluid during trial is slightly more than designed
16
Theoretical result expansion space temperature i.e. 750 K. It is found to be a quiet
15 engine though the noise of oil getting squeezed between the teeth
Pressure ratio = 2.186
Pressure, bar

14 -6 3
Vreg = 80.52 x 10 m of the gears is clearly heard. In order to make it more quiet, much
13 care has to be taken in the construction of the gear wheels, and of
Pmean = 12.9075 bar,
the blower (which delivers air to the burner for the continuous
12 Texp=850 K combustion of the LPG). It is noticed that, (a) no rapid change of
11 pressure occurs in the working fluid; and (b) no rapidly accelerating
10 parts exist.
9
Experimental result 9.4. Experience with initial trials with LPG as heat source using
8
Flame average hydrogen as working fluid
7
temperature = 1130 K, Pressure ratio = 2.15
6 It can be noticed from graphs mentioned above that the engine
125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400
6 3 is continuously running for 3e5 min. Later it has to be heated for
Compression space volume, x 10 m
Fig. 18. Theoretical and experimental pressure variation in compression space (on Working fluid: Hydrogen, Heater tube length = 220 mm
16
19.10.2011 with H2 as working fluid using centrifugal pump (0.5 hp) as load at
Pavg ¼ 10.978 bar). 15
Pmean = 10.87 bar, Texp=750 K
14 Tcomp =350 K, Speed = 714 rpm
Pressure ratio = 2.092, Pmax = 14.859 bar
pressure, and (ii) in an expansion space at different temperatures 13
Pavg = 10.979 bar, Pcharge = 4.838 bar
with H2 as working fluid, using the centrifugal pump (0.5 hp) as the 12 Theoretical result
load (at Pavg ¼ 10.978 bar). Figs. 20 and 21 reveals that TE of
Pressure, bar

11
working fluid during trial is approximately at design condition
10
(750 K). Fig. 20(a) shows that theoretical pressure ratio (2.092) is
Experimental result
slightly lower than pressure ratio achieved experimentally. This is 9
Pcharge = 9.36 bar
possible; if TE of working fluid exceeds 750 K. Fig. 20(b) shows the 8 Flame average temperature near
cylinder head = 1130 K
experimental and theoretical result on basis of the same charge 7 Pressure ratio = 2.15
pressure. The theoretical charge pressure is calculated on basis of
6
no leakage. It reveals the fact that there will be always be a possi- 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
bility of internal leak from compression space to the crankcase. Crank angle, degree
Tables 5e7 show; i) the major geometrical and operational data

(a)
Total dead
-6 3 30
Working fluid: Hydrogen, Heater tube length = 220 mm
volume = 350.2 x 10 m
19 Engine test: Date: 19.10.11 Time: 11 am 28 Theoretical result
Working fluid: Hydrogen 26 Pmean = 21.035 bar, Texp=750 K
18
Heater tube length = 220 mm 24 Tcomp =350 K, Speed = 714 rpm
17 Pressure ratio = 2.092, Pmax = 28.75 bar
22
16 Theoretical result Pavg=21.246 bar, Pcharge = 9.364 bar
20
Pressure ratio = 2.186
Pressure, bar

15 -6 3
Vreg = 80.52 x 10 m 18
Pressure, bar

14 Pmean = 12.9075 bar, 16

13 Texp=850 K 14
Experimental result
12 12

11 10 Pcharge = 9.36 bar

8
Flame average temperature near
10 cylinder head = 1130 K Pressure ratio = 2.15
6
9 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
8 Experimental result Crank angle, degree
Flame average
7
temperature = 1130 K, Pressure ratio = 2.15
6 (b)
350 375 400 425 450 475 500 525 550
3
Total volume, cm Fig. 20. (a) Theoretical and experimental pressure variation with respect to crank
angle in working space at Pavg ¼ 10.978 bar (b) Theoretical and experimental pressure
Fig. 19. Theoretical and experimental pressure variation with respect to total volume variation with respect to crank angle in working space at same charge pressure as
in working space (on 19.10.11 with H2 as working fluid using the centrifugal pump (0.5 9.36 bar (on 19.10.2011 with H2 as working fluid using the centrifugal pump (0.5 hp) as
hp) as load at Pavg ¼ 10.978 bar). load).
236 D.J. Shendage et al. / Energy 140 (2017) 224e239

19 Hot side dead Working fluid: Hydrogen

-6 3
18 volume = 37.88x10 m Theoretical result
Pressure ratio = 2.186
17
Pmean = 12.9075 bar, Texp=850 K
16 Pavg = 12.97 bar
15
Pressure, bar 14
13 Theoretical result
12
Pmean = 10.87 bar, Texp=750 K
Tcomp =350 K, Speed = 714 rpm
11
Pressure ratio = 2.092, Pmax = 14.859 bar
10
Pavg = 10.979 bar,Pcharge = 4.838 bar
9
Experimental result
8
Flame average
7 Pavg = 10.978 bar, temperature = 1130 K
Pressure ratio = 2.15
6
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275

6 3
Expansion space volume, x 10 m

Fig. 21. Theoretical and experimental pressure variation in expansion space at different temperatures (on 19.10.11 with H2 as working fluid using the centrifugal pump (0.5 hp) as
load at Pavg ¼ 10.978 bar).

Table 5
Major geometrical and operational data of Stirling engine with H2 as working fluid using the centrifugal pump (0.5 hp) as the load.

Diameter of displacer 72 mm Stroke (sd) of displacer 51 mm

Diameter of piston 72 mm Stroke (sp) of piston 51 mm
Regenerator ID 83.2 mm Speed 714 rpm
Regenerator OD 115.2 mm Length of cooler slit 30 mm
Regenerator length 22 mm Number of cooler slits 250
Thickness of cooler slit 0.4 mm Width if cooler slit 5 mm
Heat receiving tube length 220 mm Hollow displacer inside volume 94.12  106 m3
Pmean 10.87 bar Pcharge 4.838 bar
Pavg 10.979 bar Piston bush length 80 mm
Working fluid H2 Heat tube inside diameter 3.02 mm
Maximum working space volume 556.425  106 m3 Expansion space temperature 750 K
Minimum working space volume 350.267  106 m3 Minimum compression space temperature 350 K
Regenerator mesh material SS 304 Regenerator mesh size (per inch) 200
Pressure ratio 2.093 Specific heat of SS 304 mesh 0.502 kJ/kg.K
Density of SS 304 mesh 7500 kg/m3 Regenerator dead volume 80.52  106 m3
Filler factor of regenerator 0.266 Number of mesh in regenerator 268
Theoretical Pmax 14.859 bar Theoretical Pmin 7.099
Average effectiveness of regenerator by Miyabe's analysis 0.98 Number of heat receiving tubes 20

Table 6
Theoretical pressure drop and heat losses of Stirling engine with H2 as working fluid using the centrifugal pump (0.5 hp) as the load.

Basic output power 627.83 W

Pressure drop losses Heat receiving tubes 11.77 W
Regenerator 15.62 W
Cooler 1.00 W
Total pressure drop losses 28.39 W
Net output power 599.44 W
Basic heat input required (from pressure - expansion space volume area) 1334.24 W
Heat losses Temperature swing loss 13.53 W
Shuttle conduction loss 162.81 W
Reheat or regenerator ineffectiveness loss 53.62 W
Pumping loss 0.91 W
Total conduction loss (including displacer material, cylinder and regenerator matrix material) 77.03 W
Net heat input required 1642.15 W
Estimated thermal efficiency 36.50 %

The ‘Net output power’, ‘Net heat input required’, and ‘Estimated thermal efficiency’ are major parameters and generally specifies the performance of system. Hence, it is bold
to highlight.

only 2e5 min to get re-started. This might happen due to the
following reasons:
a. Fig. 22(a) shows the pressure variation with respect to time,
when engine stops. The inability to provide essential heat input
quantity to the working fluid for sufficient intervals (about
25e40 intervals out of total cycle time i.e. 144 interval)confirms
that the temperature of expansion space gas is no more con-
stant. It drops resulting in decrease in pressure ratio, which can
be seen in Fig. 22 (a). In short, as the speed reduces, the pressure
 D.J. Shendage et al. / Energy 140 (2017) 224e239 237

Table 7
Experimental result at (Pavg ¼ 10.978 bar) with H2 as working fluid using the centrifugal pump (0.5 hp) as load on 19.10.2011.

Experimental result with H2 as working fluid using 0.5 hp centrifugal pump as load

No. Parameter Value No. Parameter Value

1 P-Vexp area per cycle, (J) 97.8 5 Expansion work, (W) 1163.6
2 P-Vcomp area per cycle, (J) 58.5 6 Compression work, (W) 696.7
3 P-Vtotal area per cycle, (J) 39.2 7 Total work output, (W) 466.9
4 Speed, (rpm) 714.0 8 Indicated Efficiency, (%) 40.1

provided with current surface area of heat receiving tubes; at

the particular mass flow rate of gas thorough the heat receiving
tubes.
c. The working fluid mass flow rates, corresponding Reynolds
numbers, and heat transfer coefficient, are not up to mark, as the
mean pressure during trial was well below design pressure. In
present scenario, it is not possible to absorb sufficient heat
during the particular interval time but at increased charge
pressure (subject to starting motor torque capability) the speed
may improve and the engine should run on a continuous
fashion.

10. Major innovations during development of Beta Stirling

engine

Table 8 Summarizes major effective innovations put to use

during the present development work which included thermody-
namic analysis, mechanical design, dynamic balancing, fabrication,
(a) assembly, instrumentation and initial testing trials.
Also, many modifications in the generally used system were
60 44 made which include use of annular regenerator, cooler using slits
50.4 kW Theoretical result
50 Speed = 24 Hz
42 for gas flow and circumferential grooves for cooling water, use of
Mean pressure = 30 bar, 40 gears themselves as the flywheel in parts, indigenous balancing
40
Hydrogen 38 methodology, LPG burner development, demonstration of engine
Expansion work, kW

30 31.27 kW Hollow volume in by operating the centrifugal pump. It is important to note that all
36
-6 3
20 displacer = 94.12 X 10 m these modifications were considered from the beginning and the
Pressure, bar

34
Number of interval = 144 combination has worked as seen from the demonstration of the
10 Mean heat input 32
required ~ 7.6 kW centrifugal pump.
0 Expansion work 30
Motoring test was conducted without any substantial load in
-10 Pressure 28 order to reduce some of the dimensional mismatch by way of
26 wearing out unmatched components. As the system is restarted, it
-20
24 would need less power for initial tests. When this power reduction
-30 Regenerator dead volume
-6 3 22 stopped, it was a clear indication that the power required is solely
= 80.52 X 10 m
-40 due to friction. The assembled unit is operated at the lowest
Length of heater tube =0.22 m 20
-50
possible speed of 164 rpm after carrying out leak test successfully.
Expansion work [i]= P[i]*dVexp[i]*144*24/1000, kW 18
The condensation at the top of cylinder head assembly (weighing
-30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 around 17 kg) in few minutes is observed [8,11,12].
Crank angle, degree The use of hollow displacer indicated that even though a large
Interval volume was provided inside the displacer, due to provision of very
small hole, the effective dead volume was much lower than the
(b) actual value leading to higher pressure ratio than expected through
Fig. 22. (a) The experimental pressure variation in compression space and crankcase
theoretical calculations.
during engine trial using 0.5 hp centrifugal pump as load (b) The theoretical variation However, it can be said that the present work has resulted into
in pressure and expansion work (or heat input required) of engine with hydrogen as the working unit in the first attempt with the work starting from
working fluid at 1440 rpm at 750 K as expansion space gas temperature. scratch.

ratio decreases due to considerable increase in leakage between
compression space and crankcase at low speed.
b. Fig. 22(b) illustrates the theoretical variation in pressure and
expansion work (or heat input required) of engine with
hydrogen as working fluid at 1440 rpm at the expansion space
gas temperature 750 K. The hatched area shows the mandatory
heat input required by the system, which possibly is not being
11. Conclusions
The present work has resulted into the working unit in the first
attempt with the work starting from scratch involving good num-
ber of innovations simultaneously considered from the design stage
itself. The drive mechanism is dynamically balanced by removing
calculated mass from gearwheel in a particular shape, considering
the pressure variation, mass of moving parts and speed of engine.
238 D.J. Shendage et al. / Energy 140 (2017) 224e239

Table 8
Major effective innovations during development.

I Generally used: Tubular regenerator

Requires leak proof welding joints
Our innovation: Annular regenerator
Uniform flow of working fluid

II Generally used: Tubular water cooler

Our innovation: Cooler using slits for gas flow and circumferential grooves for cooling water
Welded and brazed joints are totally avoided

III Generally used: Separate flywheel

Our innovation: Gears used as flywheel
Separate flywheel avoided

IV Generally used: Balancing

Additional weight is attached
Our innovation: Material removed from gear and attached at suitable position
Total rotating mass is kept minimal

V Generally used: Dual piston rod used

Our innovation: Annular piston rod
To withstand substantial eccentric loading [6]

VI Generally used: Cylinder head with heat receiving tubes

Our innovation: flow passages integrated with cylinder head
Increased ratio of total effective surface area to the dead volume in expansion space

VII Generally used: Not using overlapping volume with rhombic drive effectively Refer Fig. 3. Expansion and compression volume
Our innovation: Effective use of overlapping volume by using same diameter for piston and displacer variations and Fig. 4. Movements of Piston and Displacer.
Inherent property of rhombic drive mechanism is effectively used. Improves pressure ratio [6]

The theoretically predicted performance and experimental results Acknowledgement

have been compared and validated for the developed unit for part
load condition. The engine runs for 3e5 min after 2 s from start in
the preliminary trials. Uniform and sufficient heat input should be
provided by heat source to ensure continuous long duration oper-
ation. Further trials on engine need to be conducted at the vicinity
of design mean pressure for ensuring sufficient heat transfer during
operation. However, the present work could be best demonstrated
by operating the centrifugal pump using the LPG burner to provide
the heat input. All modifications/innovations were considered from
the beginning and the combination has worked, in the very first
trial.
The authors acknowledge the financial support from Ministry of
New and Renewable Energy, Government of India, to carry out the
present work.
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