Term Definition

Homeostasis Maintains the internal environment within limits

Principal of negative feedback in homeostasis

- Change in environment is detected
- Response to bring the system back to normal state
- When the normal state is reached, the response is stopped
- The prevents over reaction
- Internal environment fluctuates around norm

Explain the role of negative feedback in homeostasis

- A rise in level would feedback to decrease production
- As levels drop to low this would feedback to increase production
- e.g. Blood glucose concentration/pH/Body temperature/ Water balance

Which two systems are involved in the control of homeostasis

- Nervous system and endocrine system

Outline what is meant by homeostasis

- Maintaining internal environment
- Within limits
- e.g. Blood glucose concentration/pH/Body temperature/ Water balance
- Levels of these variables are monitored
- Negative feedback mechanisms
- Involves hormonal and nervous control

Outline the role of homeostasis in the body in controlling enzyme function

- Homeostasis maintains the internal environment between narrow limits
- Involves monitoring level of variables
- Correcting change with negative feedback
- Variables affecting enzymes function are under homeostatic control
- pH is under homeostatic control: Proteases optimal activity at 1.5
- control of excess substances in storage: Glucose condensed to glycogen
- Temperature controlled to avoid denaturing enzymes

Main features of homeostasis

Stimulus->Receptor->Controller/Integrator->Effector->Response
(Effector->Feedback->Receptor)
Comparison between nervous system and hormonal system
Nervous system Hormonal system

Components of the system Complex Nerve Fibres Discrete glands

Nature of message Electrochemical process Chemical substance

Method of transmission Along nerve fibres Diffuse into blood

Rate of transmission Rapid Slow

Area affected Localised Diffused and wide spread

Duration of response Short term Long term

Significance Rapid response Long term control

Outline the regulation of pregnancy by two named hormones

- Estrogen: Builds up uterine lining
- Progesterone: Maintains uterine lining
- HCG: Maintains crops luteum
- Oxytocin: Stimulates contraction of uterine muscle wall

Two hormones for controlling blood glucose and their site of production
- Insulin produced in beta cells of pancreas
- Glucagon produced in alpha cells of pancreas

Outline how hormones are transported from site of production and

released from the islet cells
- Vesicles are formed at rER
- Product is carried to Golgi apparatus
- Vesicles fuse with membrane and release product by exocytosis using ATP

Outline how human body responds to high blood glucose levels

- Blood glucose monitored by pancreas
- Insulin secreted in response to high blood glucose
- Insulin stimulates cells to absorb glucose
- Glucose used in respiration
- Glucose converted to glycogen
- In the liver/muscle cells
- Glucose converted to fatty acids
- Negative feedback process

Outline type I diabetes

- Autoimmune destruction of beta cells
- no production of insulin
Explain the control of blood glucose concentration in humans
- Pancreatic cells monitor the blood glucose concentration
- Alpha and beta cells are in the islets of Langerhans
- Negative feedback mechanisms
- Send hormones to target organs
- If too high, beta cells in pancreas produce insulin
- Insulin stimulates liver/muscle cells to take up glucose
- Glucose is converted into glycogen, stimulated by insulin
- Lowering blood glucose level
- Other cells are stimulated to absorb glucose and use it in cell respiration
- If glucose levels too low, alpha cells in pancreas produce glucagon
- Glucagon stimulates liver/muscle cells to break down glycogen
- And release glucose into the blood
- Raising the blood glucose level

Outline type II diabetes

- Excess glucose in blood
- Symptoms are excessive thirst
- Unresponsive to insulin
- Linked to obesity
- Late onset
- Insulin ineffective as treatment
- Treated with low GI foods

Outline differences between type I and II diabetes

Type I Type II

Early onset Late Onset

Inability to produce sufficient quantities of insulin Inability to respond to insulin

Target cells remain sensitive to insulin Target cells less sensitive to insulin

Genetic predisposition Link with lifestyle factors

Requires daily injections Controlled by diet and exercise, not insulin injections

Describe how the hormone leptin helps to prevent obesity

- Hormone produced by fat cells/adipose tissue
- Target cells are in the hypothalamus
- Reduces appetite
- More leptin with more fat cells/adipose tissue
- Reduces food intake
Explain the hormonal control of puberty in boys
- LH levels rise and stimulate more testosterone production
- Testosterone levels are very low before puberty
- Testosterone levels rise during puberty
- Testosterone leads to secondary sexual characteristics
- Testosterone has many target organs in the body
- Growth of genitals
- Testosterone simulates sperm production
- FSH levels rise and cause sperm maturation

Comparison of secondary sexual characteristics between male and

female
- Both have public hair
- Both have underarm hair
- Both produce gametes
- Men have more body hair
- Male voice deepens
- Man have facial hair
- Men are more muscular
- Women have more subcutaneous fat
- Women have larger breasts
- Women have wider hips

Draw a labelled diagram of the human adult reproductive systems

Role of LH in males
- Stimulates the secretion of testosterone by the testis

Role of testosterone in males

- Stimulates sperm production
- Promotes development of secondary sexual characteristics
- Pre-natal development of male genitalia
- Maintenance of sex libido
Role of LH in females
- Triggers ovulation
- Stimulates secretion of progesterone
- Inhibits secretion of oestrogen

Role of oestrogen in females

- Secreted from the ovary
- Promotes development of secondary sexual characteristics
- Growth of vagina
- Increase fatty deposits in breasts
- Can inhibit/stimulate release of FSH
- Can stimulate follicle cells to produce FSH receptors
- Can stimulate LH
- Stimulates thickening of endometrium
- Estrogen levels decrease if no fertilised embryo is present
- Decreased levels of oestrogen causes disintegration of endometrium

Roles of FSH in menstrual cycle

- FSH is secreted at the start of the menstrual cycle
- FSH stimulates follicle development in ovary
- FSH stimulates oestrogen secretion
- Leading to development of endometrium

Roles of oestrogen in menstrual cycle

- Cells of growing follicle produce oestrogen
- Oestrogen stimulates the thickening of endometrium
- It inhibits release of FSH via negative feedback
- It stimulates release of FSH and LH via positive feedback

Roles of LH in menstrual cycle

- LH is secreted at the middle of the menstrual cycle when the level of oestrogen is high
- LH triggers ovulation
- LH stimulates follicle to develop into corpus luteum
- LH stimulates corpus luteum to secrete more progesterone and oestrogen

Roles of progesterone in menstrual cycle

- Progesterone maintains the lining of uterus in preparation for the implantation of embryo
- Progesterone inhibits the secretion of FSH and LH
- If no fertilisation, corpus luteum degenerates
- Drop in progesterone levels cause breakdown in uterine lining, leading to menstruation

Compare roles of LH and HCG in female reproduction

- Both stimulate the development of the corpus luteum
- Both stimulate the secretion of progesterone
- Before fertilisation by LH and after by HCG
Roles of HCG
- HCG prevents degeneration of corpus luteum
- HCG stimulates corpus luteum to grow and secrete progesterone

Oestrogen and progesterone level if pregnancy occurs

- Oestrogen and progesterone do not drop
- Corpus luteum continues to secrete them to maintain endometrium

Outline process of IVF

- Mother receives FSH to stimulate egg development
- Eggs and sperm are harvested
- Egg is fertilised outside of body
- It develops into embryo, which is implanted in mother’s uterus

Outline process of IVF

- Drugs given to stop ovulation
- Ovarian hyperstimulation in mother
- Development of multiple follicles
- Induction of egg maturation
- Retrieval of eggs through surgery
- Sperm collected
- Fertilisation in vitro of egg and sperm
- ICSI is performed
- Fertilised egg is grown in medium
- Fertilised egg is introduced to uterus

Discuss ethical issues associated with IVF

Pros Cons

Infertile couples can conceive Potential risks from drug treatment

Allows children who are genetically related to them Religious objections

Decision to have children is clearly a conscious one Spare embryos are killed

Screening of embryos decreases chance of defects Production of extra embryos raise legal issues

Extends reproductive age Inherited forms of infertility might be passed on to

children

Cancer patients can harvest ova/sperm before Could lead to gender choice
chemotherapy

Production of extra embryos may be used for IVF is expensive and might not be equally
research accessible