Term Definition

Genetic code is A gene from one organism to be introduced and function in a different organism
universal allows

Splice Join or connect

Clone Group of cells descended form a single parent cell

Outline a technique used for gene transfer

- Plasmid used for gene transfer
- Plasmid is a small circle of DNA
- Restrictive enzymes cleave DNA from plasmid
- Each restrictive enzyme cuts at specific base sequences
- Same restrictive enzyme used to cut DNA with gene
- DNA can be added to the open plasmid
- DNA ligase used to seal nicks
- Recombinant DNA inserted into host cell
Examples
- Human insulin from bacterium cells
- Herbicide resistance in crop plants
- Clotting factor in sheep milk
- Vitamin A in rice

Outline the use of restriction enzyme and DNA ligase in gene technology
Restrictive enzyme
- E. coli has plasmid
- DNA cleaved by restrictive enzyme
- At specific points leaving sticking ends
- Other species DNA cleaved out by restrictive enzyme at same base sequence
- Human insulin from bacterium cells
DNA ligase
- DNA added to plasmid
- Spliced to plasmid by DNA ligase
- At sticky ends
- Recombinant plasmids inserted into host cells
- Host cells may be cloned
- DNA ligase seals gaps in DNA by making sugar phosphate bonds

Discuss the potential benefit and possible harm of one named example of
gene transfer between species
- Bt gene transferred from bacterium
- Insect pest killed by Bt toxin increasing crop production
- Less pesticides needed so better for environment
- Non target insects may be killed as well
- Risk of cross pollination may introduce gene to unintended species
Outline how Polymerase Chain Reaction can be used to amplify minute
quantities of DNA
- Polymerase Chain Reaction
- DNA obtained from blood/semen/hair
- Strands of DNA denatured with heat
- Complementary nucleotides added to split stand when cooling
- With the use of DNA polymerase and primer
- Heating and cooling cycle is repeated until enough DNA is obtained in thermal cycler/machine
- DNA replicated many times
- used in paternity cases or forensic investigations

Explain the methods and aims of DNA profiling

- DNA sample obtained
- From hair/blood/semen/human tissue
- DNA amplified by PCR
- Satellite DNA are amplified
- DNA cut into fragments
- Using restrictive enzymes
- Gel electrophoresis is used to separate DNA fragments
- Using electric fields, fragments are separated by size
- Number of repeats varies between individuals

- Forensic use
- DNA obtained from crime scene compared to suspects
- Paternity testing use
- Genetic screening
- Presence of particular band correlates with probability of certain phenotype

Describe the use of DNA profiling in forensic investigation

- Cut DNA into fragments using restrictive enzymes
- Satellite DNA is used
- PCR used to amplify DNA
- DNA fragments separate by size
- Pattern of bands compared to bands of suspected person

Describe the application of DNA profiling to determine paternity

- DNA from child, mother and possible fathers used to establish paternity
- DNA profiling is done for legal reasons
- DNA profiling is done for personal reasons
- DNA amplified using PCR
- DNA cut using restrictive enzymes
- Gel electrophoresis used to separate DNA fragments
- Pattern of bands is produced
- Analysed for matches between child with mother and possible father
- Half the child’s bands will match the father
Giving one specific example, discuss genetic modification in organisms
including the potential benefits and possible harmful effects
- GMOs are organisms where characteristics are altered
- A specific gene transferred to the host organism
- BT-Corn
- Universal genetic code allows genes to be transferred between species
- Gene transfer involves splicing genes into a suitable host DNA
- After placed in host, host cells are cloned
Potential benefits
- Increased product yield
- Allows for the introduction of a characteristics that wasn’t present within the gene pool
- Selective breeding could not have produced desired phenotype
- Less use of chemical pesticides
Harmful effects
- Possibility of cross pollination
- Toxins may cause allergic reactions
- Reduced genetic variation
Outline the technique used to clone farm animals
- Fertilised embryos are obtained at early stage
- Embryo’s cells are broken up to form several embryos
- Then transferred to surrogate mothers
- The egg cell is de-nucleated
- And nucleus from a diploid cell of body is inserted
- Then transferred to surrogate mother

Discuss the ethical issues of therapeutic cloning in humans

- Therapeutic cloning is the creation of an embryo to supply embryonic stem cells for medical use
- Transfer of nucleus from somatic cell into an egg
- Stimulated by shock to begin cell division
Pros
- Stem cells from embryos have greater flexibility
- Pluripotent cells can give rise to all cells in the body
- No rejection of the transplant because the organ DNA would match the patient’s DNA exactly
- Elimination of pain of organ recipient
- Would eliminate organ and tissue shortages
- No need for immunosuppressive drugs
Cons
- Manipulation of human embryos not ethically acceptable
- The process of extracting stem cels involves killing the embryo
- Many attempts before success is attained

Discuss the pros and cons of cloning of crops and livestock

- Cloning is a reproductive process that produces offspring that have the same genes as an
original
- Vegetative propagation especially prevalent among plants is a cloning process
- Cloning among animals is less likely to occur without human manipulation
- Cloning is currently used to develop successful crops
- Cloning is beginning to be used to improve quality of herd animals for agricultural profit
- Cloning reduces variability providing consistent quality
- From a farmer’s point of view, cloning is useful economically
- From a species point of view, cloning reduces diversity
- Variability is useful to a species in times of crisis when variant may be able to survive the stress
thus promoting survival
- Cloning of animals may lead to cloning of humans which will result in many ethical problems
- Greater susceptibility to certain diseases