Understanding Social Sciences in Primary School

# 1997 University of South Africa
All rights reserved
Printed and published by the

University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria
PST103±E/1/97±2005
PFC101-Q/1/97-2005
96477245
3B2
(iii) PST103±E/1/97-2005, PFC101±Q/1/97-2005
Contents
FOREWORD (vi)
UNIT 1
INFORMATION REGARDING THIS COURSE 1
1.1 Purpose, nature and scope of the course 1
1.2 Learning outcomes 1
1.3 Activities and self-evaluation exercises 2
1.4 Assignments 2
1.5 Prescribed books 2
1.6 Themes 2
1.6.1 A synopsis of the prescribed books and themes 3
1.7 An overview of the course 4
1.8 Concluding remarks 7
BIBLIOGRAPHY 7
UNIT 2
SOCIAL SCIENCES IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL Ð GEOGRAPHY AND
HISTORY 9
2.1 Clarification of concepts 9
2.1.1 What are the Social Sciences? 10
2.1.2 What is Geography? 11
2.1.3 What is History? 12
2.2 The nature and value of Geography and History in general education 13
2.3 Geography and History teaching in South African Primary Schools 17
2.3.1 A historical perspective 17
2.3.2 Recent developments 18
2.4 Correlation between Geography and History 21
2.6 Evaluation questions 22
BIBLIOGRAPHY 23
UNIT 3
CURRICULUM AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 25
3.1 Defining the concept ``curriculum'' 25
3.2 Curriculum development 26
3.2.1 The place of Geography and History in the development of the
curriculum 27
BIBLIOGRAPHY 33
(iv)
UNIT 4
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 34
4.1 Introduction 34
4.2 The difference between aims and objectives 34
4.3 Skills 36
4.3.1 Reading and research skills 36
4.3.2 Social skills 36
4.3.3 Descriptive skills 36
4.3.4 Schematic skills 36
4.3.5 Skills in synthesis 36
BIBLIOGRAPHY 42
UNIT 5
RESOURCES AND MEDIA 43
5.1 First order resources: the teacher 43
5.2 Second order resources: the spoken and written word 44
5.2.1 The writing/black/chalkboard 45
5.2.2 Textbooks 46
5.3 Third order resources: teaching media 47
5.3.1 Pictures, sketches, illustrations and photographs 47
5.3.2 The overhead projector 49
5.3.3 The timeline and timeline chart 50
5.3.4 Film/motion pictures 51
5.3.5 Video recording 51
5.3.6 Filmstrips and slides 51
5.3.7 Tape recorders 52
5.3.8 Maps 52
5.3.9 Exhibitions, presentations, samples and models 53
5.3.10 Computers 54
5.3.11 School library/media centre 54
5.4 Fourth order resources: beyond the school 55
5.4.1 Local events 55
5.4.2 Fieldwork, excursions and educational tours 56
5.5 Criteria for the selection of teaching media 59
BIBLIOGRAPHY 60
UNIT 6
LESSON PLANNING/PREPARATION 62
6.1 Introduction 62
6.2 Scheme of work 62
6.2.1 Educational objectives and aims 64
6.2.2 The course of the lesson 66
BIBLIOGRAPHY 73
(v)
UNIT 7
EVALUATION AND ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES 74
7.1 Evaluation and assessment: explanation of concepts 74
7.2 Different types of assessment 75
7.2.1 Continuous assessment (CA) 77
7.3 The compilation of tests and examination papers 79
BIBLIOGRAPHY 85
UNIT 8
SCHOOL AND CLASS MANAGEMENT 86
8.1 Subject policy of the school 86
8.2 Organising individual, group and fieldwork 87
BIBLIOGRAPHY 89
APPENDIX 90
(vi)
Foreword
We welcome you to this course and trust that you will find the study guide useful and
informative. We welcome any form of criticism and will view it in the light of contributing to
a better product.
The study guide consists of eight units, the first being an introduction, while the remaining
seven will focus on the themes. Mr Lewis authored units 1, 2, 3, 7 and 8 while Dr Van
Schalkwyk wrote units 4, 5 and 6.
We trust that this course will expand your own insights into the teaching of the subject, and
we wish you well in your studies.
Andrew Lewis
Alena van Schalkwyk
1 PST103-E/1
Unit 1
Information regarding this
course
a After studying this unit you will be able to:
. list the themes that will be dealt with in this course,
. use and understand the contents pages of your prescribed books,
. speed read a passage for information,
. use this study guide as an aid for effective (and interactive) learning.
1.1 Purpose, nature and scope of the course

The main aim of the course, Social sciences in the primary school: Geography and
History,1 is for you to gain the necessary insight into the subject, and, what is all important,
how to apply this knowledge in the profession that you chose, namely teaching. It is not the
intention of this course that you merely reproduce facts, but that you have a sound grasp of
the subject and of how to apply this knowledge in teaching effectively.
This course is not designed to be a model of how teaching should be. That would be an
absurd assumption. This course is designed to give you the basic knowledge, skills,
values and attitudes with which you can approach these subjects while teaching. We give
you the impetus; the rest (effective teaching) depends on you.
This course has to do with the teaching of Social Sciences (History and Geography) in the
senior primary phase. A conceptual analysis of relevant concepts and the rationale
behind the inclusion of both History and Geography will be given in units 2 and 3. The senior
phase in primary school is from Grades 4 to 6.
1.2 Learning outcomes

You will see that each unit commences with certain learning outcomes. These outcomes
describe the results or achievements of learning rather than the means used to achieve
results. At the end of each unit it is hoped that you will have achieved every one of the set
outcomes.
ÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐ
1 As these two subjects are still practised as separate subjects (1997) in the senior primary phase, the term ``Social Sciences'' in this study guide
will refer to the subjects History and Geography.
2
1.3 Activities and self-evaluation exercises

Activities in the text and self-evaluation questions at the end of the unit will contribute
to an outcomes-based type of learning. These activities and self-evaluation questions are
included to help you to assess your progress and fulfil the set outcomes. They concentrate on
matters such as factual knowledge, insight and the ability to analyse or synthesise.
1.4 Assignments
Tutorial letter 101 contains a number of assignments appertaining to the course. These
assignments are designed to contribute to your development of knowledge, skills, values
and attitudes surrounding the subject, as well as contributing to your examination
entrance. Make sure that you understand the work and do not think that a verbatim (word-
for-word) reproduction of relevant sections will ensure the attainment of the above-
mentioned results.
1.5 Prescribed books

Your prescribed books form an important part of your study package which you received
when you registered. You will notice that we prescribed two text books. One is for
Geography teaching and the other one for History teaching and they are:
Hurry, L. 1991. Geography teaching in Southern Africa: an introductory guide. Pretoria: Via
Afrika.
Mathews, J, Moodley, K, Rheeder, W & Wilkinson, M. 1994. Discover History: a pupil-

centred approach to History method. Pinelands: Maskew Miller Longman.
Please remember that, although the two books focus on the primary and secondary schools,
you must focus on the first phase Ð senior primary. You can ignore aspects relating to the
secondary school.
The prescribed books also refer to syllabuses in use. These syllabuses are outdated and we
have included the latest core syllabuses of Geography and History at the back (see
appendix) of this study guide. We have also included an extract of the Western Cape's
Standard 4 (Grade 6) extended syllabus as an example of curriculum initiative at
regional level.
1.6 Themes
We have seven themes that we will be discussing in this course and you will see that each
theme features in both text books. Although some aspects may overlap, they do specifically
refer to their own discipline. One book may also give more prominence to one aspect than
the other does. We will supplement that information which is excluded or features less
prominently. You will see that we do not discuss all the aspects in the prescribed books. This
does not mean that we do not see these sections as important. As your prescribed books are
important sources of information, it is important that you use them correctly and efficiently.
Do not view the seven themes in isolation; these themes are interrelated and form a whole.
3 PST103-E/1
When preparing say, a lesson, you will inevitably have to gather information from other units
(eg when planning a lesson you have to look at, amongst others, basic didactical
principles and, assessment techniques).
1.6.1 A synopsis of the prescribed books and themes

We are now going to have a look at the themes that you will be encountering this year. We
would like you to get acquainted with the themes and see to what extent they feature in the
prescribed books. In order to help you gain clarity on how to use the text books correctly, we
ask you to do Activity 1.
D Activity 1 ± 10 minutes
Quickly scan through the contents pages of your prescribed books (remember
that these can also be referred to as a table of contents) and the books as a
whole. Below is a list of the themes that we will be discussing in our course.
Next to each of our themes are two columns, representing our prescribed
books. Next to each of our themes, see if you can write in the prescribed
books' chapters/sections/pages. We have done certain sections of a theme so
that you are fully aware of what we want. Remember that both books may or
may not include all the themes discussed.
TEACHING SOCIAL SCIENCES: HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY
Geography book Theme History book

Chapter/s Chapter/s
1 Social Sciences in the primary 1±4, 10

school: Geography and History
None 2 Curriculum and curriculum

development
3 Aims and objectives

6±9, 12, 14 4 Resources and media
5 Lesson planning
6 Evaluation procedures 7±8, 12, 17

7 School and class management
!! At the end of this unit we have given you our version of the above
overview.
After completing Activity 1, you should now have a broad overview of what the course will
involve, where more or less to find these themes in the text books and also which information
still has to be supplemented. As was mentioned previously, it is not our intention to present
to you the alpha and omega of teaching Social Sciences, but it is our intention to give you
the basic skills with which to tackle these interesting (and very often neglected) subjects.
4
1.7 An overview of the course

Above we have identified seven themes which we will be discussing in our study units. We
will now give you an overview of what the course entails.
Theme 1 will introduce Geography and History as part of the Social Sciences in the primary
school. We will look at their relationship (correlation) and their nature, clarify certain
concepts and look at Geography and History teaching in South African schools. The aim of
this chapter is thus to put the subjects into better perspective.
In theme 2 we will look at curriculum and curriculum development, looking

specifically at Social Sciences (Geography and History). This will encompass basic
principles and trends as well as a proposed framework for the primary school.
Theme 3 will look at the use of aims and objectives when teaching Social Sciences and
how they lead to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values and attitudes.
Theme 4 will look at ways of incorporating resources and media into one's planning of an
effective Social Science lesson.
Theme 5 will look at how to plan a Social Science lesson effectively with the subsequent
aim of presenting it just as effectively.
An important aspect of teaching is that of evaluation and assessment. This can
encompass evaluating your own performance, the evaluation of set aims and objectives and
of resources and media that you use. Another aspect is evaluation of your pupils'
performance. Theme 6 will look at assessment procedures in more detail.
Theme 7 will look at school and class management of Social Sciences in the primary
school (senior phase).
It is also important that you know how to set out the particulars of the title page and
publisher's details. Activity 2 has been included for this purpose.
Study the title page and publisher's details of your History prescribed book
and then complete the following reference card. Compare your answers to
ours:
1 Author/s ....................................................................... (Surname and initials)

2 Date of publication .............................................................................................
3 Title .......................................................................................................................
4 Place of publication ...........................................................................................

5 Publisher ..............................................................................................................
6 Edition ..................................................................................................................
5 PST103-E/1
Study the title page and publisher's details of your Geography prescribed
book and then complete the following reference card. Compare your answers
to ours:
1 Author/s ....................................................................... (Surname and initials)
2 Date of publication .............................................................................................
3 Title .......................................................................................................................
4 Place of publication ...........................................................................................
5 Publisher ..............................................................................................................
6 Edition ..................................................................................................................
First edition, second impression 6

Via Afrika 5
Pretoria 4
Geography teaching in Southern Africa: an introductory guide 3
1991 2
Hurry, L. 1
Answers
First edition, second impression 6

Maskew Miller Longman 5
Pinelands 4
Discover History: a pupil-centred approach to History method 3
1994 2
Mathews, J, Moodley, K, Rheeder, W & Wilkinson, M. 1
Answers
The aim of this activity is for you to use this information when doing your assignments.
When you use any source of reference, you have to acknowledge it in your assignment
itself and in your bibliography.
When acknowledging in the text/assignment itself, we make use of an internationally accepted

method known as the Harvard method. You will note that your prescribed books use a similar
(but not identical) method. We will use the Harvard method because it is the most popular and
academically accepted method. This reference technique is used at the end of each sentence/
paragraph in which we refer to information from another source.
Activity 3 will help you to use the method correctly.
6
1 Author
The only part of the author's name that you use is his/her surname. When
referring to the author in a text, you will place his/her surname in between
brackets, as follows:
(Hurry )
You are probably wondering if you must put all the authors of your History
book in brackets. The answer is no. You will only put the first one's
surname, followed by the Latin words et al. meaning `ànd others'' (Sykes
1979:355), implying all the other authors.
(Mathews et al. )
2 Date of publication
After the author's surname, you will write the date of publication as
follows:
(Hurry 1991 )
(Mathews et al. 1994 )
3 Pages
The last piece of information that you must insert are the pages consulted.
Say you consulted page 90 in your Geography book and pages 106±108 in
your History book. You will then write the information as follows:
(Hurry 1991:90)
(Mathews et al.:106±108)
And that's that! You will notice that there are many such references in your prescribed text
books and study guide.
You will also notice that at the back of each prescribed book, you have a list of all the books
consulted by the author/s. This is known as a bibliography. Each assignment must have a
bibliography, as you need to acknowledge the author/s whose books you consulted. Here
we will again use that information which we acquired in activity 2. A bibliography must be
as concise (yet complete) as possible. Entries in your bibliography are arranged according to
alphabetical order. Our prescribed books will be listed as follows:
Hurry, L 1991. Geography teaching in Southern Africa: an introductory guide. Pretoria: Via
Afrika.
Mathews, J, Moodley, K, Rheeder, W & Wilkinson, M. 1994. Discover History: a pupil-

centred approach to History method. Pinelands: Maskew Miller Longman.
You will notice that, in the bibliography, we list all the authors of a particular source.
Whereas we used et al. in the assignment, we have to acknowledge/write all the authors'
names in the bibliography. We also use italics when typing the source's title. If you write the
bibliography yourself, obviously you cannot use italics. Here you will underline the source.
Why is it necessary to have a bibliography in your assignment? In Activity 4, we would like

you to list a couple of reasons why you think a bibliography is necessary. Think about this
one before writing down your answers.
7 PST103-E/1
1 .................................................................................................................................
2 .................................................................................................................................
3 .................................................................................................................................
1.8 Concluding remarks

Seeing that we still have not yet explained why we have combined Geography and History,
we will touch on that aspect in the next theme.
It is hoped that this wrap-around study guide will make of you an active learner, which in
turn will lead to effective teaching.
As was mentioned earlier, we will equip you with the basic tools (knowledge, skills,
values and attitudes) which will hopefully be used in effective teaching. Activities and
evaluation questions will be included in the units for you to test and practise these
basic tools.
The study guide will not repeat what is in the prescribed books. Our approach will be to
take a theme, discuss it in general and then by reading certain relevant sections in the
prescribed books look more specifically at the two different subjects Geography and
History.
Activities may require of you to critically apply knowledge that you have learnt and your
own experience as a teacher/potential teacher. Activities are included to make you
think critically.
Look at the outcomes stipulated in the beginning of this unit and mark off those that you
have attained/mastered. If not, go back to those of which you are still unsure and give them
attention. Remember that they are there to help you!
We look forward to hearing from you as well as meeting you.
Bibliography
Sykes, JB. (ed.) 1979. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English. 6th edition, 8th
impression. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
8
Suggested answers to Activity 1:

TEACHING SOCIAL SCIENCES: GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY
Geography book Theme History book

Chapter/s Chapter/s
1±2 1 Social Sciences in the primary 1±4, 10

school: Geography and History
None 2 Curriculum and curriculum Sections of Ch 1

development
Parts of Chapters 1 & 3 Aims and objectives 2 & 18

15
6±9, 12, 14 4 Resources and media 5±6, 9, 13±14, 19,
20±21
6±10, 13, 15 5 Lesson planning 12, 15±16, 18
16 6 Evaluation procedures 7±8, 12, 17

3, 11, 15 7 School and class management 11, Appendix 1 & 2
9 PST103-E/1
Unit 2
Social Sciences in the primary
school Ð Geography and
History

. understand what is meant by the concepts: Social Sciences, Geography
and History,
. discuss the essential nature of Geography and History as school subjects,
. discuss the value and contribution of Geography and History to a
learner's general education,
. have knowledge of the development of Geography and History teaching
in South African schools,
. discuss the basic principles of good general teaching and their
application to Geography and History;
. understand the correlation between Geography and History.
2.1 Clarification of concepts

As you are into your second unit, you are probably wondering what Social Sciences
has to do with Geography and History and vice versa. As was suggested in study unit
1, it is necessary to clarify the concepts of Social Sciences, Geography and
History. Before one can teach effectively, surely one must understand what the
discipline involves.
Before we get to various people's definition of these concepts, let us see how you perceive
them. Activity 1 will cover this aspect.
10
How would you define the concepts of Social Sciences, Geography and
History? In other words, what do these fields of study mean to you?
1 Social Sciences:
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
2 Geography:
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
3 History:
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
2.1.1 What are the Social Sciences?

Firstly, let us look at the encompassing term Social Sciences.
Without getting into too much of a discussion on the debate surrounding the definition of
the concept of Social Sciences, it is necessary to briefly define the concept for our purposes
and place it into perspective.
There is no conclusive definition of the term; however, there is a general (broad) consensus
that this field examines the way in which individuals and groups interact with various
environments (Nelson 1992:24; Robertson 1977:7). This definition implies inter alia the
study of human society and social relationships as well as why people behave the way they
do (Elliot et al. 1992:1028; Tulloch 1993:1472).
Nelson (1992:24±25) further elaborates on these `ènvironments'' and refers to a material

and a human environment.
In the material environment, Geographers will study the spatial pattern of people's
interaction with the physical environment, while Economists study the ways in which
people use material resources. In the human environment, Sociologists study ways in
which people interact with society in general, Anthropologists study people's interaction
with culture, Psychologists will study the minds and behaviour of humans, and Political
Scientists will study people's interaction with power and authority. Lastly there is the study
of History (where Social Sciences merge with the Humanities). Historians examine the
different ways in which people of different time periods (epochs) and circumstances have
interacted with these environments (Reber 1985:593; Nelson 1992:24±25).
11 PST103-E/1
Now that we have looked at the concept Social Sciences, let us now focus our attention on
two aspects thereof: Geography and History.
2.1.2 What is Geography?

From an early age, children, in an attempt to satisfy their curiosity, ask questions about their
surrounding environment. As a teacher/potential teacher, you are aware of these questions,
perhaps while teaching, or through your own experiences or observations (formerly as a
child or now as an adult). Questions like why the sky is blue, why there are valleys and
mountains or what the capital of a certain country is are but a few such examples. As children
are becoming aware of their environment, they are becoming aware of the geography of
their surroundings (Holmes & Moorhouse 1993:1).
The first step in answering the initial question would be to inspect a few definitions of the
term and try and find a generally acceptable one.
Read: Hurry p 2 sec 1.1.
1 Identify certain key elements which each of these definitions emphasise:
1.1 .......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
1.2 .......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
1.3 .......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
2 Also consult a good dictionary/dictionaries and see how they define the
term (Geography):
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
3 Take all these definitions and note similarities and differences in these
definitions.
Similarities Differences
1 .......................................................... 1 ..........................................................
2 .......................................................... 2 ..........................................................
3 .......................................................... 3 ..........................................................
12
4 After all that you have read and experienced in activities 1 & 2, now try
to define the concept:
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
I think that after doing activities 1 and 2 you will agree with Holmes and Moorhouse
(1993:1) when they observe that ``Geography is easy to observe but difficult to define''.
Geographers do not always agree on what Geography comprises, mainly because they study
a host of phenomena, while over the years a shift of emphasis has taken place, which has
been determined by the scientific ideals of the period. However, contemporary definitions
tend to emphasise the relationship between the earth and its inhabitants, through the
study of place, space and the environment (Wiegand 1993:1).
Let us now investigate the concept of History.
2.1.3 What is History?

Even to answer this question involves much debate and response (much the same as with
Geography). If you have to ask your class/future class members how they perceive the term
or subject, a myriad answers will be forthcoming. Answers may vary from ``boring facts'' to
`ìnteresting stories from the past''.
Various authors have different opinions as to how they see History and, as in the case of
Geography, a generally accepted definition seems to elude writers.
Let us note a couple of these definitions in Esterhuizen et al. (1991:1).
Van Jaarsveld sees History as ``... the reality which took place in the presence of God, and
the historian who construes reality after it has occurred, is only able to do so on the basis of
information which has been left him. Each event is unique and unrepeatable''.
Burston and Green interpret History as ``the story of the development, evolution and origin of
our present environment''.
Dreyer perceives History as ``the totality, in the length of time, of humanity's life gone by''.
Commager makes the following statement: `Ìt means the past and all that happened in the
past. It means, too, the record of the past Ð all that men have said and written in the past''.
While Clark states that ``history is the record of what has happened in the past, of anything
that has ever happened in the past, however long ago or however recently''.
13 PST103-E/1
1 Identify certain key elements which each of these definitions emphasise:

1.1 .......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
1.2 .......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
1.3 .......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
2 Also consult a good dictionary/dictionaries and see how they define the
term (History):
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
3 Take all these definitions and note similarities and differences in these
definitions.
Similarities Differences
1 .......................................................... 1 ..........................................................
2 .......................................................... 2 ..........................................................
3 .......................................................... 3 ..........................................................
4 After all that you have read and experienced in activities 1 and 3, try to
define the concept:
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
Much in the same vein as with Geography, various academics perceive the concept of
History differently. I think that you will agree that History is a record or description of the
past, with the past being understood in terms of time and space (Jordaan et al. [sa]:1).
2.2 The nature and value of Geography and History in

general education
Looking at the previous definitions, I think that you will agree that we have still not got down
to what the essential characteristics and elements of Geography and History are.
14
It is necessary that teachers understand the nature and elements of Geography and
History, what they involve and finally their contribution to education.
Read: Mathews et al. pp 2±5 (The elements of History)

Hurry pp 2±3 (secs 1.2±1.3)
1 What five important characteristics does Hurry identify as constituting
(school) Geography? Explain.
1.1 .......................................................................................................................
1.2 .......................................................................................................................
1.3 .......................................................................................................................
1.4 .......................................................................................................................
1.5 .......................................................................................................................
2 What five elements does Mathews et al. identify for History?
2.1 .......................................................................................................................
2.2 .......................................................................................................................
2.3 .......................................................................................................................
2.4 .......................................................................................................................
2.5 .......................................................................................................................
Let us now look at the value and contribution of these subjects to general education.
Read: Mathews et al. chapters 2±4 (The value of History)
Hurry p 4, sec 1.4±1.5
Here, both authors speak of the value and contribution to education of History and
Geography. In the 1996 Geography Syllabus: senior primary phase Ð Standerds
(sic) 2 to 4 (Grades 4 ± 6) of the Western Cape Education Department (1996:4), the
following diagram illustrates what they see as Geography's contribution to education:
15 PST103-E/1
DIAGRAM 1
CONTRIBUTION OF GEOGRAPHY TO EDUCATION
Knowledge and understanding of: Skills in:
. locations and places in a national and . the use of maps, graphs and statistics
international framework . the use of text, pictures, tables and
. major natural systems of the world, e.g. diagrams
landforms, water bodies, climate, etc. . practising methods of field observation
. major socio-economic systems of the and mapping; interviewing people;
world, e.g. agriculture, settlements, gathering and interpreting information
population, transport, etc.
. the diversity of peoples and societies in
the world to appreciate the cultural
WV firsthand
. using communication, thinking,
practical and social skills to explore
richness of humanity geographical topics
. structures and processes at local and . the process of inquiry which will
national level encourage learners to question; process
. the challlenges of, and opportunities for, and evaluate information; make
global interaction generalisation, judgements and
decisions; solve problems and to work
in groups
S
Attitudes and values that help to:
T T
. interest the learners in their surroundings and in the variety of natural and
human characteristics on the surface of the Earth
. appreciate the uniqueness of the physical world and the wide variety of
environments in which people live
. develop a concern for the quality of planning of the environment for future
generations
. understand the significance of decision making
. develop a readiness to use geographic knowledge and skills in daily life
. develop a respect for the rights of all people to equality
. encourage a commitment to seeking solutions to local, regional, national
and international problems on the basis of the `Ìnternational Declaration of
Human Rights''
Source: WCED 1996:4

16
What three broad categories do these sources acknowledge as contributing

to a child's education?
1 ...............................................................................................................................
2 ...............................................................................................................................
3 ...............................................................................................................................
Although Mathews et al. do not make use of a diagram, they still incorporate
knowledge, skills, attitudes and values. Create your own diagram for History,
using other sources as well as Mathews et al.
CONTRIBUTION OF HISTORY FOR EDUCATION
Knowledge and understanding of: Skills in:
. ............................................................ . ............................................................
. ............................................................ . ............................................................
WV
. ............................................................ . ............................................................
. ............................................................ . ............................................................
. ............................................................ . ............................................................
. ............................................................ . ............................................................
S
S
Attitudes and values that help to:
T
T
. .................................................................................................................
. .................................................................................................................
. .................................................................................................................
. .................................................................................................................
. .................................................................................................................
. .................................................................................................................
17 PST103-E/1
2.3 Geography and History teaching in South African

primary schools
2.3.1 A historical perspective
The subjects Geography and History have long been an accepted part of South African
schools' curriculum. However, owing to, amongst other reasons, South Africa's racial
policies of the past, these subjects did not evolve at the same time and/or tempo in the
different departments. It was only in the 1990s that a single education department saw to it
that all inhabitants received an education that did not discriminate on the lines of, amongst
other aspects, colour. As examples of the introduction and development of the subjects
Geography and History in South Africa, we will focus on salient aspects of the inclusion of
these two subjects in the curriculum in the teaching of black and white pupils respectively.
The latter will be sketched first.
In the Cape Colony, as far back as the early nineteenth century, Commissioner De Mist's
skoolorder of 11 September 1804 included Geography and History in the primary school
curriculum (Du Toit 1975:37±38).
It was only in 1872 that President Brand of the Orange Free State enacted an education
ordinance which saw to the inclusion of Geography and History (general, fatherland and
Biblical) in the school curriculum. The first schoolbook printed in the Free State was
Aardrykskunde en Geskiedenis van den Oranje-Vrystaat (1892). Ordinance 9 of 1920 saw to
it that the Geography and History syllabuses were adapted to South African conditions (Van
Schoor 1975:145±146, 184).
In the former Transvaal the Volksraad formulated its first written attempt at an education
policy. These regulations were drawn up by a Dutch teacher, H van Linden, and promulgated
in 1852. In 1859 an educational committee was set up to supervise educational provision
and saw to it that teachers taught, amongst other subjects General History and Geography
(Behr 1984:12). In 1889, Geography became a compulsory subject in primary schools
according to the regulations of that year (Venter 1992:6).
In Natal, Act 15 of 1877 made provision for the recognition of primary education in the
colony. A curriculum was laid down which recognised, amongst other subjects, the History
of England and South Africa as well as elementary Geography (Behr 1984:10).
After the Union of South Africa Act of 1909 up until 1967, traditionally white schools in the
four provinces were given a measure of local control in certain matters (Behr 1984:20).
Education was one of them. The teaching of Geography and History was also practised in
this light. In the Cape and Free State they were presented up to Standerd 8 (Gr 10) as Social
Studies1 and in the Transvaal up to Standerd 5 (Gr 7). However, Social Studies was later
terminated in the 1960s (Van Jaarsveld & Rademeyer 1975:94). The National Education Act
of 1967 saw to it that there was a national coordination in respect of syllabuses, courses and
examination standards and the two subjects were presented as separate disciplines (Behr
1984:38±39, 43) up until the present.
Well up until the 1950s, Missionaries were largely responsible for black education in South
Africa and the teaching of Geography and History differed from province to province. For
example, up to 1910 course content at mission schools in the Cape Colony was very similar
to that for white pupils, while in Natal the Council of Education created in 1877 did not
ÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐ
1 This subject comprised Geography, History and Citizenship.
18
include these subjects (Geography and History) in the separate curriculum for blacks (Behr
1984:174). Blacks in the Transvaal only received separate curricula in 1913, the Cape in
1921 and the OFS in 1924 (Hartshorne 1992:25, 57).
In the Transvaal, a curriculum for the seventh school year which included Geography (South
Africa and the British Colonies) was only added in 1920, while it was only in 1928, at the
time of the next curriculum revision, that History was included in the curriculum (Hartshorne
1992:26).
By 1949, the curriculum was more or less uniform in all the provinces, with History and
Geography being included and presented as Social Studies (Hartshorne 1992:31).
After the infamous 1953 Bantu Education Act, new syllabuses were drawn up in 1956. The
content of the subject Social Studies was seen as containing ideological content promoting
the apartheid doctrine. These syllabuses were more or less similar to those used by White
provincial schools (Harsthorne 1992:40±41).
Up until 1975, Social Studies was still practised in black primary schools (senior primary)
but was later replaced by separate disciplines Ð History and Geography (Behr 1984:191±
192, 208) Ð as is practised to date.
The democratic processes of the 1990s heralded a fresh look at curriculum content and the
status of Geography and History. These curriculum developments will be discussed in more
detail in unit 3.
It is necessary to have a look at recent developments in Geography and History and their
effect on the teaching of the subjects in South African schools, with special reference to the
senior primary phase.
2.3.2 Recent developments

Read: Mathews et al. p1 Ð ``Recent developments in the teaching of history''.
Since the 1960s Geography has progressed from being perceived as an ``... ideographic
description of regions, i.e. geography's traditional preoccupation with the individuality and
uniqueness of different countries and areas, to a nomothetic, law-seeking science ...
concerned with explanation in terms of general theories'' (Smit 1994:51) that is, process-
orientated (Smit 1986:276; Venter 1992:7). Geography teaching in the primary school has
become increasingly child-centred and concept based (seeking more generalised
statements which link phenomena together) as was evident in syllabus revisions of the
1970s and 1980s. The importance of pure facts was now being replaced by a recognition of
concepts and skills (Smit 1994:51±52). With regard to the development of concepts, it is
imperative that educators take cognisance of aspects of child development as theorised by
academics such as Piaget (Smit 1986:277). Piaget's theory, together with other relevant
theories, will be discussed in detail in the theme Child development (ETH101).
During the 1970s and 1980s, a new shift in paradigm was experienced especially in human
Geography, namely that to an awareness of environmental and Third World issues. However,
core syllabus revisions during 1985 did not reflect this paradigm shift (Smit 1994:52).
Seeing that Geography as a school subject lends itself well to the development of spatial
concepts (Smit 1986:277) and History to time and spatial concepts (Esterhuizen et al.
1991:25±28) the following tables will show the development of the child's conception of
these two aspects. Remember that these are only theories, mainly from a Western
perspective, and may differ from theories of child development in other cultures and lend
19 PST103-E/1
themselves to a fair amount of criticism (Lowry 1995:120±121). However, they do give a fair
indication as to the child's development of concepts.
FIGURE 2.1
Scheme: consciousness of time
6±7 years 8±9 years 10±11 years 12±16 years 16±18 years
Gr 1 & 2 (Sub A Gr 3±6 Gr 5±6 Gr 7±9/10 Gr 10/11±12

& B)
Has a naõÈve Becomes aware Develops in- Becomes aware Is able to

experience of time of time creasing experi- of his own life comprehend the
ence and history and the chronological line
differentiation of historicity of his in broad outline
time existence
Has no knowledge Starts to show an Becomes aware Awakening of Is able to

of time understanding of of chronology the realisation of comprehend the
biological time temporality be- space of time in
Ð age gins broad outline
Does, however, Nine-year-old Starts to . Discovers that Is able to divide

hold hope for the already catego- understand his- the temporary time into periods
future rises time, e.g. torical dates nature of his
cycles, days, own life is his
nights, seasons psychological
time
. Discovers that
the temporary
nature of all
life is his
philosophical
time
Develops under- Development of Understanding

standing of time (with of epochs and of
consecutive gen- reference to the characteris-
erations: grand- dates) occurs tics, style and
father Ð father slowly atmosphere of
Ð himself and/or time begins and
grandmother Ð increases
mother Ð her-
self
Adapted from: Esterhuizen et al. 1991:26

20
FIGURE 2.2
Scheme: the development of the pupil's conception of space
6±9 years 10±11 years 12±16 years 16±18 years
Gr 3±4 Gr 5±6 Gr 7±9/10 Gr 10/11±12

A very slight under- The beginning of The beginning of a Further develop-
standing of the form a concrete clear concept of ment of the
of things, but no idea operation ac- schematic outline concept of space
of the relation of cording to space
these to each other
Beginning of a The beginning of The beginning of Development of

concept of space the development the linkage of concept of space
of ideas on form various spatial by means of
and schematic areas observations and
outlining imagination to
form an idea of
the space of the
earth on which
human beings
live, and the
influence of space
on the actions of
man
A very poor No true concept The beginning of

understanding of of space but an intuitive
schematic outlining understanding of concept of areas
concepts of that are so large
distances such as that one can never
far and concepts observe them with
of size such as the eye
big
Fixing of The beginning of
direction and abstract thinking
location very relating to larger
important spatial areas, e.g.
Gauteng and the
other provinces, as
the area of South
Africa
Adapted from: Esterhuizen et al. 1991:28

21 PST103-E/1
1 Do you think that it is wrong to overburden the Gr 5 child with the

memorisation of dates in a History lesson and geographical facts in a
Geography lesson? Give your reasons.
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
2 Do you think it is wise to start letting pupils build models of South African
relief in the Geography class as early as Gr 4? Explain your answer.
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
It is also necessary to look at some basic principles of good general teaching and how
they apply to Geography and History.
Read: Hurry p 12, (secs 2.1±2.2)
Although Hurry refers only to Geography, these principles are very valid for History as well.
2.4 Correlation between Geography and History

To many people there is a strong correlation between the subjects Geography and History.
There are many reasons for this. In activity 8 we would like you to use the knowledge that
we have provided, together with your critical thoughts, to provide possible reasons why
there is such a strong correlation.
Do you think that there is a strong correlation between Geography and

History? Why do you say this?
1 ...............................................................................................................................
2 ...............................................................................................................................
3 ...............................................................................................................................
4 ...............................................................................................................................
On 15 April 1990, Margaret Thatcher, a former British Prime Minister, made the comment in
The Sunday Telegraph that:
22
`Ìt is obvious that you must have some history and some geography; you are not a
complete person unless you have that general knowledge'' (DES/WO 1990:6).
This quotation not only emphasises the importance of Geography and History, but also the
fact that very often these two subjects complement each other in many aspects. Marwick
(1976:107) supports this and notes that ``between history and geography ... there are
venerable ties''.
Although there are strong links (eg space) and dependence upon each other, one must
realise that the practioners of the two subjects do work and think in different ways.
Experience has also shown that the two subjects diverge quite significantly after primary
school level (DES/WO 1990:74).
The following extracts outline the influence of the two disciplines upon each other.
Read: Chapter 10 of Mathews et al. and secs 2.3±2.4 of Hurry
1 What four conditions identified by Mathews et al. illustrate the way in

which Geography influences the course of History?
1.1 .......................................................................................................................
1.2 .......................................................................................................................
1.3 .......................................................................................................................
1.4 .......................................................................................................................

The aim of this unit was to place Geography and History into perspective as an aspect of
Social Sciences, especially with reference to South African schools. For effective teaching to
take place, it is essential that teachers/potential teachers understand what the subjects
involve and their value for education, not forgetting basic principles of good teaching.
2.6 Evaluation questions

1 Say if the following statements are TRUE or FALSE.
1.1 History can be regarded purely as a Social Science.
1.2 The subjects Geography and History have always been practised from a content-
based approach.
1.3 The teaching and learning of facts play an important role in senior primary
education. [3]
2 Why do you think that it is imperative that Geography and History teachers understand
what their subject is about before they practise it? [5]
3 Why is holistic teaching considered important in the primary school? [5]
23 PST103-E/1
4 Name and discuss the fundamental principles that characterise good (general)
teaching. Explain in the light of your current teaching experiences or past experiences
while still a scholar. [10]
5 Discuss why it is not educationally acceptable to teach from a content-based approach
only. [3]
Bibliography
Behr, AL. 1984. New perspectives in South African Education. 2nd edition. Durban:
Butterworth.
Department of Education and Science & the Welsh Office (DES/WO). 1990. Geography for
ages 5 to 16: Proposals of the Secretary of State for Education and Science and the
Secretary of State for Wales. June.
Du Toit, PS. 1975. Onderwys in Kaapland. In J. Chr. Coetzee (red). Onderwys in Suid-
Afrika. Pretoria: JL van Schaik:
Elliot, SP, Goldstein, M & Upshall, M. 1992. Webster's New World Encyclopedia. New York:
Prentice Hall.
Esterhuizen, SJ, Gunning, NR & Mocke, HA. 1991. History method for primary and
secondary schools. Pretoria: Via Afrika.
Hartshorne, K. 1992. Crisis and challenge: Black education 1910±1990. Cape Town: Oxford
University Press.
Holmes, P & Moorhouse, I. 1991. Geography method for primary teachers. Pinelands:
Maskew Miller Longman.
Jordaan, SP, Vivier, JM, Barnard, CJ & Schutte, MA. [Sa]. Didactics: History in the primary
school. Pretoria: De Jager HAUM.
Lowry, S. 1995. A critique of the history curriculum debate in South Africa: some signposts
for the future. Perspectives in Education, 16(1):105±130.
Marwick, A. 1970. The Nature of History. London: The Macmillan Press.
Nelson, MR. 1992. Children and social studies: creative teaching in the elementary
classroom. 2nd edition. Orlando: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Reber, AS. 1985. The Penquin Dictionary of Psychology. London: Penguin.
Robertson, I. 1977. Sociology. New York: Worth.
Smit, MJ. 1986. Aardrykskunde in die primeÃre skool: 'n pleidooi vir beter seleksie, meer
vryheid en inisiatief. Die Unie, April:276±278.
Smit, T. 1994. School Geography in the new South Africa: challenges and responses, in LB
Hurry (ed). A case for Geography in the new South Africa. Pietermaritzburg: Geography
Initiative in South Africa.
Tulloch, S. (ed). 1993. The Reader's Digest Oxford complete Wordfinder. London: The
Reader's Digest Association.
24
Van Jaarsveld, FA & Rademeyer, JI. 1977. Teorie en metodiek vir geskiedenisonderrig. 2de
uitgawe. Doornfontein, Johannesburg: Perskor.
Van Schoor, MCE. 1975. Onderwys in die Oranje-Vrystaat. In J. Chr. Coetzee (red).
Onderwys in Suid-Afrika. Pretoria: JL van Schaik.
Venter, SCJ. 1992. Subject Didactics: Geography. Only study guide for MGGROO-R.
Pretoria: University of South Africa.
Western Cape Education Department (WCED). 1996. Geography Syllabus: senior primary
phase Ð Standerds (sic) 2 to 4.
Wiegand, P. 1993. Children and Primary Geography. London: Cassell.
25 PST103-E/1
Unit 3
Curriculum and curriculum
development
. understand what is meant by the concepts of curriculum and
curriculum development,
. take cognisance of curriculum development initiatives in South African
education with special reference to Geography and History,
. plot the position of Geography and History in these current initiatives.
3.1 Defining the concept ``curriculum''

Good education does not only occur if teachers' qualifications are improved, educational
equipment and materials are supplied in abundance, detailed syllabuses are provided or well-
structured examinations are the order of the day. Good education can only occur if all these
are combined into productive classroom experiences. These dynamic processes must be
reflected in the curriculum. Dachs (1996:93) sees the curriculum as an active educational
process, in other words ``... something that happens ... and not simply a pile of documents
describing what ought to happen''.
!! What then is a curriculum?
Carl (1995:26±27) notes the difficulty of defining such a concept because of, among other
reasons, the diverse approaches with which writers negotiate the field (curriculum studies).
Without getting into too much of a debate, we will look at Carl's definition of the concept.
The term can be defined as ``... a broad concept that embraces all planned activities, and thus
also subject courses that take place during the ordinary school day. It also includes all after-
school planned activities such as societies and sport'' (Carl 1988:21).
This implies that the concept has a narrow meaning (a set of subjects) and a wider
connotation (all learning experiences offered by a school, both during and after school). To
Marks et al. (in Carl 1995:33) the curriculum ``... encompasses all of the learning experiences
that students have under the direction of the school.''
It is now necessary to look briefly at curriculum development in South Africa. In this

analysis we will plot the position of Geography and History so that you can see its
development.
26
3.2 Curriculum development

Many of South Africa's educational problems are directly related to the curriculum and for it to be
relevant, curriculum development should be such that it fulfills this need (Carl 1995:24).
!! What then is curriculum development?
Even this concept lends itself to various definitions. However, for this discussion, we will
adopt the definition by Carl (1995:73) who sees it as a process characterised by various
phases such as curriculum design, dissemination, implementation and evaluation.
Recently, specific initiatives in South Africa have endeavoured to investigate curriculum
development with the aim of proposing a broad policy (Carl 1995:25) in making it more
relevant. These initiatives include the Human Sciences Research Council's (HSRC)
investigation into education in 1981 (commonly known as the De Lange Report), the
discussion document of the Committee of Heads of Education Departments in
November 1991, as well as the provisional report of the National Education Policy
Investigation (known as the NEPI report) of 1992.
Although these initiatives contributed greatly to the curriculum development debate, they
were not seen as reflecting all the role players in South African education, a truly democratic
process was thus needed.
After the first democratic elections in 1994, developments in education attempted to reflect
democratic principles. This was also the case with curriculum development.
In 1995 the Heads of Education Committee (HEDCOM) requested the Department of
Education to facilitate the development of a new curriculum framework for General and
Further Education and Training. The Department of Education, in an attempt to meet this
request, appointed a national Consultative Forum on Curriculum (CFC). This forum
represented a variety of stakeholders and role players in education and training across the
country. The result was the Curriculum Framework For General and Further
Education and Training of December 1995 (CFC 1995: foreword). Hereafter, we will refer
to this initiative as the 1995 Curriculum Framework. This was the first discussion
document, and, in line with democratic principles, interested parties Ð both individual and
collective Ð were invited to respond by March 1996. The responses were considered by the
Curriculum Development Working Group (CDWG) of the National Curriculum
Development Committee (NCDC) and were as far as possible incorporated in the July
1996 discussion draft (CDWG 1996: foreword), herewith referred to as the 1996
Curriculum Framework.
Many relevant documents were used in preparing and developing these works. These
included the 1993 interim Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, the March
1995 White Paper on Education and Training and the October 1995 South African
Qualifications Authority (SAQA). The White Paper was drawn upon heavily to develop
the `'new'' curriculum (CFC 1996: foreword; CDWG 1996:6).
The 1996 Curriculum Framework (CDWG 1996:11±16) identified 11 principles
informing curriculum design to contribute towards:
. human resource development promoting continued learning, the application and

development of new knowledge, skills and technologies, flexibility in job movement, etc;
. learner-centredness;
27 PST103-E/1
. being relevant and appropriate to current and anticipated needs of the individual,
society, commerce and industry;
. an integrated approach which rejects a rigid division between academic and applied
knowledge, theory and practice, knowledge and skills, head and hand;
. differentiation, redress and learner support;
. nation-building and non-discrimination;
. critical and creative thinking;
. flexible learning programmes that offer learners the opportunity of choosing what,
where, when, how and at what pace to learn (especially adult learners);
. learning programmes that facilitate progression from one class, phase, or learning
outcome to another;
. credibility Ð both nationally and internationally;
. quality assurance.
To many in South Africa, the traditional curriculum did not reflect these above-mentioned
principles.
Whereas, in the past, curriculum design tended to be, centrally designed, content-
based, prescriptive and rigid there has been a shift towards making the curriculum
outcome-based and flexible in that it promotes lifelong learning. It allows for
optimum participation by the teacher/educator/trainer as well as the devolution of
curriculum development (Carl 1995:24±25; CFC 1995:3, 8; CDWG 1996:11). According to
the 1996 Curriculum Framework (CDWG 1996:17) `òutcomes-based curriculum
development processes will, therefore, have as their starting point the intended results of
their learning in terms of knowledge, skills and values rather than the prescription of content
to be learnt.'' It is argued that outcomes-based learning promotes holistic, integrated
learning development and not narrow, mechanistic behaviour (CFC 1995:8±9) as was the
case in the past where the focus was on curriculum input (learning content). The emphasis
has now shifted to curriculum output (the results of learning, rather than on the ways and
means by which these results have to be achieved) (CFC 1995:12).
As curriculum development will be discussed in more detail in the module `General

teaching methods and classroom management' (ETH202), we will not elaborate any
further on this topic. However, we will focus on the place of Geography and History in this
curriculum development process.
3.2.1 The place of Geography and History in the development of the

curriculum
Traditionally, the subjects Geography and History formed part of the basic curriculum for the
primary school (senior primary). Emphasis in these subjects was on product orientated
teaching instead of on the process (Carl 1988:2±3).
In the light of outcomes-based curriculum development (CDWG 1996:33), new content is

being looked into with a view to not dividing areas of learning into rigid, separate subjects as
was and is the case.
A Curriculum Model for Education in South Africa (CUMSA) of November 1991,

although only a draft document, proposed seven fields of study which would prepare
learners for life. One of these fields of study was Social Sciences. Figure 1 below gives the
proposed model (CHED 1991:19, 26).
28
FIGURE 3.1
The curriculum for the Junior Primary, Senior Primary and Junior Secondary Phases
Field of Study Jnr Prim Phase Snr Prim Phase Jnr Sec Phase
Grd 1±3 (Sub Grd 4±7 (Stds 2±5) Grd 8±9 (Stds 6±7)
stds/stds A, B, 1)
Languages 1st year one or two 1st year two Two languages from
languages, there- languages, thereafter Afrikaans, English
after two Afr, Eng, and an and an African
languages, from African language language
Afr, Eng or an
African language
Mathematics Mathematics Mathematics Mathematics
Natural Sciences Environmental General Science General Science
Studies
Social Sciences (accommodated in Social Science Social Science
Environmental (Geography, History
Studies) and principles from
Economics)
Arts Arts Education Arts Education Arts Education
Technology Technology Technology Technology
Lifestyle Education Religious Instruc- Religious Instruction Religious Instruction
tion Guidance Guidance
Guidance Economic Education Economic Education
Economic Educa- Physical Education Physical Education
tion
Physical Education
One of the following
optional subjects:
A third language
(from the language
package/a foreign
language)
A talent subject
A vocationally
oriented subject
Adapted from: CHED 1991:21, 26
!! What then did the 1995 and 1996 Curriculum Frameworks propose?
As was previously mentioned, an attempt was made to make education and training in South
Africa more relevant. This is reflected in a system which intends making learning a lifelong
process.
This process proposes two bands General and Further Education: of education and training.
General Education and Training is further more divided into three developmental phases of
school education: Early Childhood Development [ECD]/Foundation, Intermediate
and Senior phases as well as four sub-levels of adult basic education: ABET 1±4 (CFC
29 PST103-E/1
1995:9; NQF 1996). Figure 2 below gives you a graphic representation of this proposed
model.
FIGURE 3.2
National Qualifications Framework
NQF Learning Types of Qualifications Locations of Learning

level Band and Certificates for units and qualifications
Doctorates Technikons/Universities
8 Higher Further Research Degrees Tertiary/Research/
Professional institutions
Education Technikons/Universities
7 Higher Degrees Tertiary/Research/
Professional Qualifications Professional
institutions
and Universities/Technikons/
6 First Degrees Colleges/Private/
Higher Diplomas Professional institutions/
Workplaces/etc
Training Universities/Technikons/
5 Diplomas Colleges/Private/
Band Occupational Certificates Professional institutions/
Workplaces/etc
Further Education and Training Certificate
School/College/Training Formal Technical/ RDP and

4 Further Certificates high Commun- Labour
Mix of unit credits from all schools/ ity/Police/ market
Nursing/ schemes/
Education Private/ Private Industry
School/College/Training Public colleges, Training
3 Certificates schools etc Boards/
and Mix of unit credits from all Unions/
Workplace
Training School/College/Training centres,
2 Certificates etc
Band Mix of unit credits from all
1 General Education and Training Certificate (end of compulsory schooling/ABET 4)
General Senior phase Formal Work-based NGOs/

Education schools training/ Churches/
ABET level (Urban/ Occupation adult
3 rural/ training/ centres/
and Intermediate Farm/ RDP/ private
phase Special/ Labour providers/
ABET level Early market Industry
Training 2 Child- schemes/ training
Foundation hood Upliftment boards/
Band phase devel- programs/ Unions/
ABET level opment Community Workplace
1 centres) programs/ training/
Pre-school develop- etc
ment
schemes
Sources: CFC 1995:11; NQF 1996:6

30
D Activity 1 Ð 5 minutes
Which phase is identified as the traditional senior primary (Grd 4, 5, 6) phase

by the Curriculum Framework?
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
As was previously mentioned, a principle of curriculum design is that of integration. An

integrated approach to education and training implies getting rid of rigid divisions between
aspects such as academic and applied knowledge, theory and practice, and knowledge and
skills. One way of effecting integration might be to combine two or more traditional subjects
or areas of learning into one, while another way might be to combine various subject
perspectives into a particular topic (CFC 1995:18; CDWG 1996:12).
It is important to note what the 1995 and 1996 Curriculum Frameworks (CFC 1995:25;
CDWG 1996:29) note about the Intermediate Phase.
In the Intermediate Phase teaching and learning, while still highly contextualised and
largely integrated (using cross-curricular themes or topics), could begin to move in the
direction of those individual areas of learning which inform General and Further
Education and Training. Learners in this phase are beginning to understand detailed
relationships between materials, incidents, circumstances and people and are able to
infer the consequences of such relationships. This has significant implications for the
selection of learning content and teaching and learning activities which should develop
these abilities to the full (CDWG 1996:29).
In keeping with this as well as ensuring that curriculum development is outcomes based,
Areas of Learning were identified to, amongst other aims, counteract fragmented views of
learning experience and to demonstrate shared commonalities of learning (CDWG 1996:33±
34). The 1995 Curriculum Framework proposed 11 Areas of Learning. However, these 11
were later incorporated into 8 in the 1996 Curriculum Framework (CFC 1995:9; CDWG
1996:33±34).
The following Areas of Learning will form the common core of the curriculum for all learners
in the formal General band (compulsory schooling):
. Communications, Literacy and Language learning
. Numeracy and Mathematics
. Human and Social Sciences
. Physical and Natural Sciences
. Technology
. Arts and Culture
. Economic and Management Sciences
. Life Orientation/Personal and Social Development (CDWG 1996:33±34).
The categorisation of these Areas of Learning does not imply that they have to be taught
separately or that learning programmes need to be based on these areas as single, discrete
entities. It is envisaged that curriculum development at local, provincial, regional and
institutional level will be innovative and relevant. This could include the integration of
knowledge across the core areas (CDWG 1996:34).
31 PST103-E/1
Looking at the Areas of Learning, where do you think that Geography and
History will fit in?
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
More specifically, these Areas of Learning have focuses which are illustrated in figure 3
below. Note that these focusses are not final and will be finalised in 1997.
FIGURE 3.3
Curriculum Framework for General and Further Education and Training
Core Learning Area Description (Including Options)
Communication, Literacy, Language learning Literacy
South African Official Languages
Other modern world Languages
Classical Languages
Numeracy and Mathematics Numeracy, mathematics, statistics, etc.
Human and Social Sciences Geography, History
Democracy Education
Development Studies
Environmental Studies
World Ethical and Belief Systems
Utility and Social Services
Physical and Natural Sciences Integrated Sciences
Biological-Sciences
Physical Sciences
Agricultural Sciences
Engineering
Technological Sciences Technology Education
Information Technology
Technical Education
Applied Arts and Sciences
Arts and Culture Visual, Expressive and Performing Arts
Music Education
Movement, Oracy Studies
Economic and Management Sciences Economic Education
Financial Management
Business Education including Entrepreneurship
Public Management
Life Orientation, Person and Social Health Education, Career Guidance
Development Lifelong Learning Skills
Inter- and Intra-personal Development
Religious Studies
Physical Education
Source: CDWG 1996:35

32
On 25 October 1996 a press release by the Department of Education noted the acceptance of
the new curriculum (SABC 2 News, 25 October 1996) which would replace the old
curriculum. This new curriculum will come into operation in January 1998 (The Citizen, 30
October 1996:5).
!! As there is no official information as to the specifics of this final

curriculum, tutorial letters will keep you informed as to their
progress and development during 1997.
Would you advocate the traditional separation of subjects or a more

integrated approach as indicated by the Areas of Learning? Explain.
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................

Past curriculum development initiatives which attempted to make the curriculum more
relevant to learners in South Africa, did not meet with much success. With the move towards
democratising education, the Curriculum Framework models of 1995 and 1996 attempted to
bring the curriculum in line with the real educational needs of South African learners. The
subjects Geography and History, once rigid disciplines, are to be integrated into one area of
learning.

1 How do the ``Fields of Study'' of the Curriculum Model for Education in South Africa
(CUMSA) differ from the `Àreas of Learning'' proposed by the 1996 Curriculum
Framework. Refer specifically to the subjects Geography and History. [6]
2 Would you say that the 1996 Curriculum Framework is more relevant to the educational
needs of all South Africans than previous initiatives? Explain your answer. [5]
3 Make a time line of the curriculum development processes in South Africa up until
recently. [5]
4 What is meant by an outcomes-based approach to learning? [4]
5 Curriculum development has undergone a major shift in thinking over the last couple of
years. By means of a table, show the difference between the traditional and
contemporary (modern) views surrounding curriculum development. [6]
33 PST103-E/1
6 Give a brief description of the most recent developments (1990 till present) of the
curriculum in formal education. Refer specifically to the subjects History and
Geography. [5]
Bibliography
Carl, A, Volscenk, A, Franken, T, Ehlers, R, KotzeÂ, K, Louw, N & Van der Merwe, C. 1988.
Curriculum development in the primary school: A modular approach. Pinelands:
Maskew Miller Longman.
Carl, AE. 1995. Teacher empowerment through curriculum development: theory into
practice. Kenwyn: Juta.
Committee of Heads of Education Departments (CHED). 1991. A Curriculum model for
education in South Africa. Discussion document, November. Pretoria: The Department
of National Education.
Consultative Forum on Curriculum (CFC). 1995. Curriculum framework for general and
further education and training. Discussion document, December. Pretoria: National
Department of Education.
Curriculum Development Working Group (CDWG). 1996. Curriculum framework for general
and further education and training. Discussion document, July. Pretoria: National
Department of Education.
Dachs, T. 1996. Curriculum, child and teacher, in. Coutts, A. Empower the teacher. Halfway
House: Thomson International.
National Qualifications Framework (NQF). 1996. Working Document. Pretoria: Department

of Education.
SABC 2. 1996. News programme. 25 October.
The Citizen. 1996. New School subjects `will set new course'. 30 October:5.
34
Unit 4
Aims and objectives
. realise the value and necessity of well-conceived aims and objectives for
Geographical and Historical teaching,
. distinguish between the terms `àims'' and `òbjectives'',
. formulate your own aims and objectives for Geography and History,
. identify the general and specific skills and concepts that a pupil acquires
by studying geographical and historical phenomena,
. understand the forming of time and spatial concepts.
4.1 Introduction
The setting of goals in one's life is of cardinal importance. Goals give one a sense of
direction to that which has been achieved and that which has to be achieved. These
sentiments are as important in the art of teaching.
In teaching, goals can be achieved by means of aims and objectives. Although these two
concepts are very often perceived as being synonyms, it is necessary to explain the
difference.
Read: Hurry p 4 sec 1.5
4.2 The difference between aims and objectives

Read: Hurry p 4 sec 1.5.1
It is not always possible to reach all the aims and objectives in every lesson, but they must
eventually be achieved in a unit of different lessons. In order to understand the difference
between aims, and objectives read Hurry p 4 before doing activity 1.
1 What do you understand by an educational aim?

................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
2 What do you understand by an educational objective?
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
35 PST103-E/1
!! Section 1.5.3 of Hurry must be replaced by the aims presented in the

core syllabus (see Appendix). Recent trends in curriculum
development exclude the specifying of objectives as they tend to
leave that in the hands of local institutions. This aspect is evident in
the extract from extended syllabus of the Western Cape included in
this study guide.
If a teacher presents a map in Geography and History, identify the aims and
objectives that he/she hopes to achieve.
Aims and objectives
Geography
1 ...............................................................................................................................
2 ...............................................................................................................................
3 ...............................................................................................................................
4 ...............................................................................................................................
History
1 ...............................................................................................................................
2 ...............................................................................................................................
3 ...............................................................................................................................
4 ............................................................... ...............................................................
When you as a teacher, are planning a scheme of work, you must consult the departmental
syllabus when formulating the teaching objectives for a specific lesson/unit. Though the
syllabus only gives broad aims, it is up to you to specify objectives. See the extended
syllabus of the Western Cape (Appendix).
When setting objectives, the basic aims of Geography and History must constantly be borne
in mind and you will have to ask yourself:
. What is of the greatest importance in this topic/section?

. How does it fit into the general framework of Geography and History?
. What do I really want the pupils to learn?
. How do I propose to get there?
By stating the objectives of the teaching activity clearly, you can:
. measure the degree to which these activities have been attained

. indicate to other teachers what the intended learning patterns are
. provide the pupils with clearly defined tasks
. assess the progress of individual pupils
36
. determine the adequacy of the programme through the result of the intended learning
effects
You will note that teaching objectives can also include a:
lesson objective Ð the part the teacher will play in teaching the subject content in order
to achieve the desired learning effect/objective, and the
learning objective Ð the part the pupils will play in eventually accepting responsibilities
and adulthood.
When stating the objectives of a lesson it is important to include, where relevant, the skills
that would be included. It is imperative for the pupils to acquire certain skills in their subject,
be it Geography or History.
4.3 Skills
We must look at the following skills as most important aspects of teaching activities in Social
Sciences, namely
4.3.1 Reading and research skills

. The pupils must be able to observe carefully, identify and create mental images of
phenomena being studied, as well as to research information from different sources.
4.3.2 Social skills

. The pupils must be able to reflect on matters together, plan together and to make an
individual contribution to the group of which each one is a member.
4.3.3 Descriptive skills

. The pupils must be able to observe and record data and give an elementary interpretation
of data or events and supply key concepts.
4.3.4 Schematic skills

. Pupils must be able to distinguish between main and side effects, and arrange facts
systematically in a logical sequence.
4.3.5 Skills in synthesis

. Pupils must be able to select and gather evidence out of the diversity of information and
summarise and organise it into a meaningful coherent whole as well as synthesise (put
together) the information in such a way as to gain a complete picture of the phenomenon
observed.
In this way Social Sciences will contribute to literacy, oracy, numeracy and graphicacy (the
ability to read maps, graphs, etc).
37 PST103-E/1
Read: Hurry pp 7±8
D
Mathews et al. pp 20±24
Activity 3 Ð 10 minutes
Certain teaching and learning activities can lead to the development of
general learning skills, for instance:
Skill Supply teaching and learning

activities
posing questions .............................................................
forming hypotheses .............................................................
extracting information .............................................................
recording information .............................................................
recalling information .............................................................
analysing information .............................................................
critically assessing information .............................................................
synthesising information from

different sources .............................................................
discarding irrelevant information .............................................................
dealing with conflicting information .............................................................
using imagination .............................................................
making inferences and deductions .............................................................
looking at different viewpoints .............................................................
comparing and contrasting .............................................................
making links and connections .............................................................
explaining outcomes .............................................................
Try to add more teaching and learning activities to this list that would lead to
achieving the skills mentioned earlier. (Compare this list of skills with the
acquisition of skills under the aims presented in the core syllabuses.)
Although the development of knowledge, skills attitudes and values constitutes the holistic
process of education, these aspects may be grouped into three categories. Through their
studies in Geography and History the pupils are encouraged to explore and develop
. knowledge and understanding

. attitudes and values
. skills
Read: Hurry p 4 sec 1.5.2
38
Since Geography and History are such broad subjects, it is only possible to specify certain
aims. The following aims listed below will develop an awareness from the pupils of the
subjects as a whole.
!! The following sections must be viewed in correlation with section

2.2 in study unit 2 Ð `The nature and value of Geography and History
in general education'.
GEOGRAPHY HISTORY
EXTENSION OF KNOWLEDGE: Teaching aims
Ð to lead the pupils to an awareness of their Ð to introduce and make the pupil aware of
immediate and distant environment the past and see it in perspective
Ð to stress interrelationships between Ð to relate human and emotional
geographical elements, people and experiences neutrally, objectively and
environment truthfully
Ð to help pupils to think ecologically and Ð to foster virtues such as loyalty,
see man as an integral part of the responsibility, patriotism, moral and
ecosystem religious values, a healthy emotional life,
ethics, civic (political and cultural) duties
and responsibility
Ð to help pupils to view all topics as Ð to help pupils understand that all human
integral parts of an intermeshed system life has great value and is meaningful,
and man must carve his name in an
orderly community
Ð to help pupils to think holistically Ð to help pupils to think holistically
FORMATION OF ATTITUDES AND VALUES BY THE PUPIL
Ð to cultivate an appreciation of, and Ð to employ critical accurate analysis in the

responsible attitude towards, the earth interpretation of sources Ð not suscept-
and its physical resources ibility to propaganda but objectivity
Ð to develop a concern for the quality of Ð to study cause and effect, as all human
planning of the environment for future behaviour is determined by causes which
generations are ascertainable
Ð to understand the significance of Ð to establish a hierarchy of causes to explain
decision making what happened in the past as lying behind
the search for intrinsic values
Ð to encourage a commitment to seeking
solutions to local, regional, national and
international problems on the basis of the
`Ùniversal Declaration of Human Rights''
Ð to develop an interest in, understanding Ð to acquire a comprehensive system of
of, and sympathetic attitude towards values such as faith, honesty, orderliness,
people of other races and nationalities sense of duty, perseverance, healthy human
around the globe relations, good citizenship, freedom
Ð to develop a respect for the rights of all Ð to develop empathy as a way of thinking
people to equality
Ð to develop a readiness to use geographic Ð to bring history alive and make it relevant
knowledge and skills in daily life to everyday life
Ð to understand different kinds of change,
eg slow, fast, unimportant, important,
``good'', ``bad'' and developmental
39 PST103-E/1
Try to add to this list more aspects of knowledge, attitudes and values that
could be influenced by Geography and History
GEOGRAPHY HISTORY
EXTENSION OF KNOWLEDGE: Teaching aims

.............................................................. .............................................................
................................................................ ...............................................................
................................................................ ...............................................................
................................................................ ...............................................................
................................................................ ...............................................................
................................................................ ...............................................................
................................................................ ...............................................................
................................................................ ...............................................................
FORMATION OF ATTITUDES AND VALUES BY THE PUPILS
................................................................ ...............................................................
................................................................ ...............................................................
................................................................ ...............................................................
................................................................ ...............................................................
................................................................ ...............................................................
................................................................ ...............................................................
................................................................ ...............................................................
................................................................ ...............................................................
GEOGRAPHY HISTORY
ACQUISITION OF SKILLS BY THE PUPIL

Ð to use verbal, quantitative and Ð to acquire language skills and
symbolic data forms such as text, terminology for communication and
pictures, graphs, tables, diagrams and intellectual development
maps
Ð to practise such methods as field Ð to observe and record historical
observation and mapping, evidence, data collection and
interviewing people, interpreting classification; to apply ideas to wider
secondary resources and applying themes/areas with insight
statistics
40
GEOGRAPHY HISTORY
Ð to use communicative, thinking, Ð to communicate meaningfully about
practical and social skills to explore the learning content during
geographical topics from local to discussions
international level
Ð to question, collect, process, interpret Ð to expand one's field of experience
and evaluate data; make by making conclusions and forming
generalisations, judgements and new opinions
decisions; solve problems, work in
groups and behave consistently with
declared attitudes
Ð to test simple hypotheses and classify Ð to grasp the interaction between
cause/consequence features cause and effect
Ð to develop the spatial concept of Ð to understand the past in terms of
place in order to understand the time and space in order to understand
differences between location, and judge each age in context of its
distance and area, as well as the idea own time and characteristics
of variations in altitude above sea
level
Ð to respect and preserve, for future
generations, that which has its origin
in the past
Ð to understand that a knowledge of
the past is essential to understand the
present and lift oneself out of the
present limited sphere into the greater
community of the human being
Link the following activities with the knowledge, skills and values that these
activities could help to develop:
Activity Knowledge, skill and values
The pupils could be

. introduced to timelines .................................................................
. asked to sequence a number of .................................................................
different artefacts such as toys, or .................................................................
some ways of telling time .................................................................
(sundials, water clocks). They .................................................................
could be asked to place them in .................................................................
one of two categories, namely `à .................................................................
long time ago'' or `'now'' and .................................................................
state what they think the object .................................................................
was used for and why they have .................................................................
put it into the category .................................................................
. asked to arrange pictorial lists .................................................................
(pictures) into the right sequence .................................................................
41 PST103-E/1
Activity Knowledge, skill and values
. asked questions such as ``Why .................................................................

has ... (a process, custom, .................................................................
system, etc) changed over the .................................................................
years?'' .................................................................
``How and why has ... (an object, .................................................................
artefact, tool etc) been .................................................................
improved?'' .................................................................
``State whether ... (a fact from the .................................................................
past or in nature) is true or false .................................................................
and give your reasons.'' .................................................................
. taken on a field trip and given .................................................................
learning activities such as role .................................................................
play during a trail, researching .................................................................
specific phenomena in nature, .................................................................
and similar activities. .................................................................
The teacher may ask himself certain questions when setting the aims for his lesson such
as
. Why?
. Where to?
. Where is it?
. What is it like?
. Why is it there?
. How did it happen?
. What impact does it have?
. How should it be managed for the mutual benefit of humanity and the natural
environment?
The aims listed above need not be confined to Geography and History but are transferable in
toto to any other subject in the senior primary phase. The norms and values instilled thereby
will serve as a guideline for pupils in any other situation where they are required to make a
choice and accept responsibilities for their choices (Jordaan [sa]:73). They could also lead
to the development of personal and social competence, particularly with regard to the spatial
and temporal dimensions of daily life and to intercultural understanding.

The value of Geography and History is apparent from its aims and objectives, which must
strive to be child-centred rather than subject-orientated. For effective teaching to take
place the subject matter must always be made alive and relevant for the pupils. You will
benefit from reviewing the extent to which you have achieved your aims and objectives at
the end of each lesson. This will enable you to view your successes and failures and be better
prepared for the lessons which lie ahead.
42

1 What is the difference between an educational aim and objective? [4]
2 Take any aspect from the Gr 6 Geography and History syllabus which you intend to
teach during a lesson and set up (for each subject) an aim and three objectives.
Remember that your objectives must include knowledge, skills, values and
attitudes. [10]
3 Give a practical example in Geography and History how each of the following skills
could be acquired:
GEOGRAPHY HISTORY
. Reading and research .............................................. ............................................

skills .............................................. ............................................
. Social skills .............................................. ............................................
. Descriptive skills .............................................. ............................................
. Schematic skills .............................................. ............................................
. Skills in synthesis .............................................. ............................................
[10]
4 Why is it imperative to state the objectives of any teaching activity? [5]
Bibliography
Carney, G & Rawling, E (ed). 1985. Teaching slow learners through Geography. Sheffield:
The Geographical Association.
Jordaan, SP, Vivier, JM, Barnard, CJ & Schutte, MA. [Sa] Didactics: History in the primary
school. Pretoria: De Jager.
43 PST103-E/1
Unit 5
Resources and media
. discuss different teaching media for teaching Geography and History,
. discuss the use of teaching media in particular learning situations,
. improvise a wide range of aids from easily obtained materials,
. name the advantages of specific teaching media,
. list the disadvantages of specific teaching media,
. select the most appropriate teaching medium to serve instructional
needs for group teaching or individual self-paced learning,
. apply necessary planning prior to use in the classroom.
As a teacher you can make or break a subject lesson, depending on how the subject
material is presented. A teaching medium is anything that a teacher may use to improve his
teaching activities and the learning activities of the pupils. A teacher must select the
most appropriate teaching medium to convey a particular concept or learning matter to the
pupils.
Teaching media are usually used as supplements to instruction or for enrichment

purposes. Whether the teacher is using one or a combination of these devices, their use must
be exercised to maximum advantage and not merely included to ``brighten up'' a lesson
(Holmes 1991:46). The aims and objectives of a lesson therefore play an important role here
and must always be the point of departure.
5.1 First order resources: the teacher

You, as the teacher, control the teaching-learning situation as the main role player. You will
plan the lesson and implement it in the classroom.
Traditionally the teacher has been the main source of information and knowledge for the
pupils. You as a teacher must know your subject content and be thoroughly prepared so that
you can reconstruct the learning content effortlessly.
As the teacher you would mainly make use of your voice (and body language) with dialogue,
narrative and discussions as teaching methods, for instance:
. The narrative method or story-telling method must appeal to the intellect of the pupils
so that they do not remain passive listeners, but become active participants. The pupils
must be taught to think intellectually in order to broaden their field of experience and to
master reality.
. The narration must be related to the life-world of the child Ð and consequently the
experiences of the pupils must serve as the point of departure for any lesson content.
. The narration must be gripping, inspiring, enthusiastic and lively so that the pupils relive
44
the happening in their imagination. The tone of voice and the rate of narration must
vary. History lends itself exceptionally well to the narrative method. In order to
successfully apply the narrative method the following points must be borne in mind:
Ð Narration is dependent on language usage and has its origin in conversation. As you,
the teacher, are addressing children, the monologue is essentially a conversation.
Ð Explain concepts as you go along, so that the pupils will gain insight into the learning
content and not only hear meaningless words.
. The question-and-answer method can be incorporated into the narrative method. During
the narration, you (the teacher) can employ well-formulated questions to hold the
pupils' attention. This includes continually presenting a problem to the pupils. The pupils
must be motivated to ask questions or to voice an opinion themselves.
The successful use of this method depends on the following:
. Questions must be asked which force the pupils to apply their newly acquired
knowledge. They must be motivated to participate actively in the learning situation.
They can make use of their textbooks, books from the media centre or any other aid to
find the answer.
. Questions must be set in such a way that they develop and improve not only the memory
of the pupils, but also their intellect, leading pupils to consider ideas, guiding their
enquiries and helping them with decision making.
This method will enable you (the teacher) to determine whether or not you have succeeded
in presenting the learning content to the pupils in a meaningful way.
In the past it has been assumed that good teaching was the key to good learning. It is more
clearly recognized now that learning is an activity that must be performed by the pupil, not
something the teacher can do for or to the pupil. The teacher's job is to structure and plan the
lesson so that successful learning can take place, and this includes the use of teaching
media.
5.2 Second order resources: the spoken and written

word
In Geography the pupils are learning about their environment and the task of the History
teacher is to recreate the past. The teacher must bring the pupils into contact with reality and
to reach his/her goal he/she makes use of the written and spoken word, as a teaching
medium. Words are also supplemented by the use of suitable teaching media, either to impart
knowledge or to explain it.
The spoken word must be supplemented by note-taking and note-making. Considering

that this is the record that the pupils will use in revising information for tests and
examinations, it is clear that pupils' note-taking must be beneficial to their learning activities.
The writing/black/chalkboard is one of the most useful media in most classrooms, and in
many places, the only one. It still remains one of the most accessible teaching media
available to the teacher.
45 PST103-E/1
5.2.1 The writing/black/chalkboard

Read: Hurry 1991:15, 78±82
Mathews et al. 1994:109±110
The writing/chalk/blackboard can be used in many ways which cover virtually all aspects of
the lesson situation in Social Sciences. The teacher (you) can build up your main point
scheme on the blackboard and complete it later during the actualisation of the lesson. The
learning content will determine whether the blackboard scheme will develop before or
during the lesson by means of a class discussion, or after the conclusion of the lesson. The
concepts used in the lesson must be clear so that no doubt exists in the pupils' minds of what
they are expected to contribute during the functionalising phase.
Use the blackboard before or during the lesson to:
. write up place, personal, new or strange names and words on one side of the board
. compile a brief summary of the main points
. draw appropriate sketches, maps, illustrations, timelines, diagrams and graphic
presentations necessary to explain the learning content/matter on the board
. compile brief exercises prior to the lesson for use during or after the lesson
. introduce movement into writing board work by using cardboard cut-outs
. display photographs and pictures which may be kept in place by means of magnets
The following should be avoided when using the blackboard

. writing long summaries or notes
. constructing elaborate maps or diagrams
. erasing written material immediately after writing it up, leaving no time for pupils to
read or understand it
. untidy handwriting or scrawling
The blackboard, however, does also have its limitations, because it takes time to write on it,
and the teacher must stand with his back to the class and consequently does not maintain
proper communication with the pupils. If the schemes or diagrams are erased, they must
once again be written on the blackboard when required.
Make a list of 5 advantages and 5 disadvantages of a blackboard during

the presentation of a lesson.
Advantages Disadvantages
............................................................. .................................................................
............................................................. .................................................................
............................................................. .................................................................
............................................................. .................................................................
............................................................. .................................................................
46
5.2.2 Textbooks
Read: Mathews et al. pp 112±114
Textbooks are another kind of learning resource freely available to the teacher and pupils.
Pupils must be taught how to use a textbook. It is not feasible for any primary school pupil to
acquire any information from a textbook without supervision. Certain subject terminology
used in the textbook is totally foreign to them. The teacher must explain the terminology to
the pupils to make it meaningful to them.
The functionalising phase of the lesson is an ideal time for incorporating the textbook or
additional literature in a meaningful way. This learning content can be studied out of
textbooks or from duplicated notes supplied by the teacher.
Using a scheme as a basis, the pupils can complete the scheme in their workbooks making
use of the textbook. This will help them to distinguish between the main and side causes of
effects. After the lesson has been presented, the pupil's are required to study the learning
content individually according to their own learning methods and make it their own. The
processing of a scheme is an ideal opportunity for differentiation because individual pupils'
work will differ.
However, no textbook can cover all the learning content. This makes it necessary for pupils
to do research (in the media centre or at home) and may include the following:
. newspapers and magazines should be used judiciously. Articles that are dramatic in
nature should not be used merely to draw attention to things. Pupils need to be taught to
discriminate between what is significant and what is merely sensational.
You as teacher will have to choose between two types of news items namely
. articles and reports relating to the relevant part of the syllabus
. news items about current events, whether local or international, which provide the
pupils with insight into the places where these events are taking place and what the
events mean in terms of the people-environment-space paradigm.
As much of this type of material might be too difficult for the pupils to understand, you will
have to highlight the essential detail.
Make a list of 4 advantages and 4 disadvantages of using the textbook as
a teaching medium.
............................................................. .................................................................
............................................................. .................................................................
............................................................. .................................................................
............................................................. .................................................................
47 PST103-E/1
5.3 Third order resources: teaching media

Teaching media enable the teacher to bring the learning content as ``reality'' closer to the life-
world of the pupils. A teaching medium portrays a reality to the pupils which is ``different to
the world in which he is living'' (Jordaan [sa]:115). But teaching media must be functional
and should contribute to the development of the lesson and not be used merely as ``visual
material''.
As teaching in the primary school is aimed at the concrete and spectacular, the use of
teaching media can contribute to the teaching of the learning content.
Teaching media may be used to:
. introduce a lesson topic or class discussion

. illustrate a particular lesson topic
. stimulate the pupils' ``past image'' or image of the past
. explain the learning content
. test or impart knowledge and insight
. create interest in an excursion to be undertaken
Give other possible uses of teaching media during the presentation of a lesson
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
In the planning of teaching media for a lesson the teacher must keep the following points in
mind:
. which learning content the teaching media must furnish

. which teaching medium is most suitable in a particular case
. in which way it is to be implemented during the lesson
. at what stage of the lesson it will be used
. for what purpose it will be used
. will it, or can it, only be used once
. which wall decoration can be used during the lesson
5.3.1 Pictures, sketches, illustrations and photographs

Read: Hurry pp 35±40, 60±68, 78
Mathews et al. pp 110
Over the years the teacher can build up a large collection of pictures, sketches, illustrations
and photographs collected from various sources such as magazines, newspapers, embassies,
48
commercial enterprises. This type of material can be collected for each and every lesson
theme.
As with all teaching media, any pictorial material should form an integral part of the lesson
and always be relevant to the content of the lesson. Careful thought must go into the use of
each item. The use of this type of teaching medium during the presentation of a lesson must
always go hand in hand with the development of the reasoning process and insight, and for
that reason the use must be well planned. It is important to note that there must always be an
objective to the exhibition of a picture or similar item. The teacher must ask his pupils to
``read'' and `ìnterpret'' all forms of visual material. The teacher must ask questions prompting
pupils to analyse the content of these visual materials.
This type of visual material may be used during the course of the lesson, for displays on the
bulletin board, project books, and so on. Suitable sketches, photographs, maps, pictures and
illustrations appear in most textbooks. This material can be used during or after the lesson for
evaluation and assessment.
Keep the following in mind when using pictorial material during the course of the lesson
. items must be large enough for all to see
. pupils should be taught to read and interpret pictorial language
. pictures and photographs may be used to make comparisons
The following should be avoided when using pictorial material
. flashing pictures in front of the class in quick succession

. showing too many items in one lesson
. passing material around the class
. walking around the class with too small pictures
. using pictures which are too small, unclear black and white photographs, etc.
Write down 5 advantages and 5 disadvantages of pictures, sketches and

photographs as teaching media.
............................................................. .................................................................
............................................................. .................................................................
............................................................. .................................................................
............................................................. .................................................................
49 PST103-E/1
5.3.2 The overhead projector

Read: Hurry pp 70±71
The overhead projector should preferably occupy a permanent space in the front of the
classroom with a large enough screen for the size of the room and the amount of space
available above the blackboard.
This apparatus is not too expensive and is easy to operate where electric power is available.
Transparencies are large slides for use with an overhead projector from the front of a lighted
room. The overhead projector with transparencies can be used as a substitute for the
blackboard and has the following advantages:
. No specialised technical knowledge is needed.
. Transparencies project a large brilliant picture for all to see in the classroom.
. The projector can be switched off at any time.
. Transparencies can be prepared prior to the lesson.
. The teacher can prepare the main point scheme he/she intends using during the
course of the lesson, prior to the commencement of the lesson Ð and complete it orally
with the pupils.
. This scheme can be preserved and used again later for revision purposes in follow-up
lessons with a view to tests or examinations.
. The teacher is able to write on a blank transparency during the presentation if
necessary.
. The teacher can add to existing detail on the transparency while teaching.
. Transparencies have many uses as there are many different ways of preparing and
presenting illustrative material, for example by making use of overlays, the combined
details of a sketch can be built up section by section.
. A wide variety of transparencies of atlas maps, sketches, diagrams, historical
photographs, etc are available commercially.
List 5 disadvantages that you can think of using an overhead projector and
transparencies during a lesson.
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50
5.3.3 The timeline and timeline chart

Read: Mathew et al. Chapter 9
Geographical manifestation can be, and historical events are always, time-bound. It is
important in the primary school to take into account the pupils' poorly developed sense of
time at this stage (see p 21 of this study guide) of their development. Pupils have an
elementary understanding of the concept of time, but can become confused. Unless the
pupils grasp historical events in their chronological order, they will have difficulty in
understanding historical detail and the length of duration of events, and their place in the
sequence of related events as well as simultaneous events. Understanding the passage of
time and being orientated in time becomes essential. As the pupils daily encounter aspects of
time and the passage of time in their life-world and environment, the concept of time can be
demonstrated to the pupils by means of an elementary timeline or time chart.
A timeline can serve as an ordering document to systematise the learning content in time. It
can for example be affixed to the wall of a classroom where important dates which are learnt
during the course of the year can be inserted in the appropriate position. Such a time chart
must be simple and not crammed with detail and each class should have its own timeline.
Study the following example of timelines (Jordaan [sa]:124) and draw up
your own timeline or timeline chart, taking a theme from the syllabus at the
back of this guide.
TIMELINES
The Past The Present The Future

3 "
Very long ago
A century ago
Recently
The day before yesterday
Yesterday
Today
Tomorrow
Two days time
In a month
In a year
The word timeline
Birth of Christ
Before Christ (B.C.) After Christ (A.D.)
3 "
1500 500 500 1500 1652
B.C. B.C. A.D. A.D. A.D.
3000 2000 1000 0 1000 1997

B.C. B.C. B.C. A.D.
51 PST103-E/1
The Chronological Timeline
6 April 1652 Arrival of Jan van Riebeeck

1657 The First Free Burghers at the Cape
1662 Van Riebeeck leaves the Cape
1679 Simon van der Stel becomes Governor at the Cape
Establishment of Stellenbosch
1685 Van der Stel visits Namaqualand
1688 Arrival of the French Huguenots
1699 WA van der Stel replaces Simon van der Stel as Governor at the
Cape
A timeline to indicate main events over a short period of time
(Jordaan [sa]:124)
5.3.4 Film/motion pictures

Read: Mathew et al. p 111
The historical past and geographical present can easily be brought into the classroom by
means of an educational film.
The film or motion picture can be used
. to show finer detail and movement

. to serve as an introduction to a lesson
. as a form of revision
. as background before an excursion, and so on.
The teacher's skill and experience increase the value of the film. The content of the film must
be explained to pupils before the viewing by means of a short talk or scheme, so that they
don't view it passively as a means of relaxation. The film showing must be followed by
discussions between the teacher and all the pupils. A class discussion, as well as a second
showing, increases the value of the film. If pupils do not understand the language used in the
film, the sound must be switched off and the teacher must do the narration. Pupils could be
required to give a written summary of the film after the second viewing.
5.3.5 Video recording

Read: Mathews et al. p 111
A video recording, like a motion picture, can be used to present information if it involves
motion, describes processes, documents events, shows relationships, teaches a skill, and so
on.
5.3.6 Filmstrips and slides

Read: Mathews et al. pp 110±111
Filmstrips and various slides are sometimes accompanied by a recorded commentary

concerning the content and can be hired from the National Film Library, school library
52
services, libraries and private companies or a teacher can build up his own collection of a
series of colour slides or slides with commentary recorded on an accompanying cassette.
You, as the teacher, will have to check the material beforehand, and to select for use only
those slides that conform to the objectives of the lesson. You can include the information
provided by the slides in a worksheet set on the relevant learning matter, for an assessment of
the pupils' work at the end of the lesson.
All these slides have the following advantages:
. Each slide (picture) can be discussed individually.

. Slides can be used as an introduction to a lesson or as revision; they should be
followed by a class discussion or written questions.
The disadvantages of using slides as teaching media could be that
. a darkened room is required which can also prevent pupils from writing down notes
or questions
. different projectors are required to project different types of slides
Use a topic from the syllabus at the back of this guide to incorporate some of
the above-mentioned media in a suitable lesson.
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5.3.7 Tape recorders

Read: Mathews et al. pp 111
The audio portion of audiovisual material should receive as much attention as the visual
elements as a good sound quality will enhance the visuals and vice versa. Cassette
recordings of material such as national anthems, or speeches from famous figures like
Winston Churchill, Martin Luther King, and Nelson Mandela can also be used as teaching
media in themselves.
5.3.8 Maps
Read: Hurry: Chapter 8, pp 77±78
Mathews et al.: Chapter 10
A map is the pictorial representation of part of the earth's surface. The map contains only
those features that are relevant for the topic under discussion. No matter what level of
Geography or History is being taught, maps should serve as the basic tools of the subject.
53 PST103-E/1
Identify the three most important characteristics of maps Ð refer to Hurry

pp 41±42.
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Mapwork in History also forms an integral part of the lesson and must be closely related to the
mapwork which the pupils do daily in the Geography class. The pupils' historical thought
processes are stimulated when you make use of geographical maps and influences to localise
historical events. History happens in places, and the specific milieu of those places (physical,
political, social, cultural, economic) affects the history which happens there. Without the aid of
a map it is difficult to realise distance, positions of mountains and rivers, trek movements, etc.
It is however, not only the position of places that is important in the orientation of an event.
The teacher must point out that the climate and vegetation also have an influence on where
people settled and what they do.
5.3.9 Exhibitions, presentations, samples and models

Read: Hurry pp 71±77
Both Geography and History lend themselves to this type of visual medium, which has the
following advantages:
. When a particular topic is being covered, mini-displays of relevant sample or subject

matter can be exhibited on a table in the classroom.
. The teacher may refer to these items during the course of the lesson.
. The pupils may be allowed to handle these samples.
. Exhibitions of the pupils' work can be evaluated and assessed.
. The sand table can be used effectively as it is versatile and can easily be changed to suit
a particular topic.
. Pupils can be encouraged to bring their own material, such as pictures, models, etc.
. Sampling saves time and effort Ð as long as the sample is large enough the accuracy of
this method is acceptable.
A news section on a noticeboard at the back of the classroom can be used for
presentations. Pupils should be encouraged to bring items of interest that should then be
discussed by the pupils and evaluated by the teacher. This gives the pupils the opportunity
. to express themselves verbally

. to become involved in interpreting world events
. to contribute to the knowledge of others
54
The teacher should also always be on the lookout for relevant material. The items must be
changed and updated in keeping with the changing nature of people's interaction with each
other and the environment.
5.3.10 Computers
Computers are ideally suited for pupils' interaction with the learning matter at their own
learning pace during the teaching situation.
There are some commercially available geographical and historical computer games and
programs. The computer as a teaching medium has many advantages and disadvantages.
Do your own research and compile a list of the advantages and disadvantages
of using a computer as a teaching medium.
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5.3.11 School library/media centre

Read: Mathew et al. Chapter 19
You as a teacher can, by integrating the school library or media centre into subject teaching,
do much to improve the standard of teaching and to broaden the pupils' knowledge and
arouse their interest.
The prime advantages of incorporating your lesson's activities with the media centre are to
stimulate pupils
. to independently gather information from sources in the library

. to think critically of the content of the sources
. to form their own opinions
. to collect data systematically and logically
. to learn, act and create independently on their own initiative
. to enrich the learning content which has been presented
. to develop reading, writing and language skills
. to do elementary research
. to prepare a scientific report
. to do independent reading
55 PST103-E/1
5.4 Fourth order resources: beyond the school

Geography and History should be presented as practical subjects in that they should involve
the pupils in plenty of activity. Practical work is any work that involves the pupils in doing
something. Every lesson should have at least some practical work. Apart from practical work
in the classroom it is also important to extend this practical work by taking the learning
activities into the outside world. Geography and History are both subjects that could move
out of the classroom into the world beyond the school.
5.4.1 Local events

Read: Hurry: Chapter 11
Mathews et al. Chapter 11
The study of local history gives pupils the opportunity to study, at first hand, the marks left by
their ancestors. Not all parts of a country and not all countries are as richly endowed with
these remains, but each and every area has its own specific climate, historic buildings,
bridges, houses, roads, street names, documents and household utensils which may date
back many years.
Geography, more than any other subject, is an `òutdoor'' subject which lends itself to field
work. This means going out of the classroom and into the real outside world to study and
observe.
Where local events have any bearing on things geographical or historical, pupils should be
encouraged to investigate them responsibly. Relevant information should be incorporated
into appropriate sections of the syllabus, thereby supplementing the existing learning
material available. This is what helps to make and keep Geography and History alive.
Local history refers to the immediate environment of the school and the pupils and may
involve a study of personalities and happenings in the pupils' geographical surroundings.
The greatest appeal of local history and geography lies in their immediacy. They deal with
what is familiar in the life-world of the pupils and can be studied at first hand, leading pupils
from the known to the unknown.
The motive for research into local conditions is primarily to involve pupils in the investigation
of real world situations with which they can readily identify. Responsible coordinated action
by primary school pupils can occasionally bring relevant issues into the public eye and
precipitate change. Field work can leave lasting impressions on the minds of pupils.
Name the attitudes that pupils can form when studying local geography and
history Ð see Mathews et al. pp 88±89.
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56
5.4.2 Fieldwork, excursions and educational tours

Read: Hurry: Chapter 11
Mathews et al. pp 90±95 + Unit 8
!! This section must be studied in correlation with study unit 8.
Fieldwork is only different from practical work in that it is an organised educational activity
outside the classroom. Fieldwork emphasises two basic didactic principles, namely
. that of activity Ð whereby the pupils learn best by doing something and
. that of observation and perception Ð whereby the pupils learn by the direct
observation of phenomena.
The planning of fieldwork and excursions is very important, as is the preparation of the pupils
for the tour. Only a limited number of themes can be covered in one excursion. The area
chosen for the excursion must be easily accessible, and the financial aspect as well as the
time factor, stop-overs etc. must be taken in account in the planning of such an excursion.
After the initial planning and deciding on a topic, your fieldwork project may be divided into
three stages:
. Pupils must be prepared for the excursion, as fieldwork should be synonymous with
observations and accurate reports. Pupils must know prior to the excursion
Ð the purpose of the excursion
Ð what they are expected to study
Ð what they are to look for and observe
Ð how they are to look and observe
Ð how they are to make notes of their observation.
This will enable them to collect information in the field. A film or slides can be shown to fill in
background information about the subject.
. You will have to supply the pupils, before the excursion, with duplicated notes which will
serve as a guideline as to what information they must gather, as well as written
assignments which pupils must complete during the excursion. You may organise the
information by means of maps and diagrams or any other method you may have chosen.
During the excursion enough time must be allowed for the answering of the questions,
the drawing of sketches, the taking down of notes and the completion of questionnaires.
. After the excursion the gathered information must be discussed, analysed and interpreted
by the teacher and pupils. During the discussion the pupils can compare their own
personal findings. The teacher will have to draw up a main point scheme which the
pupils must complete after the excursion using their own notes. This is of educational
value as pupils learn to express their own opinions. A report-back after the excursion or
tour is of prime importance and a written report must be based on the first two stages.
The advantages of fieldwork are:
. It can be undertaken to introduce or end a lesson theme.

. It can form a link between the theoretical and the practical aspects of the learning
content, ie it links the classroom with the real world.
. It is learning by doing.
57 PST103-E/1
The disadvantages of fieldwork may be:
. Poorly planned fieldwork is no more than a holiday for the pupils.

. It can disrupt the normal school day.
. It involves certain costs and expenses.
. Some pupils may not regard fieldwork as part of the learning experience.
List some of the basic skills that pupils should acquire/develop through
fieldwork Ð see Hurry p 103.
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There are two approaches to fieldwork, namely
. field teaching, which involves the teacher giving a lesson in the field and
. field research, which adopts a more problem-solving attitude (Holmes 1991:37).
EXAMPLE OF FIELDWORK
It is recommended that before the excursion pupils be supplied with a set of
duplicated notes to serve as a guideline of the information they must gather
during the expedition. For example, for a visit to the Pioneer House in Pretoria,
the following questions can be set.
The Pioneer House in Silverton, Pretoria

58
A VISIT TO THE PIONEER HOUSE
1. The house
1. Who were the first people to live in the house? Approximately when was
the house built?
2. What material was used to build
(a) the walls
(b) the roof
(c) the ceiling
(d) the floors
3. Which pieces of furniture are found in
(a) the lounge
(b) the bedrooms
4. In what way does the kitchen differ from our modern kitchens?
5. Name ten utility items in the kitchen.
6. How did the people make and bake bread?
2. The outbuildings
1. What material was used to build the outbuildings?
2. For what purpose were the outbuildings used?
3. Where is the stock-pen (kraal) situated?
3. Water supplies
Where did the household get their water?
4. Fruit trees
1. What type of fruit trees are to be seen today?

2. What is so special about the old vineyard?
(Jordaan et al. [sa]:135±136)
D Study the questions set and then attempt to formulate your own set of
questions using another topic from the syllabus.
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5.5 Criteria for the selection of teaching media

You as the teacher will be confronted with a host of problems in the application of teaching
media. In the selection of teaching media the following should be considered:
. The ``physical'' aspect of teaching media

Certain teaching media are expensive and although they might be extremely suitable for
use during a lesson or a series of lessons, it might be too costly to purchase these
teaching media.
Furthermore not all classrooms have the proper facilities for using these types of media
(eg electricity, darkened room, storage space).
. The development stages of the child (pupil)
It is important to keep the stages of development of the pupils in mind. Although children
develop at different rates and have their own particular interests and needs, it is possible
to make some general recommendations. The child learns with assistance of his five
senses, namely eyes Ð seeing (visual), ears Ð hearing (aural), nose Ð smelling,
tongue Ð tasting and skin Ð feeling (tactile). Through their senses children experience
and observe their life-world and environment. Teaching media could, by exploring these
aspects, bring the learning matter into the child's field of development.
By using teaching media during a lesson, different domains in the development of a
child will be addressed, namely
Ð cognitive domain Ð knowledge, information, and other intellectual skills
Ð affective domain Ð attitudes, values, appreciation
Ð psychomotor domain Ð skeletal-muscular use and coordination
These three domains must be kept in mind when audiovisual materials are planned and
developed and the objectives of the lesson are formulated.
. The teacher must decide in the lesson planning whether by using a teaching
medium the following didactic issues will be addressed:
Ð Will it make education more successful/productive through increasing the rate of
learning?
Ð Will it make learning more immediate by bridging the gap between the world inside
and outside the classroom?
Ð Will it make access to learning more equal for learners who ever they are?
Ð Will it make teaching more individual through providing resources so that learning
can take place according to the learner's own stage of development?
To evaluate the effectiveness of your teaching media you may ask these questions
formulated by Kemp (1980:71):
. How well do pupils accomplish the objectives upon which the materials are based?
. Do reactions indicate the materials are appealing to the pupils?
. If the materials do not meet the criteria of the objectives or lack appeal, what revisions
can be made?
. Are the arrangements for use of the material convenient for the teacher and pupils?
. What were the development costs (materials, time, etc)?
. What are the operational use costs (staff time, materials, facilities used)?
60
On the basis of the response to these questions, revise the material if necessary to maintain a
standard of effective teaching. Only by revising and keeping them up to date will your
audiovisual materials be kept relevant and maintained at your standards of quality and
effectiveness.

The geography and history classrooms can be the most attractive rooms in a school due to
the pictures and models displayed in them on a permanent or semi-permanent basis, which
help to create interest in pupils.
The past years have seen great advances in the development of audiovisual media. You may
employ a wide range of these in innovative ways to convey information and illustrate
concepts in the teaching of Geography and History. But always keep in mind that the right
tool must be used for the job and with due recognition of its advantages and disadvantages.
Although you (the teacher) must at all times ensure the pupils' participation during the
course of the lesson, you will have to guard against the over-use of media in general, or the
over-use of a particular medium. Pupils can be bombarded with volleys of audiovisual
material which simply reduce the learning situation to a passive form of entertainment
(Holmes 1991:46).

1 What problems are to be guarded against with regard to the use of teaching media?
[5]
2 If you are teaching
Ð in a remote area with no electricity
Ð in a town or city with all modern facilities
what teaching media would you use in a specific lesson? Decide on a relevant topic
from the syllabus in the back of this guide. [20]
3 It is most important that an overhead projector be properly used. Incorrect usage will
distract from your teaching. Make a list of ``do's'' and ``don'ts'' relating to the use of the
overhead projector. [10]
4 Take any topic from the syllabus at the back of this guide and work out a relevant
blackboard scheme. [20]
5 List the types of teaching media under the following headings:
Audio, Visual and Audiovisual [20]
Bibliography
Corney, G & Rawling, E (ed). 1985. Teaching slow learners through Geography. Sheffield:
61 PST103-E/1
Frew, J. 1986. Geography fieldwork. London: Macmillan Education.
Holmes, P & Moorhouse, I. 1991. Geography method for primary teachers. Cape Town:
MMC Classroom Series.
Jordaan, SP, Vivier, JM, Barnard, CJ & Schutte, MA (sa). Didactics: History in the primary
Mays, P. 1974. Why teach History? London: Unibooks, University of London Press.
62
Unit 6
Lesson planning/Preparation
a After studying this unit, you will be able to:
. plan individual daily lesson schemes,
. state your lesson's aims and objectives,
. collect and check whatever learning matter/material is needed for the
preparation of a lesson,
. name the resources that will be used,
. state the main features of an individual lesson,
. identify the different components for planning a lesson,
. plan the course of the lesson,
. compile a scheme of work for all or part of the Social Studies syllabus.
6.1 Introduction
Successful teaching involves thinking about lesson planning, learning content and teaching
methods. When planning a lesson the teacher must keep the following aspects in mind:
. the relevant content of the syllabi

. the formative stage of the pupils
. the duration of the lesson
. the aims and objectives of the particular lesson/theme
. the teaching methods
. the teaching media
. pupil participation
. assessment and evaluation
To start your lesson planning you will need a plan of action. This plan of action is reflected in
your scheme of work.
6.2 Scheme of work

Read: Hurry: pp 159±163
Mathew et al. pp 135±140
As was stated, a scheme of work is a plan of action. It is the plan which enables teachers to
be effective in their teaching activities. There are basically three functions an effective
scheme of work should fulfil, namely
63 PST103-E/1
. it should help create learning situations in which pupils can learn

. it should outline the content of the work dealt with
. it should show how the work is to be distributed according to available time.
What then are the attributes of a good scheme of work?

To fulfil the above-mentioned functions, the following attributes of a good scheme of work
are needed:
. it should be divided into sections according to themes
. there should be clearly-stated aims and objectives for each section of work
. it should contain brief notes on the teaching methods to be used, including details on
practical work and/or fieldwork to be done
. it should contain full details of all forms of assessment. Sections tested and topics
dealt with should also be listed.
The scheme of work enables the teacher to plan and prepare a particular lesson. Each lesson
should be a model lesson. The successful presentation of a lesson, be it Geography or History, is
primarily dependent on the systematic and objective planning and preparation of the teacher.
Jordaan et al. ([sa]:65) agrees that the lesson scheme represents an orderly, systematic
approach by the teacher which creates conditions for the meaningful transfer of knowledge,
aptitudes and attitudes, as well as a way of learning with the pupils.
Each lesson scheme will have at least the following components, namely
. educational aims and objectives
. the main points of the lesson: didactic/educational ground forms and teaching
methods
. didactic modalities: teaching media and black/writing/chalkboard scheme or notes
to be handed out
. the course of the lesson:
introduction
statement of the problem
exposition of the learning content
actualisation of the learning content
functionalisation/conclusion
assessment and evaluation
. bibliography/references
After absorbing these facts, define a scheme of work in your own words.
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64
As a teacher, you will take your syllabus and formulate a work record. This record helps you
with lesson planning as well as indicating which work you have completed/still have to
complete.
It is usually helpful to lay out the scheme of work on the left side of the page and to leave a
space on the right side, either for written reports on the work covered or for some kind of
symbol which indicates that a certain section of work has been completed. Study the
following example from Holmes (1992:26):
Extract of Work record from Gr 5 syllabus
Topic Date Comment
Water resources of our region:

. main rivers and dams Map summary, catchment areas
. pollution and prevention V 15/8 + 17/8 Largest rivers and dams
. responsible water usage/
conservation V 22/8 Pupils' pictures, summary of
main culprits/users
This record of work planned for and completed makes it possible to check at any moment
during the year how much progress has been made. Remember that, although this is an
outdated example as regards the syllabus, it serves as an example of recording.
Design your own form of plan of presenting a scheme of work after studying
the above-mentioned layout of a work record from a gr 5 syllabus. Use the
syllabi provided at the back of this guide/book. (Appendix)
Topic Date Comment
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As a theme cannot be dealt with during a single period, all themes are divided into separate
lessons, as stipulated in the syllabus. Each lesson theme must be clearly specified, so that
there is no doubt about which topic/learning matter will be dealt with during any specific
lesson.
Let us concentrate on the components that each lesson scheme will consist of:
6.2.1 Educational objectives and aims

In formulating the educational objectives and aims the teacher must be fully aware of the
65 PST103-E/1
extent of the manoeuvrability/flexibility of the learning content and of the ways which the
pupils can apply with insight their acquired knowledge to their life-world.
The objectives are short term goals and include all that the teacher hopes to achieve by
the end of the lesson. (See study unit 4.) To assist the teacher in formulating the learning
objectives, he/she must write down the statement:
``By the end of the lesson the pupils should be able to ...''
Complete this statement by using sentences which include one or more of the following
verbs: understand, explain, discuss, evaluate, list, name, state, etc.
Note that these words/verbs reflect two concepts, namely
Ð understanding Ð understand, explain, discuss, and

Ð memory Ð list, name, state.
List more words/verbs that may be used in formulating lesson objectives.
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By formulating certain statements the teacher can follow the same approach to determine the
response of the pupils, namely
``By the end of the lesson the pupils should have ..........''
Ð developed and used the following skills ..........
Ð developed concepts of ..........
Ð knowledge of ..........
Whereas objectives are short term, aims are long-term goals and provide the ultimate
reasons for teaching Geography and History. These reflect the purpose of the lesson and
relate to the necessity for the pupils' understanding of the subject. The teacher could use the
following questions to help formulate his/her aims:
Ð Why has the topic been included in the syllabus?

Ð Of what value is the topic as a whole to the pupils?
Ð Does the topic elucidate the present?
Ð Does the topic show a particular trend?
66
Formulate two examples of aims Ð one for Geography and one for History
(see Hurry p 161. Also refer to the syllabi at the back of this guide).
Geography History
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After formulating the objectives and aims of the lesson, the teacher has to decide how to
achieve these, for example which teaching methods, teacher and pupil activities and
teaching and learning resources will be used during the lesson. For the course of action to
follow we look at the planning of the actual lesson.
6.2.2 The course of the lesson

(a) Introduction
In order to arouse the pupils' interest, the introduction must be short, to the point and only
take a few minutes. The skill with which the teacher plans the introduction will determine the
pupils' interest in the rest of the lesson. This can be achieved as follows:
. By means of a few specific and well chosen, thought-provoking questions, the learning
matter dealt with in the previous lesson which is relevant to the present lesson topic can
be revised or referred to, thus linking the two lessons. The introduction is the part of the
lesson where the teacher needs to link what the pupils know with the content of the new
learning content (material to be learned); between the known and the unknown. The
previous knowledge thus recalled can serve as an introduction to the learning content to
be dealt with in the present lesson.
. A brief class discussion can serve as a bridge between the pupils' existing knowledge
and experience from the previous lessons to the new knowledge which will be
introduced to them during the present lesson.
. A short story, pertaining to the learning content, can be narrated.
. Real objects, pictures, photographs, newspaper cuttings, cartoons and diaries, and so
on can be used.
Once the link has been established, the theme to be dealt with in the lesson should appear in
written form on the blackboard or overhead projector screen.
(b) Statement of the problem

The pupils are made aware of the fact that there are certain topics about which they have no
or very little knowledge, and should have more knowledge. The formulation of the statement
of the problem requires careful planning to ensure that the pupils do in fact come to the
realisation that there are certain topics of which they have little, incomplete or no knowledge.
67 PST103-E/1
It is the teacher's duty to state the problem in such a way that the pupils understand it. The
method of formulation must bring the problem into the life-world of the pupils. When
formulating the problem, the teacher must bear in mind the objectives and aims of the lesson.
!! The statement of the problem usually consists of a question, the

answer to which should be found in the body of the lesson.
Study the syllabus at the back of this guide and formulate separate problems
for a Geography and History lesson.
Geography History
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(c) Presentation of the learning content

By means of the presentation of the factual content of the lesson topic/learning content the
teacher will attempt to solve the problem that has been posed.
During the main body of the lesson the learning material/matter is systematically set out. The
pupils should be led into the new learning matter/material in such a way that they are
required to think and participate actively.
To implement all this the actual presentation of the lesson is planned and written down, for
instance:
. Write down a summary of the learning matter to be presented in point form for easy
reference while teaching.
. Plan exactly how and where you intend using your teaching media and methods and
introducing pupil activities.
It is a good idea to draw a margin on the right hand side of the page for reminder notes. Write
these notes in red or highlight them. Underline all dates, keywords, and phrases that should
be written on the blackboard during the lesson. By the end of the lesson these keywords, etc.
should form a summary of the important points of the lesson. Avoid writing down too much
on the blackboard as this uses up valuable teaching or pupil activity time.
(d) Exposition of the learning content

This includes a systematic setting out of the way in which the new learning content will be
introduced to the pupils.
68
It is important that the pupils are at all times involved during the exposition of the learning
content in order to ensure that they gain an insight into the learning content and make it part
of their life-world. If the pupils do not master the concepts, the learning content will remain
vague and meaningless to them.
The exposition of the new learning content takes place in accordance with the teaching
methods and incorporation of teaching media decided on by the teacher beforehand.
Teaching media are usually an important element of this part of the lesson. By enabling the
teacher to actualise the teaching effects they should serve to facilitate learning in a
meaningful way (see study unit 5 ).
(e) Actualisation of the learning content

During the actualisation the teacher checks orally whether or not the pupils have in fact
mastered the learning content and made it their own. This determines whether or not the
teacher has achieved his/her objectives. The pupils are given the opportunity of orally
discussing each point of the main point scheme.
This part of the lesson usually includes some form of consolidation exercise, either oral or
written, in which the pupils are required to actualise the learning matter and make it part of
their life-world. Group discussions, oral questioning, worksheets and filling in information
on outline maps are some of the most common exercises.
Compile a list of more types of exercises that may be implemented at this

stage of the lesson. In this regard consult the two prescribed books.
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(f) Functionalisation/conclusion
A lesson should be drawn to a conclusion. The conclusion constitutes an essential rounding-
off procedure. This may be done by
. a brief summary of the lesson

. questions or work to test understanding and insight.
After the lesson has been presented the pupils are given the opportunity of expressing
themselves in independent creative activity. Pupils are usually very keen to create, and with
the guidance of the teacher, they are given the opportunity to do independent work.
With due consideration of the lesson, the teacher can, in the planning of the pupils' activities,
create possibilities for the practice of specific skills. The important thing to remember is that
the conclusion should relate to the objectives and aims of the lesson, as well as the problem
posed during the introduction.
69 PST103-E/1
(g) Evaluation and assessment
!! This section must be studied in correlation with study unit 7.
Evaluation and assessment take place during or after the lesson in the form of questions put
by the teacher to the pupils. In this way the teacher can determine whether or not he has
succeeded in the transfer of knowledge to the pupils and also whether he has achieved his
objectives and aims.
(There are various aspects to consider during evaluation and assessment that will be
discussed in detail in the following unit.)
Study the following examples of lesson schemes. Compile your own
improved scheme of a lesson layout to suit your specific needs.
Examples of lesson schemes
A Title: Drainage of the African continent (Grade 6)

Aims
. To engender an interest in the created world around us, with particular reference to
the physical features of Africa.
. To ensure that the pupils understand the concept of drainage and how it applies to
Africa.
Objectives
The pupils will:
. with the aid of a wall map and/or their atlases, identify the major highlands, rivers and
lakes of the continent and complete a map of the above
. answer six questions on the drainage of Africa
. write a paragraph on the basic process of drainage.
Media material
. Wall map
. Blackboard
. Worksheets
Introduction
. Use a simple plaster of paris model of undulating terrain, and water it, to demonstrate
the concept of drainage.
. Using a large map, ask questions about Africa to establish and supplement prior
knowledge on the general relief of the continent.
Content
Using the map:
. reinforce prior knowledge of high and low areas on the continent
. refer to large river systems: sources, paths and terminals
. get pupils to identify large lakes and discuss adjoining river systems
. give facts about sizes and runoff volumes (make some comparisons)
70
. briefly discuss the importance of these water bodies in meeting people's needs for
water, power and transportation
. orally consolidate by means of questioning
. hand out an outline map for pupils to fill in (match symbols with names), and
questions to answer (directions in which rivers flow, countries through which they
flow, those suitable/unsuitable for transportation, etc).
Conclusion
Ask pupils about their experience of rivers (swimming, boating, fishing, etc) and lead on
to the relative size and importance of these water bodies, which may be local.
Instruction: any uncompleted work to be done at home.
(Adapted from Holmes 1991:32)
B Title: The Trek (Grade 5)
Introduction Methods, media skills
1 Why were the frontier farmers in the

Eastern Cape unhappy?
2 What form of transport did the farmers Picture of wagon & discussion of its size
use?
3 What do you do when someone makes Pupils learn skill of application.
you unhappy?
4 What would you have done if you had Allow time for discussion.
been a frontier farmer at that time?
5 The frontier farmers decided to leave their Discussion. Pictures of farmers, etc.
farms and go and look for a new place to Point out dress, etc.
live. Do you think this was an easy
decision for them to make? Why not?
Today you are going to imagine you are
those farmers.
Presentation
1 Scouts had been sent to the interior to Divide the pupils into ``families''. Each family
look for suitable land. to decide who is the father, etc.
2 Scouts returned with favourable reports.
3 Imagine you were a frontier farmer and
that you have just been to a meeting
where someone was telling you all about
the beautiful country in the interior. He
was trying to persuade as many as
possible to join him on a trek to the new
land.
4 After the meeting you go home and have a 5±10 min
discussion about joining the trek. List all
the advantages and disadvantages of
joining the trek.
5 Each group to explain the reasons for their
decision to stay or go.
6 Imagine you have all been persuaded to
go on the trek. You must now decide what
you must take with you. Consider the
following:
71 PST103-E/1
. How many oxen do you have? Will Dimensions of wagon

you take them all?
. How many wagons do you have?
How big is your wagon?
. What will the family do to earn a
living in the new land?
. What will you take to make this
possible?
. What will each person be able to
take with them?
Remember it must fit on to the wagon.
Make a list of everything you will take
with you, both for the trip and for your
new home.
7 Each group to explain why they have
chosen to take various items.
8 Make a list of the things you will have to
leave behind.
9 Tell the other groups what you will have 5±10 min
to leave behind and how you feel about
it.
10 Mime the packing of your wagon and the 5±10 min
final preparations to leave.
11 What is the last thing you will do or the
last place or person you will visit before
you leave? each pupil
12 Now you are packed and ready to leave.
Be quiet and think about leaving and all
you are leaving behind. Think about
going into the unknown. Each of you
will have a turn to tell the others what
you will miss most by completing this
sentence: ``When I go I will miss ...
most''. each pupil
Conclusion
You should all have experienced, through your imagination, a little of what the
Voortrekkers must have felt, the decisions they had to make about what they could and
could not take with them. Those of you who have moved from one town to another,
from one province to another or even from another country, will understand how the
Voortrekkers must have felt about leaving their homes.
(Adapted from Mathews et al. 1994:138±139)
Own improved outline

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73 PST103-E/1

1 Prepare a complete lesson (Geography or History) based on any aspect from the Gr 4±6
syllabus. Ensure that your scheme meets all the component criteria discussed in the
study unit. (It is not necessary to produce the teaching or learning media that will be
used, but your scheme should contain a clear description of them.) [20]
2 Discuss the attributes of a good scheme of work. [5]
3 Name the different components of a lesson scheme. [10]
4 What teaching and learning activities are expected during the
(a) presentation
(b) exposition and
(c) actualisation of the learning content. [9]
Bibliography
Corney, G & Rawling, E (ed). 1985. Teaching slow learners through Geography. Sheffield:
Frew, J. 1986. Geography fieldwork. London: Macmillan Education.
Holmes, P & Moorhouse, I. 1991. Geography. Method for primary teachers. Cape Town:
MMC Classroom Series.
Jordaan, SP, Vivier, JM, Barnard, CJ & Schutte, MA (sa). Didactics: History in the primary
Mays, P. 1974. Why teach History? London: Unibooks, University of London Press.
74
Unit 7
Evaluation and assessment
procedures
. discuss the importance and value of evaluation in Geography and
History,
. distinguish between the concepts evaluation and assessment,
. discuss the purpose of, and identify different assessment techniques,
. evaluate and critically analyse an exam paper,
. set a range of questions and memorandum for an exam or test on any
section of a given syllabus.
!! This unit is not to be studied in isolation and is to be studied together

with Hurry chapters 1, 6±10, 13 & 15 and Mathews et al. chapters 2,
12, 15, 16 & 18
7.1 Evaluation and assessment: explanation of concepts

With or without knowing it, a lot of our time is spent evaluating things, people and
situations. Whether it is our performance on the sports field, our finances or even in reflection
at the end of a working day, we are constantly in a process of evaluation. Evaluation,
according to the Heinemann English Dictionary (Harber & Payton 1979:370) is an attempt
``... to estimate the amount, quantity or value of [something]''. It thus goes without saying
that an important aspect of any teaching situation is that of evaluation (and assessment).
Many people tend to equate the concepts of evaluation and assessment. As you will later
see, the concept of evaluation is a very broad term and includes assessment.
Why and what then do we evaluate in teaching?

Read: Hurry p 164±165 sections 16.1±16.3
In the clarification of the concepts of evaluation and assessment, we will make use of Hurry's
book.
75 PST103-E/1
1 Why, according to Hurry, do Geography (and History) teachers need to
evaluate effectively?
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2 What two elements, according to Hurry, does evaluation have to it?
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3 According to Hurry, what is the difference between evaluation (refer also
to curriculum evaluation) and assessment?
evaluation:
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assessment:
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As teachers you will be involved in both evaluation and assessment. A lot of your time will be
spent assessing pupils in the class situation. Let us now focus on the assessment of pupils.
Assessment may be seen as involving three steps:
. generating and collecting evidence of achievement;
. evaluating this collected evidence against nationally agreed standards; and
. recording the findings of this evaluation (IEB 1996:48).
As learning, teaching and assessment are inextricably linked (CDWG 1996:20) it is

necessary to look at various types of assessment and how they manifest themselves.
7.2 Different types of assessment

Read: Hurry pp 165±166, section 16.4
76
1 What two assessment techniques does Hurry identify?
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2 What do you understand by each of these two techniques?
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3 Hurry gives various methods of assessment. Name them. Can you think
of any other methods?
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As was mentioned in unit 3, education and training in South Africa has undergone a major
paradigm shift towards outcomes-based learning. Assessment has also been under the
spotlight with an attempt to make it more developmental and less judgemental (IEB
1996:2). This implies a shift from a focus on teacher input to learner outcome.
Traditionally, assessment was mainly product-oriented in that emphasis was placed on
reproducing facts and knowledge.
It is thus important to see how the Independent Examination Board (IEB) views
assessment types. The IEB (1996:52±53) sees the three identified assessment types as
``... distinct but overlapping elements of a coherent system for the holistic assessment of
learners''. How they will feature in teaching and learning situations will depend on the
specific needs of different categories of learners. These elements comprise:
. formal summative assessment, including the award of credits, qualifications and/or

year marks, and the recording and reporting of these; progress is assessed through
written, oral or practical examinations, tests or assignments, or a combination of these
(this element can be internally or externally assessed and/or mode-rated)
. ongoing formal continuous assessment which provides for a variety of ways of
demonstrating competence across a range of contexts; these should be structured so
that they can lead to the award of marks or grades which can be recorded and included
77 PST103-E/1
in summative assessment; they should be based on interesting and demanding tasks

which motivate and support learning and should be accompanied by helpful feedback
to the learner as well as formal recording of results; some part of this must be based on
the observation of learners working in normal learning conditions, rather than at a
specific assessment task; (this element should be internally assessed and may be
externally moderated when appropriate)
. ongoing informal formative assessment which is designed to monitor and
encourage learning progress, providing guidance to the learner in the form of self-
assessment, and feedback through peer assessment and teacher assessment; most
importantly, this kind of diagnostic assessment guides the teacher's planning and
encourages the setting of appropriately differentiated tasks depending of the learner's
responses (this element should be internally assessed and might, or might not, be
moderated).
As you will notice, there has been a move towards the use of continuous assessment in
education and training (including the Intermediate phase) (IEB 1996:54). Although there is
still much to be said and debated about continuous assessment, we will discuss salient
aspects of the topic.
7.2.1 Continuous assessment (CA)

As we have noted in the previous passages, assessment was in the past, mainly used to rank,
select or certify learners.
CA is an attempt to put the function of supporting learners first and move away from the
aforementioned narrow notion of assessment.
What then is continuous assessment (CA)?

CA can be seen as an approach to assessing a range of learning processes and products
through which teachers, parents and learners gain continual feedback on a learner's
progress. In a nutshell, it involves gathering a series of marks from many kinds of learning
experiences on a continuous basis. Teachers can thus continuously gather marks on different
occasions thus developing a profile on each pupil. This kind of assessment assists the
provision of support to learners, the placement and promotion of learners, and the timely
reconsideration of teaching programmes. It is important to assess both higher order thinking
and mechanical tasks (Educationalive 1996:8).
Although there is still much uncertainty as to CA, we will keep you informed on the
clarification of the concept by means of tutorial letters during the year.
1 Do you think CA is a valid and practical form of assessment? Explain.
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78
(a) Planning for continuous assessment

There is no set way in which you plan for continuous assessment. Every learner, school and
teacher is different. It is up to every teacher to thoroughly analyse the situation in which he/
she finds him/herself. Here are a few tips on how CA can be used in the classroom.
. Carefully identify the various types of assessment (formative or summative) that you can
use in your subject.
. Use a variety of testing methods as this gives you a more accurate picture of the
learner's ability.
. Decide what means of assessment you will use during or after each section of work.
. Devise a means of recording (eg by dividing the term into sections in your mark book)
and evaluating tasks.
As was mentioned, there is no set form of continuous assessment. Consider the following
example of a grade 11 mark sheet for English adapted from Educationalive (1996:9) and its
possible adaptation for Senior Primary Geography or History.
DIAGRAM 1
EXAMPLE MARK SHEET Oral: Literature topics

Valentine's poem
1997
Comprehension
Language test
Pupil attitude
Project work
Group work
Term 1
Reading
TOTAL
Name
Essay
Grade 11 50 20 10 20 25 30 10 35 20 220
Basi, B
Bayede, M
Bhengu, P
Bhungane, Z
Chonco, Z
Dlamini, M
Duma, I
Funeka, G
Gabela, Z
Gcabashe, B
Gumede, S
Khoza, M
Mavuso, P
Mazibuko, Z
79 PST103-E/1
Critically evaluate the aspects assessed eg project work, reading, attitude, etc.
Do you agree with these aspects and are they practically viable? Do you think
that you could use similar or adapted methods of assessment in Senior
Primary Geography or History?
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7.3 The compilation of tests and examination papers

Traditionally, formal tests and examinations contributed largely to the teacher's
assessment of pupils with the predominant emphasis on the recall of knowledge and little
emphasis on skills, values and attitudes. Tests and examinations still have a major role to play
in the assessment of pupils', however, they must be meaningful and valid in testing not
only knowledge, but also skills, values and attitudes. Similar questions to those asked in tests
and examinations can also be asked in assignments and projects, task-sheets, notebooks and
fieldwork to test knowledge, skills, values and attitudes on a continuous basis. Assessment
techniques must be integrated into educational aspects such as lesson planning and must
not be viewed in isolation. This aspect was discussed in unit 6.
Read: Hurry pp 167±180;
Mathews et al. pp 127±134.
Although Hurry uses the heading ``Tests and examinations'', these sections must not be
viewed as only applicable to these two aspects as they are applicable to most assessment
methods (eg task sheets, fieldwork, etc).
1 Under what three categories does Bloom categorise educational aims and
objectives?
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2 Explain what you understand under each of these three categories.
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80
How do we know if our assessment is meaningful and valid?

It is quite obvious that we cannot expect a primary school child to only memorise facts or
give him/her a test where only application is required. Naturally the form of assessment must
suit the child's development phase and contain a good balance of questions involving
knowledge, skills, values and attitudes.
Two types of questions can be used when assessing pupils in tests and examinations, namely
the essay and short-answer type. Hurry and Mathews et al. give a detailed discussion on
what these question types entail, their pros and cons, types, etc. These question types must
also take the child's development into account when assessing a pupil. Read these passages
well (Hurry pp 168±177 and Mathews et al. pp 128±134) before attempting to set up or
evaluate an examination paper, task sheet test, or other test.
Page 128 of Mathews et al. gives an example of the percentage allocation of various
cognitive levels (take note that Mathews et al. do not include skills, values and attitudes),
while on page 171 Hurry gives a matrix on how to balance a test or examination paper to
ensure that what is being tested is more or less balanced (Hurry includes a more
comprehensive matrix which includes skills, values and attitudes but leaves out certain
cognitive levels). These are handy instruments to ensure a fairly balanced means of testing.
Remember that these are only guidelines and are no way prescriptive and you as a teacher
can draw up a balanced matrix to suit your own needs.
Let us now apply the knowledge that we have acquired and put it into practice.
Critically analyse the following Gr 6 Geography examination paper. Does it

attempt to assess the pupils in a balanced manner? (Hint: draw up your own
matrix). Does the paper assess suitable knowledge, skills, values and
attitudes? What is your overall view of the paper? Is there a good balance
between essay type and short-answer questions?
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82
MAP OF AFRICA
83 PST103-E/1
GR 6 GEOGRAPHY JUNE 1994

__________________________________________________________________________
SECTION A
Question 1
Study the map of Africa and then answer the questions which follow. The numbers of the
questions correspond with those on the map:
1.1 Name this river.

1.2 Name this mountain range.
1.3 Name this lake which forms part of the Great Rift Valley of Africa.
1.4 Name this line of latitude which is found 28 North of the equator.
1.5 Name this island off the East coast of Africa.
1.6 Name this African State.
1.7 Name the capital city of this state.
1.8 Name the state which is situated here.
1.9 Which basin is situated largely in this state.
1.10 Name this mountain range. (10)
SECTION B
Question 2
Explain briefly what each of the following terms mean. Write down the term first and then
your explanation:
2.1 Equinox
2.2 SANAE
2.3 The Old World
2.4 Axis-rotation
2.5 Prevailing wind (5)
Question 3
Say whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE. If you say FALSE, then correct
the statement:
3.1 The Namib desert is the largest desert in the world.

3.2 Swaziland is situated in Southern Africa.
3.3 Together Europe and Asia are known as the New World. (5)
Question 4
Choose the correct answer from those within brackets. Write down the answer only:
4.1 The (Limpopo, Zambezi, Orange, Zaire) river is the largest river in Africa.
4.2 When it is winter in Europe, it is (autumn, spring, summer) in South Africa.
4.3 (Indonesia, Sri-Lanka, Taiwan) is known as the spice islands.
4.4 Uranium is found in the town of (Tsumeb, Rossing, Karibib) in Namibia.
4.5 (North America, Asia, Africa) is the largest continent. (5)
84
Question 5
Study the following map of Namibia's rainfall and answer the questions that follow:
NAMIBIA: RAINFALL
5.1 Which region has the highest rainfall and what is the reason for this? (2)
5.2 What ocean current (A) flows off the West coast of Namibia and what effect does it
have on the rainfall in the coastal region? (2)
5.3 In which region (North, South, East or West) would you choose to farm? Why do you
say so? (1)
SECTION C
Question 6
6.1 Name 4 reasons why the number of factories in Namibia are still limited. (4)
6.2 You have been given the choice of living either in the Equatorial region or in the
Mediterranean region. Say where you would rather stay by comparing the two regions'
climate. (4)
6.3 Who or what are the Maori's and where do they come from? (2)
Total: (40 7 2) = 20 + 20 cummulative = [40]

The importance of evaluation and assessment in a learning situation cannot be emphasised
enough. In order to make these functions reliable and balanced, a lot of thought and
consideration must go into their implementation.

1 Why do you think that it is necessary to evaluate (and more specifically, assess) in the
Senior Primary Phase? [5]
2 Draw up a test paper for Gr 5 for 30 marks for either Geography or History on any aspect
85 PST103-E/1
of the syllabus. Make sure that you maintain a good balance in the type of questions
selected. Also provide your script with a memorandum. [50]
3 Design a CA mark sheet for any Geography or History class in the senior primary phase
for the first term. [Note: for the answering of questions 2 & 3, prescribed text books can
be acquired from a school situated close to you, while an example of a Gr 5 syllabus is
given at the back of the study guide. You may also consult with other practising
teachers and get advice and tips.] [20]
4 Visit a local primary school and enquire as to their use of Continuous assessment (CA).
Write a detailed report on your findings. [10]
5 Set three questions for either Geography or History of each of the following types, using
work from the Gr 6 syllabus: multiple-choice; true or false; interpretation of maps
(Geography)/interpretation of a historic picture (History). Also supply a marking
memorandum. [10]
Bibliography
Educationalive. 1996. Catch on to continuous assessment. 4(2):8±9.
Harber, K & Payton, G. 1979. Heinemann English Dictionary. London: Heinemann

Educational Books.
Independent Examination Board (IEB). 1996. Draft recommendations for the development
and implementation of assessment policy. Pretoria.
86
Unit 8
School and class management
. discuss the value of a subject policy for Geography and History as an
aspect of school and class management,
. discuss the value of individual, group, class and field work in
Geography and History teaching,
. plan and execute certain aspects of the above-mentioned topics.
!! This unit is to be studied together with Hurry Chapter 3 and

Appendix 1 & 2 of Mathews et al.
It goes without saying that the teacher's most important task is the instruction and education
of his/her pupils to the best of his/her ability. This task requires that teachers plan and
coordinate their work in order to achieve the necessary learning outcomes. This entails good
school and class management. A means of achieving this is to work along the lines of a
policy. The Heinemann English Dictionary (Harber & Payton 1979:830) defines the noun
policy as `à plan or course of action or procedure''. The principal, in most cases, appoints a
departmental/subject head to administer a plan or course of action of a specific subject
according to the policy of the subject and school. It is understandable that the principal
cannot continually coordinate all the subjects presented at his/her school. He/she is
responsible for the broad school policy.
8.1 Subject policy of the school

Read: Hurry pp 158±159 section 15.1
Although Mathews et al. do not go into as much detail as Hurry with regard to subject policy,
there is not much difference between the two as regards the broad outline.
!! Where then would it differ?

87 PST103-E/1
Can you think of aspects where there would be differences between the
policies of the two subject? Think in terms of broad as well as specific aspects.
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I think that you would agree that aspects such as the aims and objectives and specific
schemes of work of the two subjects would differ.
!! It is all fine and well that one has to have a subject policy, but where
is it reflected practically?
All aspects mentioned with regard to subject policy can be reflected in an individual
teacher's or subject head's subject file. Mathews et al. p 161 elaborate on this aspect and
refer specifically to its use by the departmental head. Naturally this person will have a more
comprehensive file, but (depending on what your school prescribes) there is nothing to stop
individual teachers creating their own file reflecting the subject that they are teaching.
8.2 Organising individual, group and fieldwork

Effective teaching and education not only depend on the effective organisation of subject
policy, but also the organisation of the classroom. These are but a few aspects that can
contribute to effective teaching.
When then would you use individual, group, class and fieldwork?
Naturally, one cannot be prescriptive about when a teacher should use one of the above-
mentioned means of teaching. Whether you make use of group work, individual work,
classwork or fieldwork depends on a host of factors. These may include:
. the size of the class
. the aspect that has to be taught
. the discipline of the class
. the available time
. the school policy, etc
Naturally, both individual and group work have their advantages and disadvantages.
88
Name three advantages and three disadvantages of individual and group
work that you can think of. If you are not yet a teacher, think of your own past
experiences in school.
Individual work Group work

Advantages .............................................. ..............................................
.............................................. ..............................................
.............................................. ..............................................
Disadvantages .............................................. ..............................................
.............................................. ..............................................
.............................................. ..............................................
Naturally, fieldwork can incorporate both individual and group work and is discussed in the
following passages:
Read: Hurry pp 102±113 and secs 11.10.2±11.10.3, 11.10.6;

1 Define the concept ``field work''.

................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
2 What two basic didactical principles are met by field work? Explain.
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
3 What value does field work have for the Geography or History pupil/
student?
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
89 PST103-E/1

Effective teaching depends on, amongst other aspects, effective school and class
management. In Geography and History this not only depends on a specific teacher's
teaching of the subject but also the spelling out of a school's subject policy. Here the subject
head (and headmaster) plays a cardinal role in leading his/her charges.

1 After a year of initial teaching, you start teaching at another school. When you meet the
principal, he informs you that, because you took Geography at Gr 12 level (and not
even at tertiary level), you have been appointed subject head for Geography. Up to now
the subject has been neglected and it is your duty to ``pull it into shape''. You naturally
want to prove your worth and set about getting a policy drawn up to give fellow
teachers direction. Describe how you would do the following (remember, you cannot
just think out these aspects, you have to consult literature, other teachers and
principals):
1.1 Draw up a contents page for your subject policy file. [10]
1.2 Draw up a subject policy with regard to the execution of fieldwork. [6]
1.3 You note that once a term you have to do a book check or class visit to see that
teachers are in line with the subject's policy. Draw up certain criteria that you would
use for either a book check or a class visit. [5]
1.4 How would you go about listing and evaluating all the school's media and
resources pertaining to your subject? Remember that you can delegate work, but
that you have overall responsibility for the end product. [5]
2 What type of fieldwork would best be suited to the senior primary Phase? Why do you
say this? [4]
3 You are teaching in an urban school with no means of getting away from the school
grounds for a field trip. You wish to give your pupils fieldwork experience in the school
grounds on an aspect from the syllabus (choose any aspect from the Senior Primary
Geography or History syllabus):
3.1 What preparation is necessary for the field work? [5]
3.2 List the aids that either you or your pupils will need in order to execute the field
work. [5]
3.3 Draw up a complete task sheet for a 40 minute period of field work activity on the
topic you chose. [15]
Bibliography
Harber, K & Payton, G. 1979. Heinemann English Dictionary. London: Heinemann
Educational Books.
90
Appendix
Department of Education (DE) 1996
National Core Syllabus : History Grades 4±6
Pretoria
GENERAL REMARKS
1 AIMS
(The principles as set out in the Aims may be rephrased by Education Departments to suit their own
particular needs.)
1.1 To arouse in pupils an interest in and a love of the subject, and to awaken in them a desire to know more
about their own and other people.
1.2 To cause the pupil to view History as a record of the activities of people, of people in other times, and of
people in specific situations. The subject should be used therefore as a vehicle for moulding the pupil
into a person who will be able, initially, to take his/her place as a worthy member of a small community
and subsequently as a citizen of his own country and of the world.
1.3 The human aspect and drama in historical events rather than the accumulating of facts should be
stressed. The main purpose is to regard History in the light of its educational value as a formative subject
and not a factual one.
1.4 To place the emphasis on the moulding and development of the personality and character of the pupil.
1.5 To study the history of their country against the background of overseas events and more particularly
those which have a direct relationship with Western civilisation.
1.6 To give pupils a concept of time and the interrelationship between cause and effect; to lead them to the
realisation that the present is the heritage of the past, that the future is in its turn influenced by the
present, and that a knowledge of the past is necessary to explain and understand present-day
circumstances and problems.
1.7 When the pupils' knowledge is expanded and enriched in this way, everything comes to have greater
meaning for them, and they gain a clearer insight into and a deeper understanding of what they will
encounter in books, magazines, newspapers, on the radio, on television and in films.
1.8 To promote, through a systematic and sympathetic approach, a knowledge of the institutions, the
traditions, the ways of life and customs, the historical relics and achievements, the spiritual and cultural
values of the people of the past and of the present. This will lead the pupil to respect and value the
contributions of those who have gone before.
1.9 To bring pupils to the realisation that the well-being of their country is the responsibility of each of its
citizens.
1.10 To broaden the pupil's concept of time, space and reality.
1.11 To bring pupils to think for themselves, to work on their own under the guidance of their teacher and to
help the pupils to express themselves clearly and correctly both verbally and in writing in regard to
History and historical concepts.
1.12 To help the pupil to realise that man's life is meaningful, that man lives in an ordered society and that this
entails that man's deeds should bear the stamp of responsibility.
1.13 To make the pupil aware of the necessity for firm principles and religious beliefs.
1.14 To assist pupils to understand the world in which we live so that they will realise that every community,
farm, town, city and nation has its roots in the past.
2 GENERAL REMARKS
2.1 It is important that pupils should have an elementary knowledge of the methods used by the historian
when doing historical research.
2.2 The value of well planned educational excursions and the necessary follow-up by the teacher cannot be
over-emphasised.
91 PST103-E/1
2.3 Wherever possible History study should be correlated with other subjects.
2.4 Written assignments have a definite place and value in History teaching provided that they are tackled in
the right way and as long as the assignment falls within the scope of the pupil's ability. Scrap-books and
transcribing extracts from text-books should not be encouraged.
2.5 A history teacher in the primary school should take cognisance of what is done in lower grades in his/her
subject as well as of the content of syllabuses for the Junior Secondary Phase.
92
INSTRUCTIONAL OFFERING : HISTORY

CODE : 220515402
INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMME : GRADE 4
CODE : 602
SYLLABUS
1 HISTORY BASED ON OBSERVATION

1.1 Important people from the district/region.
Choose at least ONE of the following:
1.1.1 Art;
1.1.2 Architecture;
1.1.3 Music;
1.1.4 Science;
1.1.5 Literature.
1.2 People who served humankind.

Choose at least ONE of the following:
1.2.1 Explorers;
1.2.2 Leaders;
1.2.3 Humanitarians;
1.2.4 Scientists.
(These must reflect race and gender. A leader from the continent of Africa for 1.2.1 and 1.2.2 must be
chosen).
2 NARRATIVE HISTORY
2.1 History of families.
2.2 History of the school.
2.3 History of the district: places, peoples, buildings.
(Relevant to all communities).
93 PST103-E/1

CODE : 220515503
CODE : 603
SYLLABUS
1 SOUTH AFRICAN HISTORY FROM 1652 TO + 1840 WITH THE EMPHASIS ON THE
ADVENTURES AND WAY OF LIFE OF THE PEOPLE
. From perspectives of both Khoikhoi and Dutch.
. Physical changes to the landscape from both perspectives.
. Change terminology (eg Bushmen, Hottentots).
. Have race balance.
. History not to be presented in such a way that it is seen to be starting from the Cape.
1.1 Pre-Colonial History
(Stone age and iron age people).
. Original inhabitants (broad overview).
1.2 Arrival of the Settlers at the Cape.
1.3 An introduction to the history of the province where it is applicable.
2 THEMES FROM GENERAL AND SOUTH AFRICAN HISTORY (AT LEAST ONE OF THE
FOLLOWING THEMES SHOULD BE DEALT WITH)
2.1 The Middle Ages.
2.2 Way of life of people from an Ancient Civilization.
Choose from an African civilization including Egypt Ð eg Black Empire, Zimbabwe and Arab trade.
2.3 Development with regard to transport and means of communication:
2.3.1 Land;
2.3.2 Sea;
2.3.3 Air.
2.4 Explorers (each Department to indicate its own choice).
Emphasize exploration rather than discovery.
2.5 A comparative study of the lifestyles of various societies:
2.5.1 San;
2.5.2 Khoikhoi;
2.5.3 African farmers;
2.5.4 Colonists;
2.5.5 Slaves.
94

CODE : 220515604
CODE : 604
SYLLABUS
1 SOUTH AFRICAN HISTORY (1840±1961): ``THE STRUGGLE FOR LAND''

Themes to be studied as a unit.
1.1 Movements of indigenous people
1.1.1 The Mfecane;
1.1.2 The Trek: Ð establishment of Natal, Orange Free State, Transvaal.
1.2 The South African War.
1.3 Establishment of the Union of South Africa.
(Role of the Blacks to be included).
1.4 Establishment of the RSA.
2 THE ROAD TO DEMOCRACY

2.1 Resistance politics and recent democratic developments.
2.2 New governing structures.
3 THEMES FROM GENERAL AND SOUTH AFRICAN HISTORY (AT LEAST TWO OF
FOLLOWING THEMES SHOULD BE DEALT WITH)
3.1 The development of transport:
3.1.1 Land;
3.1.2 Sea; and
3.1.3 Air (only a general survey is necessary).
3.2 A neighbouring state of South Africa.

3.3 Developments in the medical field (eg Jenner, Koch, Pasteur, Lister, Marie Curie, Rose, Fleming or more
recent contributions in this field may be chosen, the traditional medicine man (any three).
3.4 The development of communication (telecommunication, TV).
3.5 Mines and industries in South Africa.
Include the contribution of Blacks to the success of mining and the effects of mining on people's
lifestyles.
4 EVALUATION
In Grades 4, 5, and 6 evaluation should be done on a continuous basis and should not be limited to a
final examination only.
It is not desirable that the same subject-matter be repeatedly tested in the course of the year.
95 PST103-E/1
GEOGRAPHY
GRADES 4±6
GENERAL REMARKS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Geography is the study of the relationship between man and his environment; and it is absolutely
essential to have a knowledge of the subject if man desires to adapt to the changing world he lives in
and to have an intelligent grasp of daily occurrences.
1.2 MAN with his inherent ability should always be the focal point of study and the relationship between
man and his environment should continually be emphasised.
1.3 The teacher should continually question himself why he is teaching the pupils a specific section of the
syllabus. Above all, the pupils should enjoy Geography.
2 AIMS
2.1 To lead the pupil to a closer acqaintance with:
2.1.1 his own country and its people;
2.1.2 other lands and peoples of the world; and
2.1.3 the natural phenomena of the earth in so far as he is able to understand them.
2.2 To enable the pupil to acquire some facility in the use of geographical aids such as posters, pictures,
graphs, maps, the atlas and the globe.
2.3 To develop in the pupil the power to reason and make simple deductions based on geographical
knowledge previously acquired.
2.4 To help the pupil to become aware of the definite relationship which exists between man and his
environment and to understand that man's activities and ways of living are really his efforts to adjust
himself to his surroundings and to use to advantage the resources available to him.
2.5 To develop in the pupil a concept of common humanity by:
2.5.1 leading him to take an interest in national problems of his own country;
2.5.2 encouraging a sympathetic attitude towards other races and their problems; and
2.5.3 creating a clearer understanding of the interdependence of the peoples of the world.
2.6 To stimulate an active interest in daily occurrences as depicted in newspapers, magazines, radio reports
and television broadcasts.
2.7 To cultivate in the pupil a sense of appreciation of, and reverence for, the beauty and wonders of nature,
consequently making his visits to other parts of his own country and to other countries richer and more
purposeful experiences. The need for conserving the natural environment and guarding against pollution
should be continually emphasised.
96
INSTRUCTIONAL OFFERING : GEOGRAPHY

CODE : 220515102
CODE : 602
SYLLABUS
. It is essential for the teacher in each grade to study the syllabus for the previous and the following grades in
order to avoid overlapping and to determine the depth of the instruction.
. The subject matter may be dealt with either systematically or thematically.
. Short assignments and written tasks which encourage the pupils to do reference work should regularly be
done in connection with any aspect of the syllabus and planned excursions to promote observation are
essential.
The centre theme is our town/city and the surrounding environment and when necessary the province in which
the pupil lives.
CONTENT
1 MAP WORK AND PRACTICAL WORK
1.1 Knowledge of the 4 main directions.
1.2 Plan of the classroom and the school grounds.
1.3 Plan of the immediate environment.
1.4 Simple plan of the more important streets of the village, town or suburb.
1.5 Simple map of the new province.
1.6 Links with other places.
2 HUMAN ACTIVITIES
How the people in our country produce the articles which are necessary in everyday life. Emphasis must
be placed on the activities in their own area and/or province. The approach must be observation of
acquaintance with these activities.
2.1 Commercial farming
2.1.1 Stock farming
. The cattle farm
OR
. The sheep farm
OR
. The poultry farm.
2.1.2 Agriculture (soil cultivation)
. The wheat farm
OR
. The maize farm
OR
. The fruit farm
OR
. The grape farm
OR
. The vegetable farm
OR
. Mixed and other kinds of farming like tobacco, sugar, cane, etc.
2.2 Subsistence Farming
2.3 Mining
2.3.1 Different kinds of mines, eg gold, diamonds, coal, iron, copper;
2.3.2 Minerals of importance in everyday use;
2.3.3 What a mine looks like.
97 PST103-E/1
2.4 Manufacturing industries

Choose at least THREE of the following:
2.4.1 Clothing and textiles;
2.4.2 Food;
2.4.3 Leather goods;
2.4.4 Timber;
2.4.5 Motor vehicle manufacturing;
2.4.6 Electrical and electronic goods;
2.4.7 Plastics;
2.4.8 Chemicals;
2.4.9 The informal sector.
2.5 Fishing
2.5.1 Freshwater fish;
2.5.2 Sea fish;
2.5.3 Crayfish;
2.6 Forestry
2.7 News geography
2.7.1 Emphasis on events within the neighbourhood.
98

CODE : 220515203
CODE : 603
SYLLABUS
. To determine the depth of the instruction and to avoid unnecessary overlapping the syllabuses of Grades 4
and 6 must be read.
. The central theme of Grade 4 `Òur town/city and the surrounding environment'' now expands to become
`Òur country'', with special reference to the pupil's own province.
. If the syllabus is studied systematically section 1 (practical work), section 4 (climate) and section 10 (news
geography) should receive attention throughout the year as it fits meaningfully into the work.
CONTENT
1.1 Direction (8 main directions).
1.2 Weather conditions, compilation of a wind rose and weather chart.
1.3 Day and night.
1.4 Map reading
1.4.1 The general introduction of our country by means of the map of the RSA.
2 THE POSITION OF OUR COUNTRY

2.1 Position in relation to the equator and the poles.
2.2 Position in the continent of Africa.
2.3 Position in relation to the most important continents and oceans of the world.
2.4 The size of the RSA in relation to other known countries (use the globe).
3 THE BUILD OF OUR COUNTRY

3.1 The coastline and coastal plain.
3.2 The Little Karoo and the Great Karoo.
3.3 The Plateau.
3.4 Mountain Ranges.
3.5 The eastern low-lying part.
3.6 Most important rivers of our country.
4 CLIMATE OF OUR COUNTRY

4.1 The main rainfall regions.
4.2 Temperature.
4.3 Height above sea level; the sea and ocean currents.
5 NATURAL VEGETATION
5.1 The main vegetation regions.
6 NATURAL RESOURCES OF OUR COUNTRY, UTILIZATION AND CONSERVATION

7 HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND THE PRODUCTS OF OUR COUNTRY (the distribution, scope,
uses and economic importance)
7.1 Stock farming.
7.2 Soil cultivation.
7.3 Forestry.
7.4 Mining.
7.5 Fishing.
7.6 Manufacturing industries.
7.6.1 The five most important areas of concentration of manufacturing industries;
7.6.2 Explanation for the concentration in certain areas;
7.6.3 The most important industries in the concentration areas;
7.6.4 A study of one important industry from each of the five areas.
99 PST103-E/1
8 TRANSPORT IN OUR COUNTRY

8.1 Modes of transport and the most important traffic routes.
8.2 Explanation of our transport network.
8.3 Storage and containerisation.
9 THE POPULATION OF OUR COUNTRY
9.1 Distribution of population, outline and simple explanation.
10 NEWS GEOGRAPHY
Emphasise news items which have bearing on the RSA and our neighbours.
100

CODE : 220515304
CODE : 604
SYLLABUS
. In order to determine the depth of the study and to avoid unnecessary overlapping the syllabuses for Grades
5 and 7 must be read.
. The central theme is Africa, our continent.
CONTENT
1.1 Direction. Determine direction with aid of the compass, watch and shadow stick.
1.2 Climatic phenomena.
1.3 The seasons.
1.4 Map reading of the world; only orientation in connection with:
1.4.1 continents of the world;
1.4.2 the most important oceans and seas; and
1.4.3 the most important islands.
1.5 Appropriate practical work eg wall charts and models.
2 AFRICA: OUR CONTINENT

2.1 A general introduction by means of maps: political; physical; climate and vegetation.
2.2 Important issues in Africa
2.2.1 Resources;
2.2.2 Urban issues;
2.2.3 Rural issues;
2.2.4 Health;
2.2.5 Women in Africa.
3 A STUDY IN OUTLINE OF THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF AFRICA TOWARDS THE ESSENTIAL

RAW MATERIALS OF THE WORLD
4 NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES OF THE RSA

4.1 A geographical survey with emphasis on their political and economic relations with the RSA.
A Geographical study of at least two further politically and economically important African states which
are representative of different geographical regions eg Zambia, Angola, Kenya, Nigeria, Algeria and
Egypt.
5 NEWS GEOGRAPHY
Especially those matters pertaining to Africa.
5.1 Terms such as OAU, UDI, deÂtente, etcetera, as well as coastal pollution as a result of shipping around
the Cape, must be emphasised.
Also included in this Appendix is an extract from the Western Cape Education Department's Standard 4 (Gr 6)
Geography Syllabus (WCED 1996:8, 25±30). This is an example of curriculum development at local level.
The learner has a growing ability to:
Overview of syllabus ...
7
. reason; make assumptions
. establish cause and effect
. make judgements and generalisations
. solve problems
Geomorphology
6 Settlement
~
Natural disasters
Biogeography
The earth in space
The learner is more comfortable with ...

5 Climatology
South Africa: regional VARIOUS
ASPECTS
. concrete examples and relationships STUDIED IN
. basic concepts Physical world GEOGRAPHY IN
. simple analysis and classification Political world GENERAL
Population
. simple explanations and descriptions
4 Transport and communications
101
Regional geogrphay
!
Africa: continent
Issues in Africa Junior Secondary
Phase
3
Natural resources of Africa
AFRICA
Neighbouring states of South Africa
Position and build of South Africa

Climate of South Africa
Natural resources
Natural vegetation
2 Production and products
Transport and population
LOCAL AND SOUTH
AFRICAN
Farming
Mining
Senior Primary
Phase
PST103-E/1
Manufacturing
Fishing LOCAL
Forestry ENVIRONMENT
Standard four (Grade 6) geography syllabus
Africa our continent 3 " Neighbouring countries of the RSA 3
~ 3 "
!
~ General geographic techniques and skills ~
102
! 3 !
Africa's raw materials News geography

~
Standard 4 (Grade 6) geography syllabus
Learner's should be able to ...
1. General geographic techniques and skills

. revise the eight points of compass . observe the features related to the seasons,
. determine direction with aid of a compass, eg length of day and night, prevailing
watch and shadow stick winds, types of precipitation, temperature,
. to make observations of weather conditions effect of seasons on flora and fauna
(seasonal) in order to determine the climate . understand the concept of continents
Content " of the region . know the positions and names of the seven
1.1 Direction . read and record from simple weather continents
1.2 Observation and recording (elementary) instruments . compile a wall chart and/or construct
Learning climatic phenomena . draw elementary graphs models of the African continent
1.3 Observation and recording of features related . ___________________________________
X
. identify an ocean, sea and island
to the seasons . ___________________________________
1.4 Map reading of the world
1.4.1 Continents of the world
1.4.2 Most important oceans and seas General techniques and skills to learn and practise ...
1.4.3 Most important islands
103
. Determining direction
" . Correct use and orientation of compass, watch and shadow
stick
. Observation and recording
Ideas for teachers ... . Recording
. Drawing and reading graphs
. Construction of simple weather instruments
. Discussion
. Research
. Identify continents, important oceans, seas, etc.
. Orientation
. General mapwork techniques
. Continuation of work done in standards 2 and 3
(Grades 4 & 5)
. This section should be studied on a continuous
Teaching basis and integrated with the rest of the syllabus
wherever possible Some guiding questions for teachers ...
X . Use a variety of maps, eg atlas and media
PST103-E/1
. Visit a local weather station
. How and where could you link this section with the rest of the syllabus?
. Establish own weather station at school " . Why is a basic knowledge of the map of the world important?
. Link mapwork with news geography . How can mapwork skills help to improve the learner's understanding of spatial
. _______________________________________ relationships on the map?
. _______________________________________
. How can mapwork activities be made more meaningful and practical?
Learner's should be able to ...
2. Africa: our continent . locate the different political regions of Africa, eg . understand the influence of climate on the natural
North Africa, southern Africa, West Africa, Central vegetation and human activities
Africa . define a resource with reference to water, people,
. locate most important states minerals, energy, natural products
. locate most southerly, notherly, westerly and . understand the concepts of urban and urbanisation
easterly points . identify and u nderstand u rban issues eg
. locate the positions of the equator and tropics in overcrowding, transport, unemployment, disease
Content Africa and poverty, sanitation, housing, pollution, crime
2.1 A general introduction by means of maps " . locate immediate seas and oceans . understand the concept rural
2.1.1 Political . locate islands along the coast . identify and understand rural issues, eg
Learning 2.1.2 Physical . observe regular coastline and absence of deep depopulation, lack of arable land, irrigation,
bays deforestation, type of farming, type of housing
2.1.3 Climate and vegetation
X 2.2
2.2.1
Important issues in Africa
Resources
. locate the coastal plain
. locate the lower African plateau
. locate Northern and Southern fold mountains
. understand the influence of pests, disease and health
problems
. identify plant and animal pests and diseases
2.2.2 Urban issues . locate important rivers and lakes . identify human diseases eg due to poor sanitation,
2.2.3 Rural issues . define the difference between weather and climate dysintery, cholera
. ________________________________________
2.2.4 Health
2.2.5 Women in Africa
General techniques and skills to learn and practise ...
104
"
. Identify the difference between political, physical and thematic
Ideas for teachers ... maps
. Reading map keys and symbols
. Identification of physical and political features on a map
. The location of various resources by means of map reading and
using symbols
. Discussion
. Group activity: simulation and role play
. Integrate this section with news geography

. Integrate this section with general techniques and
Teaching skills Some guiding questions for teachers ...
. Appreciate and understand other viewpoints
X . An interdisciplinary approach is possible eg
linking with history
. Which of these issues are relevant in your environment?
. How can this section be taught to develop a realistic perception of the relevant
. Issue-based approaches " issues?
. _______________________________________ . How can learners be encouraged to seek information for themselves?
. _______________________________________ . How can geography break down stereotypes?
. _______________________________________ . How can issues be taught in a way that will interest the learner?
3. A study in outline of Africa's contribution towards the essential raw materials of the world
Learners should be able to ...
. define raw materials . appreciate the need for conservation

. categorise these primary products, eg . _______________________________________
minerals, timber, agricultural products . _______________________________________
. note where the primary products are produced . _______________________________________
Content
in Africa . _______________________________________
3.1 A study in outline of the contributions of Africa " . investigate what happens to these products eg . _______________________________________
Learning towards the essential raw materials of the world how they are transported and to which . _______________________________________
locations . _______________________________________
X . appreciate the need for and uses of raw

materials
. _______________________________________
105
. Map reading (pictorial symbols)
" . Project work through indirect observation, research, recording
. Discussion
. Role playing
Ideas for teachers ...
. Building a model of a typical plantation, eg sugar
Some guiding questions for teachers ...

skills
Teaching . Identify the raw materials in the local environment
. Identify the raw materials used in consumer . How can news geography and mapwork skills be applied to this section?
X goods in the environment and trace the source
PST103-E/1
. How can the learner be made aware of Africa's contribution to the raw materials
thereof of the world?
. Identify raw materials in the local environment
" . Are Africa's raw materials being over-exploited by developed countries?
which can be recycled . What kind of message do you think learners will get from this section of the
. Participation in local conservation projects syllabus?
. Use graphs to present information . _______________________________________________________________
. Project/groupwork
4. Neighbouring countries of the RSA
Learners should be able to...
. define the concept `'neighbouring'' country . identify and understand local issues
. define political and economic relations
. _______________________________________
. emphasise their political and economic
relations with the RSA . _______________________________________
Content . _______________________________________
. observe physical geography and vegetation of
4.1 Geographical survey of neighbouring states " the country using a map eg position, relief, . _______________________________________
. _______________________________________
Learning 4.2 A geographical study of at least TWO further drainage
. observe the climate and most important . _______________________________________
politically and economically important African
X products . _______________________________________
states which are representative of different
. _____________________________________ . _______________________________________
geographical regions, eg Zambia, Angola,
Kenya, Nigeria, Algeria, and Egypt
General techniques and skills to learn and practise...
106
. Direction and map reading using keys/symbols
. Graphic presentation and interpretation of information
" . Interpretation and discussion
. Problem solving in order to bring about co-operation between
Ideas for teachers ... neighbours
. Indirect observation through visual aids
. Oral presentation
Some guiding questions for teachers ...

skills and news geography
Teaching . Obtain relevant visual material from embassies,
travel agencies and libraries . How can news geography and mapwork skills be applied to this section?
X . Make use of comparative studies
. Issue-based approaches
. It is easy for this section to turn into a list of facts. How can it be made more
interesting for the learner?
. Project and groupwork " . What should the learner at this stage know about the neighbouring countries?
. _______________________________________ . Why is it important to study countries in geography?
. _______________________________________
. _______________________________________
5. News geography
Learners should be able to...
. appreciate and understand other viewpoints . _______________________________________

. extend the learner's vocabulary and familiarise . _______________________________________
themselves with the terms used in the media . _______________________________________
. become aware of social issues, eg rapid . _______________________________________
Content
urbanisation, illiteracy, poverty and disease, . _______________________________________
5.1 Especially those events pertaining to Africa " exploitation, pollution . _______________________________________
Learning . _____________________________________ . _______________________________________
. _____________________________________ . _______________________________________
X . _____________________________________ . _______________________________________
107
. Read news
. Comprehend
" . Identify issues
. Map reading and interpretation
. Debate, role-play, simulation
Ideas for teachers...
. Summarising
. Developing objectivity
. Linking news geography with maps

. Determining location of news events in relations
to the RSA
. Display on bulletin boards Some guiding questions for teachers ...
. Use groupwork and role play to evaluate news
events
Teaching
. Integrate news geography throughout the
. How can news geography be taught to develop a learner's skills?
X syllabus
PST103-E/1
. Use a variety of sources relating to a particular . How can learners be led to use information to form their own opinions and
news item make decisions?
. _______________________________________ " . How can news geography be used to break down stereotypes?
. _______________________________________ . _______________________________________________________________
. _______________________________________________________________
Source: WCED 1996:8,25±30.

Understanding Social Sciences in Primary School

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Understanding Social Sciences in Primary School

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# 1997 University of South Africa

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1.1 Purpose, nature and scope of the course

1.2 Learning outcomes

1.3 Activities and self-evaluation exercises

1.5 Prescribed books

Mathews, J, Moodley, K, Rheeder, W & Wilkinson, M. 1994. Discover History: a pupil-

1.6.1 A synopsis of the prescribed books and themes

Geography book Theme History book

1 Social Sciences in the primary 1±4, 10

None 2 Curriculum and curriculum

3 Aims and objectives

6 Evaluation procedures 7±8, 12, 17

1.7 An overview of the course

In theme 2 we will look at curriculum and curriculum development, looking

1 Author/s ....................................................................... (Surname and initials)

4 Place of publication ...........................................................................................

1 Author/s ....................................................................... (Surname and initials)

2 Date of publication .............................................................................................

4 Place of publication ...........................................................................................

First edition, second impression 6

First edition, second impression 6

When acknowledging in the text/assignment itself, we make use of an internationally accepted

Mathews, J, Moodley, K, Rheeder, W & Wilkinson, M. 1994. Discover History: a pupil-

Why is it necessary to have a bibliography in your assignment? In Activity 4, we would like

1.8 Concluding remarks

We look forward to hearing from you as well as meeting you.

Suggested answers to Activity 1:

Geography book Theme History book

1±2 1 Social Sciences in the primary 1±4, 10

None 2 Curriculum and curriculum Sections of Ch 1

Parts of Chapters 1 & 3 Aims and objectives 2 & 18

16 6 Evaluation procedures 7±8, 12, 17

a After studying this unit you will be able to:

2.1 Clarification of concepts

2.1.1 What are the Social Sciences?

Nelson (1992:24±25) further elaborates on these ``environments'' and refers to a material

2.1.2 What is Geography?

Read: Hurry p 2 sec 1.1.

1 Identify certain key elements which each of these definitions emphasise:

Let us now investigate the concept of History.

2.1.3 What is History?

1 Identify certain key elements which each of these definitions emphasise:

2.2 The nature and value of Geography and History in

Read: Mathews et al. pp 2±5 (The elements of History)

CONTRIBUTION OF GEOGRAPHY TO EDUCATION

Knowledge and understanding of: Skills in:

Source: WCED 1996:4

What three broad categories do these sources acknowledge as contributing

CONTRIBUTION OF HISTORY FOR EDUCATION

Knowledge and understanding of: Skills in:

Attitudes and values that help to:

2.3 Geography and History teaching in South African

2.3.2 Recent developments

Gr 1 & 2 (Sub A Gr 3±6 Gr 5±6 Gr 7±9/10 Gr 10/11±12

Has a naõÈve Becomes aware Develops in- Becomes aware Is able to

Has no knowledge Starts to show an Becomes aware Awakening of Is able to

Does, however, Nine-year-old Starts to . Discovers that Is able to divide

Develops under- Development of Understanding

Adapted from: Esterhuizen et al. 1991:26

6±9 years 10±11 years 12±16 years 16±18 years

Gr 3±4 Gr 5±6 Gr 7±9/10 Gr 10/11±12