Chapter 5: Method in Control - Root Locus Method

INTRODUCTION

What? → Find the positions of the closed-loop poles when a

certain system parameter varies.

Why? → Positions of closed-loop poles determine important

properties such as stability, damping, etc.

How? → By using root locus method.

1
ROOT LOCUS CONCEPT

K
Open-loop transfer function: G ( s ) =
s ( s + 2)
Y ( s) G( s) K
Closed-loop transfer function: = = 2
R( s ) 1 + G ( s) s + 2s + K
Characteristic equation: ∆ ( s ) = s 2 + 2 s + K = 0

Absolute stability: Stable for positive values of K.

Relative stability: Depends upon the location of the closed-loop poles.
2
Closed-loop poles: s = −1 ± 1 − K K 0 1 2
s 0, -2 -1, -1 -1+j, -1-j

3
A root locus of a system is a plot of the roots of the system characteristic
equation (poles of the closed-loop transfer function) as some parameters
of the system are varied.

• Each root locus starts at an open-loop pole with K = 0 and terminates at

infinity as K → ∞.

• Each root locus gives one characteristic root (closed-loop pole) for a
specific value of K.

• Note that information about damping can be obtained from the root
locus.

4
 BASIC PROPERTIES OF ROOT LOCI

KG(s)

Y ( s) KG ( s )
Closed-loop transfer function: =
R ( s ) 1 + KG ( s ) H ( s )
1 + KG(s)H(s) = 0
G(s)H(s) = -1/K

Any point on the root locus (with K > 0) must satisfy

Magnitude criterion: |G(s)H(s)| = 1/K
Angle criterion: ∠G(s)H(s) = ±180o
5
 K ( s + z1 )( s + z2 )L( s + zm )
Let KG ( s ) H ( s ) =
( s + p1 )( s + p2 )L( s + pn )

∏ (s + z )
i =1
i
1
Magnitude criterion: G( s) H ( s) = n
=
∏ (s + p )
K
j
j =1
m n
Angle criterion: ∠G ( s ) H ( s ) = ∑ ∠( s + zi ) − ∑ ∠( s + p j ) = ±180o
i =1 j =1
6
Example: Find if s = -1 and s = -3 are points on the root locus. If so, find
the value(s) of K at these points.

-1+j Im(s)

Re(s)

-2

-1-j

7
For s = -1 For s = -3

-1+j -1+j

a d
o
c=0

b f
-2 -3 e
-2

-1-j -1-j

m n
Angle criterion: ∠G ( s ) H ( s ) = ∑ ∠( s + zi ) − ∑ ∠( s + p j ) = ±180o
i =1 j =1

Total phase = c – a – b = 0o Total phase = f – d – e = -180o

Point s = -1 is not on root locus Point s = -3 is on root locus
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Find K at s = -3.
-1+j
p

-3 r -2
Magnitude criterion:
m

∏ (s + z )
i
1
q
G( s) H ( s) = i =1
n
= -1-j
∏ (s + p )
K
j
j =1
r 1
=
pq K

K=5
9
PROPERTIES AND CONSTRUCTION OF ROOT LOCI

RULES FOR CONSTRUCTION OF ROOT LOCI

Rule 1: Number of Root Loci (Branches)

The root locus plot consists of n root loci (branches) as K varies from 0
to ∞. The loci are symmetric with respect to the real axis.
n m
Characteristic equation: ∆( s ) = ∏ ( s + p j ) +K ∏ ( s + z i ) = 0
j =1 i =1

Degree n → n roots

Complex roots occur in complex conjugate pairs

→ Root loci symmetrical about the real axis
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Rule 2: Starting and Ending Points of Root Loci

As K increases from 0 to ∞, each root locus starts from an open-loop

pole with K = 0 and ends on an open-loop zero with K = ∞. The number
of root loci ending at ∞ equals the number of open-loop zeros at ∞.

s+2
Example: For a system with G ( s ) = and H ( s ) = 1, find the
( s + 1)( s + 1)
starting and ending points of the root loci.

Characteristic equation:
( s + 1)( s + 1) + K ( s + 2) = 0

Starting points: K = 0, s = -1, -1 (open-loop poles)

Ending points: K = ∞, s = -2, ∞ (open-loop zeros)

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Rule 3: Asymptotes to Root Loci (Behaviour at Infinity)

The (n-m) root loci which tend to ∞ do so along straight line asymptotes
radiating out from a single point s= -σa on the real axis (called the
centroid) where

σ a = ∑ (realpart of open -loop polesn)−−m

∑ (realpart of open -loop zeros)

These (n-m) asymptotes have angles

( 2q + 1)180 0
φa = ; q = 0, 1, L , ( n − m − 1)
n−m

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 m
K ∏ (s + z i )
i =1 K
1+ ≅ 1+ n−m
=0
n
(s + σ a )
∏ (s + p )
j =1
j

13
 n

∏ (s + p )
j =1
j

m
≅ (s + σ a ) n−m
∏ (s + z )
i =1
i

 n m
 n − m −1
s n −m +  ∑ p j − ∑ z i  s + ... = s n − m + ( n − m )σ a s n − m −1 + ...
 j =1 i =1 
n m

∑ (− p
j =1
j ) − ∑ (− zi )
i =1
−σ a =
n−m

From angle criterion:

( n − m )φ = ( 2q + 1)180 0 ; q = 0, 1, L
( 2q + 1)180 0
φa = ; q = 0, 1, L , ( n − m − 1)
n−m
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Example: Find the centroid and asymptotes of the root locus for
K ( s + 2)
KG ( s ) H ( s ) = .
( s + 1 + j 4)( s + 1 − j 4)( s + 3)( s + 4)
Rule 1: 4 branches.
Rule 2: Starting points are open-loop poles s = -1 ± 4j, -3, -4.
Ending points are open-loop zeros s = -2, ∞, ∞, ∞.
Rule 3: 3 asymptotes.
Centroid, σ a = −1−1− 3 − 4 − (−2) = − 7
4 −1 3
Angles of asymptotes
(2q + 1)1800
φa = ; q = 0, 1, L, (n − m − 1)
n−m
(2q + 1)1800
φa = ; q = 0, 1, 2 → φa = 600, 1800, and 3000
4 −1

15
16
Rule 4: On-locus Segments on the Real Axis

A point on the real axis lies on the locus if the number of open-loop poles
plus zeros on the real axis to the right of this point is odd.

Take a point s0 on the real axis.

(i) Poles and zeros on the real axis to the right of this point contribute
an angle of 1800 each.
(ii) Poles and zeros to the left of this point contribute angle of 00 each.
(iii) The net angle contribution of a complex conjugate pole or zero
pair is always zero.

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∠G(s)H(s) = (mr + nr)1800
mr = number of open-loop zeros on the real axis to the right of s0
nr = number of open-loop poles on the real axis to the right of s0

From angle criterion: ∠G(s)H(s) = ±1800 = ±(2q + 1)1800, q = 0, 1, 2, …

Angle criterion is satisfied if (nr + mr) is odd.

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Rule 5: On-Locus Points of the Imaginary Axis

The intersections (if any) of root loci with the imaginary axis can be
determined by use of the Routh criterion.

Stability limits → Imaginary axis crossings

Example: Find the imaginary axis crossings for the root locus plot of
K ( s + 2)
KG ( s ) H ( s ) = .
( s + 1 + j 4)( s + 1 − j 4)( s + 3)( s + 4)

Characteristic equation
s 4 + 9s 3 + 43s 2 + (143 + K ) s + 204 + 2 K = 0

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Routh Table:
s4 1 43 204+2K
s3 9 143+K
s2 (244 – K)/9 204+2K
s1 (18368 – 61K – K2)/(244 – K)
s0 204+2K
244 – K > 0 → K < 244
18368 – 61K – K2 > 0 → -169.4 < K < 108.4
204 + 2K > 0 → K > -102
Hence, 0 < K < 108.4

For K = 108.4, all the coefficients in s1 row are zero.

Auxiliary equation formed from the coefficients of s2 row.
244 − K 2
s + (204 + 2 K ) = 0 → s = ± j5.28
9
Root loci intersect the imaginary axis at s = ± j5.28, corresponding value of K is
108.4.
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Rule 6: Angle of Departure from Complex Poles
The angle of departure, φp, of a locus from a complex open-loop pole is
given by φp = 1800+φ, where φ is the net angle contribution at this pole
of all other open-loop poles and zeros.

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Net angle contribution of all other open-loop poles and zeros at s0 is
φ = θ 2 − (θ1 + θ 3 + θ 4 )
Total phase ∠G(s)H(s) at s0 = φ - φp.
From angle criterion, φ - φp = ±1800
Angle of departure from the complex open-loop pole, φp = 1800 + φ.

For this example,

θ1 = 900
θ 2 = tan −1 (4 / 1) = 76o
θ 3 = tan −1 (4 / 2) = 63o
θ 4 = tan −1 (4 / 3) = 53o

φ = θ 2 − (θ 1 + θ 3 + θ 4 ) = −130 0
φp = 1800 + φ = 500

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23
Rule 7: Angle of Arrival at Complex Zeros
The angle of arrival, φz, of a locus at a complex zero is given by
φz = 1800 - φ, where φ is the net angle contribution at this zero of all
other open-loop poles and zeros.

K ( s 2 + 1)
Example: Let us consider the characteristic equation 1 + = 0.
s ( s + 2)

Rule 1: 2 branches.
Rule 2: Starting points are open-loop poles s = 0, -2.
Ending points are open-loop zeros s = ± j1.
Rule 3: Not applicable.
Rule 4: On-locus segments on the real axis between 0 and -2.
Rule 5: Root locus touches imaginary axis at s = ± j1.
Rule 6: Not applicable.
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Rule 7:

Total phase ∠G(s)H(s) at s0 = φ + φz.

From angle criterion, φ + φz = ±1800
Angle of arrival at the complex open-loop zero, φz = 1800 - φ.

Net angle contribution at s0 is given by

φ = 900 – 900 – 26.50 = - 26.50 → φz = 1800 - φ = 206.50.
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Rule 8: Location of Multiple Roots
Points at which multiple roots of the characteristic equation occur
dK
(breakaway/break-in points of root loci) are the solutions of =0
ds
n

∏ (s + p j )
j =1
where K = − m
).
∏ (s + z i )
i =1

Example: Draw the root locus plot for the characteristic equation
K ( s + 2)( s + 3)
1+ = 0.
s ( s + 1)
Rule 1: 2 branches.
Rule 2: Starting points are open-loop poles s = 0, -1.
Ending points are open-loop zeros s = -2, -3.
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Rule 3: Not applicable.
Rule 4: On-locus segments on the real axis between 0 and -1, and
between -2 and -3.
Rule 5: Not applicable.
Rule 6: Not applicable.
Rule 7: Not applicable.
Rule 8:

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 s ( s + 1) s2 + s
K =− =− 2
( s + 2)( s + 3) s + 5s + 6
dK  ( s 2 + 5s + 6)(2s + 1) − ( s 2 + s )(2 s + 5) 
= −  =0
ds  ( s + 5s + 6)
2 2

2s 2 + 6s + 3 = 0
s = -0.634 (breakaway point), s = -2.366 (break-in point).

Condition for breakaway/break-in point (as derived above) is necessary

but not sufficient.

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COMPLETE EXAMPLES

Question 1: Consider a feedback system with the characteristic equation

K
1+ = 0 ; K ≥ 0 . Plot the root locus for this system. Find
s( s + 1)( s + 2)
the dominant closed-loop poles for ζ = 0.5.

Solution:

Rule 1: 3 branches.
Rule 2: Starting points are open-loop poles s = 0, -1, -2.
Ending points are open-loop zeros s = ∞, ∞, ∞.
Rule 3: 3 asymptotes.
Centroid, σ a = − 2 −1 = −1
3− 0

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 (2q + 1)1800
Angles, φa = ; q = 0, 1, L, ( n − m − 1)
n−m
( 2q + 1)1800
φa = ; q = 0, 1, 2 → φa = 600, 1800, and 3000
3−0

Rule 4: On-locus segments on the real axis between 0 and -1, and
between -2 and -∞.

Rule 5: Characteristic equation: s 3 + 3s 2 + 2 s + K = 0

Routh Table:
s3 1 2
s2 3 K
s1 (6-K)/3
s0 K
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 For stability, K > 0, (6 - K)/3 > 0
Crosses imaginary axis when K = 6.
Auxiliary equation: 3s 2 + K = 3s 2 + 6 = 0 → s = ± j 2

Rule 6: Not applicable.

Rule 7: Not applicable.
Rule 8: K = - (s3 + 3s2 + 2s).
dK
= −(3s 2 + 6s + 2) = 0
ds
s = -0.4226 (breakaway point), -1.5774 (not valid)

If two loci break away from a breakaway point, their tangents will be
1800 apart.

In general, if r loci break away from a breakaway point, then their

tangents will be 3600/r apart, i.e., the tangents will equally divide 3600.
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ζ = 0.5 → line makes an angle cos-1ζ = 600 with the negative real axis.
Points of intersection: s = -0.33 ± j0.58.
From magnitude criterion, K = { s s + 1 s + 2 }s = −0.33+ j 0.58 = 1.04 .
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Question 2 (past year exam question 2004/2005): Sketch the root locus
of a unity feedback system with forward path transfer function G(s) given
as follows:
K
G( s) =
s( s 2 + 4 s + 5)

Solution:
Rule 1: 3 branches.
Rule 2: Starting points are open-loop poles s = 0, -2+j, -2-j.
Ending points are open-loop zeros s = ∞, ∞, ∞.
Rule 3: 3 asymptotes.
−2−2 4
Centroid, − σ a = =−
3−0 3

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 (2q + 1)1800
Angles, φa = ; q = 0, 1, L, (n − m − 1)
n−m
( 2q + 1)1800
φa = ; q = 0, 1, 2 → φa = 600, 1800, and 3000
3−0
Rule 4: On-locus segments on the real axis between 0 and -∞.

Rule 5: Characteristic equation: s 3 + 4 s 2 + 5s + K = 0

Routh Table:
s3 1 5
s2 4 K
s1 (20-K)/4
s0 K
For stability, K > 0, (20-K)/4 > 0
Crosses imaginary axis when K = 20.
Auxiliary equation: 4 s 2 + K = 4 s 2 + 20 = 0 → s = ± j 5
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Rule 6: For pole -2+j,
φ = -153.43 - 90 → φp = 1800 + φ = -63.430
For pole -2-j,
Due to symmetry properties: φp = 63.430

Rule 7: Not applicable.

Rule 8: Characteristic equation: K = - (s3 + 4s2 + 5s).

dK
= −(3s 2 + 8s + 5) = 0
ds
s = -1 (breakaway point), -1.667 (break-in point)
From the characteristic equation,
K s = −1 = 2 , K s = −1.667 = 1.852

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36
EFFECTS OF ADDING POLES AND ZEROS TO G(s)H(s)

Controller design may be treated as an investigation of the effects to root

loci when poles and zeros are added to the loop transfer function
KG(s)H(s).

Addition of Poles:
• Has the effect of pushing the root loci toward the right-half s-plane.

Example: Consider the loop transfer function given by

K
KG ( s ) H ( s ) = .
s ( s + 2)

Rule 1: 2 branches.
Rule 2: Starting points are open-loop poles s = 0, -2.
Ending points are open-loop zeros s = ∞, ∞.
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Rule 3: 2 asymptotes.
Centroid, σ a = 0 − 2 = −1
2−0
(2q + 1)1800
Angles, φa = ; q = 0, 1, L, (n − m − 1)
n−m
( 2q + 1)1800
φa = ; q = 0, 1→ φa = 900, 2700
2−0

Rule 4: On-locus segments on the real axis between 0 and -2.

Rule 5: Not applicable.
Rule 6: Not applicable.
Rule 7: Not applicable.
dK
Rule 8: = − ( 2 s + 2) = 0
ds
s = -1 (breakaway point)

38
Stable for all K.

39
Let us introduce a pole at s = -b (b > 2).
K K
KG ( s ) H ( s ) = = , with b = 3
s ( s + 2)( s + b) s ( s + 2)( s + 3)
• The centroid of asymptotes changes from -1 to -(2+b)/3.
• The angles of asymptotes change from ±90° to ±60° and 180°.
• Root loci bend towards right-half s-plane → unstable at large K.

40
Addition of Zeros
• Has the effect of pushing the root loci toward the left-half s-plane.

K ( s + 3)
Let us introduce a zero at s = -3. KG ( s ) H ( s ) = .
s ( s + 2)
Relative stability is improved.

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