Exercise 1-1

Introduction to the Transmission Lines Circuit Board

EXERCISE OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this exercise, you will be familiar with the various sections of the
TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board. You will know how to replace the STEP
GENERATOR of this board by its Thevenin equivalent circuit. You will be able to
determine the voltage across a load connected to this generator, using the voltage
divider rule.

DISCUSSION

The TRANSMISSION LINES Circuit Board

As Figure 1-21 shows, the five sections that make up the TRANSMISSION LINES
circuit board are as follows:

• TRANSMISSION LINEs, A and B;

• AUXILIARY POWER INPUT;
• STEP GENERATOR;
• SIGNAL GENERATOR;
• LOADs.

Locate and examine each section of the circuit board.

Figure 1-21. TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B.

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TRANSMISSION LINEs A and B each consists of a 50-S RG-174 coaxial cable

having a length of 24 meters (78.7 feet). These lines can be connected end-to-end
to obtain a total line length of 48 meters (158 feet).

Each line has the following:

• A BNC connector at both its sending and receiving ends.

• Five probe turrets with their associated coaxial-shield turrets that permit
observation and/or measurement of the signal along the entire length of the line
with an oscilloscope. The posts are equally distributed along the line, thereby
dividing the line into four segments of equal length [6 meters (19.7 feet) each].

The AUXILIARY POWER INPUT section, shown in Figure 1-22, is used to power
the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board with an external ±15 VDC power supply,
if the board is operated in stand-alone mode (without a FACET Base Unit). The
LED's in the AUXILIARY POWER INPUT section are on (lit) when adequate power
is supplied from the external supply.

Figure 1-22. The AUXILIARY POWER INPUT.

The STEP GENERATOR, shown in Figure 1-23, delivers a 50-kHz signal consisting
in a rectangular pulse that occurs every 20 µs. The STEP GENERATOR output
signal is available at five BNC connectors, each connector corresponding to a
different generator output impedance.

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Figure 1-23. The STEP GENERATOR.

The SIGNAL GENERATOR, shown in Figure 1-24, delivers a sinusoidal signal

whose frequency can be adjusted between 5 kHz and 5 MHz, using the
FREQUENCY knob. The SIGNAL GENERATOR output signal is available at three
BNC connectors, each connector corresponding to a different generator output
impedance. A REFERENCE OUTPUT, consisting of two banana plugs, provides a
voltage proportional to the frequency of the SIGNAL GENERATOR output signal,
that is, 1 V per MHz of the generated signal. Consequently, the SIGNAL
GENERATOR output frequency can be measured by connecting a DC voltmeter to
the REFERENCE OUTPUT.

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Introduction to the Transmission Lines Circuit Board

Figure 1-24. The SIGNAL GENERATOR.

The LOAD section, shown in Figure 1-25, consists of a network of resistors,

inductors, and capacitors that can be configured in various ways, through the setting
of toggle switches. A BNC connector located at the LOAD-section input permits
connection of this input to the common via the desired load configuration. For
example, to connect the LOAD-section input to the common via resistor R1 in series
with inductor L2, switches S1 and S8 are set to the I (ON) position, while all the
other switches are set to the O (OFF) position.

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Introduction to the Transmission Lines Circuit Board

Figure 1-25. The LOADs.

Thevenin's Theorem

Thevenin's theorem is named after the French engineer M.L. Thevenin. Thevenin's
theorem allows any electrical linear circuit seen at two terminals to be represented
by a Thevenin equivalent circuit. The Thevenin equivalent circuit consists of a
voltage source, ETH, and an impedance in series with this source, ZTH. Figure 1-26
shows how a simple circuit is thevenized.

• Voltage ETH is equal to the open-circuit voltage, VOC, measured across the two
terminals of the circuit to thevenize.

• Impedance ZTH is the impedance seen at the two terminals when the voltage
source of the circuit to thevenize is replaced by a short circuit.

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Figure 1-26. Thevenizing a simple circuit.

Thevenizing the STEP GENERATOR and the SIGNAL GENERATOR of the

TRANSMISSION LINES Circuit Board

The STEP GENERATOR of the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board can be

represented by its Thevenin equivalent. To determine the Thevenin voltage of the
Thevenin equivalent, the STEP GENERATOR output voltage is measured with no
load connected to the generator output (that is, with the load impedance in the
open-circuit condition, equal to 4 S), as Figure 1-27 shows. The measured voltage
corresponds to the Thevenin voltage, E TH.

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Figure 1-27. Thevenizing the STEP GENERATOR.

Assuming that the Thevenin impedance of the STEP GENERATOR Thevenin

equivalent is purely resistive, this impedance can then be determined by connecting
a resistive load, whose resistance can be varied, to the output of the STEP
GENERATOR, as Figure 1-28 shows.

Figure 1-28. Voltage divider rule.

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According to the voltage divider rule, the voltage across this load, V L, is

ZL
VL ' @ ETH
ZTH % ZL

where VL = Voltage across the load (V);

ZL = Load impedance (S);
ZTH = Thevenin impedance (S);
ETH = Thevenin voltage (V).

When the load is adjusted so that the voltage across it, VL, is equal to ETH/2 (see
Figure 1-29), the equation for calculating V L becomes:

ETH ZL
' @ ETH
2 ZTH % ZL

Figure 1-29. ZTH = ZL when VL = ETH/2.

Rewriting and simplifying this equation for solving Z TH, gives:

ZTH ' ZL

Consequently, by adjusting the resistance of the load so that VL = ETH/2, and then
measuring this resistance, the value of Z TH can be determined.

A method identical to that just described can be used to determine the Thevenin
equivalent circuit of the SIGNAL GENERATOR of the TRANSMISSION LINES
circuit board.

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As will be seen in detail in Unit 2, a transmission line acts as a load when it is

connected to a voltage source. This causes the instantaneous applied voltage to be
attenuated by a specific amount determined by the voltage divider rule.

Procedure Summary

In this procedure section, you will determine the Thevenin equivalents of the STEP
GENERATOR and SIGNAL GENERATOR on your circuit board.

PROCEDURE

Determining the Thevenin Equivalent at the STEP GENERATOR 50-S BNC

Output

G 1. Make sure the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board is properly installed

into the Base Unit. Turn on the Base Unit and verify that the LED's next to
each control knob on this unit are both on, confirming that the circuit board
is properly powered.

G 2. Referring to Figure 1-30, connect the STEP GENERATOR 50-S BNC

output to the BNC connector at the LOAD-section input, using a short
coaxial cable.

Then, connect the STEP GENERATOR 100-S BNC output to the trigger
input of the oscilloscope, using a coaxial cable.

Finally, using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope

to the probe turret just next to the BNC connector at the LOAD-section
input. Make sure to connect the ground conductor of the probe to the
associated (nearby) common (L) turret.

G 3. In the LOAD section, set all the toggle switches to the O (OFF) position.
Then, connect the input of the LOAD section to the common via resistor R1
(500-S potentiometer) by setting the appropriate switches in this section to
the I (ON) position. (That is, set both switches S1 and S10 to the I position.
The other switches must all be left to the O position).

Turn the knob of resistor R1 fully clockwise. This sets the impedance of the
STEP GENERATOR output load to 500 S approximately.

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Figure 1-30. STEP GENERATOR 50-S BNC output connected to oscilloscope channel 1 and to the
LOAD-section input.

G 4. Make the following settings on the oscilloscope:

Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 µs/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 MS or more

Note: Throughout this course, the oscilloscope settings for the time
base and channel sensitivity are given as a starting point for
guidance and may be modified as necessary to obtain the maximum
possible measurement accuracy.

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Introduction to the Transmission Lines Circuit Board

G 5. Observe the STEP GENERATOR output signal on the oscilloscope screen.

Is this signal a rectangular pulse having a period of 20 µs approximately,
as Figure 1-31 shows?

G Yes G No

Figure 1-31. STEP GENERATOR output signal.

G 6. In the LOAD section, slowly turn the knob of resistor R1 fully

counterclockwise, which will cause the impedance of the STEP
GENERATOR output load to decrease from 500 S to 0 S approximately.

While doing this, observe what happens to the pulses in the STEP
GENERATOR output signal on the oscilloscope screen.

Which of the following statements best describes your observation?

a. The voltage of the pulses stays constant as the load impedance is

decreased.
b. The voltage of the pulses decreases as the load impedance is
decreased.
c. The voltage of the pulses is half the maximum voltage when the load
impedance is minimum (0 S).
d. The pulses become absent from the displayed signal when the load
impedance becomes maximum.

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G 7. In the LOAD section, set all the toggle switches to the O (OFF) position.
This places the impedance of the load at the STEP GENERATOR 50-S
output in the open-circuit condition (4 S).

Measure the voltage (height of the rising edge) of the pulses on the
oscilloscope screen. This is the Thevenin voltage, ETH, at the STEP
GENERATOR 50-S BNC output.

ETH = V

G 8. Connect the input of the LOAD section to the common via resistor R1
(500-S potentiometer) by setting the appropriate switches in this section to
the I (ON) position.

Adjust the knob of resistor R1 until the voltage of the pulses on the
oscilloscope screen is equal to half the Thevenin voltage measured in the
previous step.

Record below this voltage, ETH/2.

ETH/2 = V

G 9. Using an ohmmeter, measure the resistance between the LOAD-section

input and the common (current resistance setting of resistor R1). Since R1
has been adjusted to create a voltage drop of ETH/2 at the STEP
GENERATOR 50-S BNC output, the R1-resistance setting corresponds to
the Thevenin impedance, ZTH, at this output:

– Disconnect the end of the coaxial cable connected to the

BNC connector at the LOAD-section input. (Leave the other end
connected to the STEP GENERATOR 50-S BNC output.)

– Disconnect the oscilloscope probe from the probe turret at the LOAD-
section input.

– Hold the tip of one of the ohmmeter probes on the probe turret at the
LOAD-section input, while touching the nearby common (L) turret with
the other ohmmeter probe.

– Record below the measured resistance, Z TH.

ZTH = S

G 10. Reconnect the coaxial cable coming from the STEP GENERATOR 50-S
BNC output to the BNC connector at the LOAD-section input.

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G 11. Connect the input of the LOAD section to the common via resistor R4
(100-S resistor) by setting the appropriate switches in this section to the I
(ON) position.

Reconnect channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the probe turret at the LOAD-

section input.

G 12. Measure the voltage of the pulses on the oscilloscope screen. This is the
voltage across the 100-S load currently connected to the STEP
GENERATOR output, VL.

VL = V

G 13. Using the Thevenin voltage, ETH, and the Thevenin impedance, ZTH,
measured in steps 7 and 9 of this exercise, use the voltage divider rule to
calculate the theoretical voltage present across a 100-S load, ZL,
connected to the STEP GENERATOR output:

ZL
VL ' @ ETH
ZTH % ZL

Is your calculation result approximately equal to the practical voltage, VL,

measured in the previous step?

G Yes G No

G 14. Disconnect the circuit by removing all the connecting cables and probes.

Determining the Thevenin Equivalent at the SIGNAL GENERATOR 50-S BNC

Output

G 15. Now, determine the Thevenin equivalent at the SIGNAL GENERATOR

50-S BNC output:

– Referring to Figure 1-32, connect the SIGNAL GENERATOR

50-S BNC output to the BNC connector at the LOAD-section input,
using a short coaxial cable.

– Then, connect the SIGNAL GENERATOR 100-S BNC output to the

trigger input of the oscilloscope, using a coaxial cable.

– Finally, using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the

oscilloscope to the probe turret just next to the BNC connector at the
LOAD-section input. Make sure to connect the ground conductor of the
probe to the associated (nearby) common (L) turret.

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Figure 1-32. SIGNAL GENERATOR 50-S output connected to oscilloscope channel 1 and to the
LOAD-section input.

G 16. In the LOAD section, set all the toggle switches to the O (OFF) position.
This places the impedance of the load at the SIGNAL GENERATOR 50-S
output in the open-circuit condition (4 S).

G 17. Make the following settings on the oscilloscope:

Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1 µs/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 MS or more

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G 18. Adjust the frequency of the SIGNAL GENERATOR output signal to 3 MHz
approximately. To do so, adjust the FREQUENCY knob of this generator
until the period, T, of the sinusoidal signal displayed on the oscilloscope is
0.33 µs, approximately, as Figure 1-33 shows. To make sure the
FREQUENCY knob is properly adjusted, you can verify that the voltage at
the REFERENCE OUTPUT of the SIGNAL GENERATOR is 3.0 V, using
a DC voltmeter.

Figure 1-33. SIGNAL GENERATOR output signal frequency set to 3 MHz approximately.

Measure the peak (positive) amplitude of the sinusoidal voltage on the

oscilloscope screen. This is the Thevenin voltage, ETH, at the SIGNAL
GENERATOR 50-S BNC output.

ETH = VPK

G 19. Connect the input of the LOAD section to the common via resistor R1
(500-S potentiometer) by setting the appropriate switches in this section to
the I (ON) position.

Adjust the knob of resistor R1 until the peak (positive) amplitude of the
sinusoidal voltage on the oscilloscope screen is equal to half the Thevenin
voltage measured in the previous step. Record below this voltage, E TH/2.

ETH/2 = VPK

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G 20. Using an ohmmeter, measure the resistance between the LOAD-section

input and the common (current resistance setting of resistor R1). Since R1
has been adjusted to create a voltage drop of ETH/2 at the SIGNAL
GENERATOR 50-BNC output, the R1 resistance setting corresponds to the
Thevenin impedance, ZTH, at this output:

– Disconnect the end of the coaxial cable connected to the

BNC connector at the LOAD-section input.

– Disconnect the oscilloscope probe from the probe turret at the LOAD-
section input.

– Hold the tip of one of the ohmmeter probes on the probe turret at the
LOAD-section input, while touching the nearby common (L) turret with
the other ohmmeter probe.

– Record below the measured resistance, Z TH.

ZTH = S

G 21. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.

CONCLUSION

• The TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board has five sections: the

TRANSMISSION LINES, the AUXILIARY POWER INPUT, the STEP
GENERATOR, the SIGNAL GENERATOR, and the LOADs.

• The Thevenin equivalent of the STEP GENERATOR or SIGNAL GENERATOR

can be determined at any of their BNC outputs. To do so, the generator output
voltage is measured with no load connected to the generator output. The
measured voltage corresponds to the Thevenin voltage, E TH.

Then, a variable load is connected to the generator output, and the load is
adjusted until the voltage across it is equal to half ETH. In this condition, the load
impedance, which corresponds to the Thevenin impedance ZTH, can be
measured with an ohmmeter. ZTH does not necessarily correspond exactly to
the nominal resistance of the BNC output where it is measured.

• Once the Thevenin equivalent at a generator output is known and a load is

connected to this output, the voltage applied to the load is determined by the
voltage divider rule.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. The STEP GENERATOR on your circuit board produces a rectangular signal

a. whose frequency can be determined through measurement of the voltage

at the REFERENCE OUTPUT.
b. available at five BNC connectors, each connector corresponding to a
different line input impedance.
c. having a frequency of 50 kHz.
d. that occurs every 20 ms.

2. The TRANSMISSION LINES on your circuit board

a. have four probe turrets and their associated shield turrets that divide the
line into four segments of equal length [6 meters (19.7 feet) each].
b. can be connected end-to-end to obtain a line of 48 meters (158 feet).
c. each consists of a 75-S coaxial cable of the RG-174 type.
d. each has a length of 48 meters (158 feet).

3. According to Thevenin's theorem,

a. the Thevenin impedance ZTH is the impedance seen at the two terminals of
the circuit to thevenize, when the voltage source of this circuit is replaced
by an open circuit.
b. the Thevenin voltage ETH is determined by measuring the short-circuit
voltage at the two terminals of the circuit to thevenize.
c. the Thevenin equivalent circuit consists of a voltage source, ETH, and an
impedance in parallel with this source, Z TH.
d. any electrical linear circuit seen at two terminals can be represented by a
Thevenin equivalent circuit.

4. What is the Thevenin voltage, ETH, of the STEP GENERATOR if an open-circuit

voltage VOC of 1.0 V is measured at the 5-S BNC output of this generator?

a. 5.0 V
b. 0.2 V
c. 0.5 V
d. 1.0 V

5. If the Thevenin equivalent at a BNC output of the STEP GENERATOR is

ETH = 2 V and ZTH = 75 S, what will be the voltage present across a 50-S load
connected to this output?

a. 0.8 V
b. 4.0 V
c. 2.0 V
d. 1.2 V

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