Chapter One

Introduction

1.1. Background of the Study

The purpose of education is the overall advancement of the society concerned. This is especially
the responsibility of higher education, where by “scientific and technological advancement and
growth of a country are as dependent on it” (Mishara, 2006: 6). In fact, the role of higher
education is multi dimensional. One can plausibly identify that higher education covers teaching,
research, and consultancy. Moreover, “higher education is the source or feeder system in all
walks of life and therefore supplies the much-needed human resources in management, planning,
design, teaching and research” (ibid). That is why, higher education institutions, while educating
people in a wide range of disciplines, are being taken as a key to effective implementation of
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). In addition, through research and advisory services,
higher education institutions can contribute to shaping national and international policies
(Materu, 2007:7). In General, as noted by Teshome (2005:1), higher education is critical for
economic progress, political stability, peace as well as building democratic culture and cohesive
societies.

Higher education in some African countries like Ethiopia is in a state of massive expansion. This
expansion is meant to enhance accessibility and relevance. However, at the same time it would
be mandatory to maintain and enhance the quality of higher education, against the huge
expansion policy. Explaining the need for quality of higher education in Africa, Materu (2007:
xiii) stated that,
A new range of competences, such as adaptability, teamwork, communication skills, and
the motivation for continual learning, has become critical. Thus, tertiary institutions are
challenged to adjust their program structures, curricula, teaching and learning methods
to adapt to these new demands. In recognition of this challenge, greater attention is
being focused on quality assurance as a critical factor to ensuring educational
relevance.

At this juncture it is important to note that, even if it is very difficult to define what maintaining
quality assurance means, authors in the field note “… in many countries [it] is exercised with the
intention of ensuring minimum standards indicated in the quality of inputs, processes and
outcomes” (Zenawi, 2006:3).

Despite a long history of church education, secular and higher education in Ethiopia does not
have a history that extends more than six decades. Under the successive three regimes, higher
education in Ethiopia has passed through several challenges. During the period of Emperor Haile
Sellasse I, higher education institutions were few in number. There was only one University-
Haile Sellasse I University, comprising of the Addis Ababa Campuses, the Public Health College
of Gondar and the Alemaya College of Agriculture, that were thriving, with considerable early
success, to maintain international standards (Saint, 2004:84). This early success however, came
in to halt with the fall of the Imperial regime. Broadly speaking one can safely argue that the
Dergue, which came in to power after a popular revolt that swept away the monarchy, did little
to improve higher education. This period was characterized by deepening economic decline and
political turmoil. The shifts in priorities caused by war created immense pressure on the Dergue
regime (1972-1991) to limit or to diminish public sector expenditure including the education
system in general and the higher education development in particular (Teshome, 2005:2-3).

Following the demise of the Derg regime, the new government under Ethiopian People’s
Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) undertook a series of reforms to achieve socio-
economic development. As in the words of Teshome “With a shift in the socio-economic
development directions of the country, it has become essential to expand and ensure equitable
access and to reform the education system, including the higher education sector.” (ibid: 4). In
addition to this, the government has also enacted a new Higher Education Proclamation approved
by the parliament in June 2003 and the later amended in 2009. With the advent of EPRDF, the
number of Higher Education Institutions (here in after HEIs) has also increased rapidly. Along
with this massive expansion, the Government of Ethiopia is also striving to maintain the quality
of higher education, despite criticisms from academicians, politicians and other stakeholders that
the government is not focusing on quality but quantity.

Ethiopia like many countries is pursuing a reform to enhance the quality of higher education.
This higher education reform envisages the establishment of a Quality and Relevance Assurance
Agency (QRAA) to develop standards and evaluate institutions to maintain quality and relevance
(Teshome, 2003:8). Furthermore, the government has pursued a policy reform to maintain higher
education quality by training Masters and PhD students who are going to be lecturers and
trainers in the universities that are being established across the nation. The intervention
mechanism that AAU is undertaking is a case in point. AAU, in order to maintain quality of
graduate education, uses diagnostic tests to determine the levels of preparation of graduate
students and implement necessary interventions of Masters and PHD students prior to the
commencement of studies. The interventions were decided to be on three areas of deficiencies,
namely Academic English, Quantitative Methods, and Computational Skills (AAU, BPR
Document, 2009: 57).

This study explores the implementation of these intervention mechanisms designed to enable
graduate students to follow graduate studies more efficiently by satisfying the deficiencies
demonstrated during the diagnostics tests. It will also examine the efficiency of the interventions
mechanisms in contributing to quality of education.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

Education at undergraduate and graduate levels is important to meet the challenges of changing
demands for advanced knowledge. However, expanding higher education is quite expensive, and
many low-income transitional countries do not have the requisite resource to invest in higher
education (Jong, 2005: 2). Nevertheless, giving up tertiary-level education is definitely not an
option. People with aptitudes for advanced skills and knowledge that the nation requires for
leadership and development must be given chances so that their talents are not wasted; instead,
they should be nurtured by higher schooling. The quantity of educational capital can be
measured by the number of graduates, but it is difficult to measure the quality of education
accurately. Conceptually, the quality of education is reflected in the performance of students and
graduates (ibid).

A study conducted by the Forum for Social Studies (FSS) of Ethiopia affirmed that, there is an
emerging conflict between quality needs and access expansion. The enrollment expansion has
led to decreased resource allocation per head of student per year. The Ethiopian Government has
put the expansion of higher education and hence access to higher education as one of the
indicators of its success and furthermore as an indicator of the achievement of the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) (FSS, 2008:5).

Expansion of graduate education in AAU is entangled in a web of problems. Former Vice-

President for Research and Graduate Studies of the University, Professor Tsegea Gebremariam
(2002), states that, the university graduates school has faced different obstacles. He explains that
prior academic history of students and their related capacity to stand rigorous and tiresome
graduate academic education, their motivation for learning and other related problems have
posed challenges, which hindered the improvement of quality graduate program. As clearly
stated in the Strategic Plan Document of the AAU, the strategic mission of the University
… is to raise the quality of higher education in … and strengthen its contribution among
its member institutions; providing support to their core functions of teaching, learning,
research and community engagement; and facilitating critical reflection on, and
consensus-building around, issues affecting higher education and the development of the
nation.

To achieve the stated goals in its mission, the AAU is shifting largely to focus on graduate
programs, which are multi-disciplinary, thematic, and more of research oriented. In order to
implement the needed expansion of higher education in the country, as sought by the government
policy, AAU is now opening different masters and PhD programs that aim to train teachers
required for the newl\ opened universities across the country. For such reasons the annual intake
of AAU is increasing and reached 3547 masters students in year 2013. AAU has also made the
limping frog jump in expanding doctoral program from 31 students in 2006 to a record high
2014. Such massive enrollment increase would definitely result in compromising the quality of
education unless the predesigned interventions have assured the necessary quality as sought in
the BPR document.

AAU, in its Business Process Re-engineering (BPR) document recognized the challenges of the
expansion of the graduate program; and that it might face numerous challenges. Nevertheless,
the document, which is designed to reform the university, sought to implement high standard by
the use of internal and external quality audits with other quality improvement tools to tackle the
challenges. The document further recommended intervention mechanisms especially to be
conducted on first year graduate students to ensure quality of the graduate programs.

As clearly noted in the document, all candidates to be enrolled in the masters and PhD programs
will be given diagnostic tests to determine their levels of preparation, which would help the
University to take the necessary intervention. The interventions are to be made in areas of
Academic English, Research Methods, and Computational Skills.
The purpose of this research is therefore to assess whether the quality enhancement intervention
mechanisms that AAU is undertaking have made significant inroads in enhancing quality of
graduate education. Put in other terms, assessing the efficacy of the intervention mechanisms by
the Graduate Office of AAU in enhancing quality of graduate education, is the major concern of
the research. As such, it questions the extent of the intervention mechanisms and their
institutionalization in achieving the intended objectives and goals of quality assurance from the
perspectives of students and owners of the programs.

1.3. Research Questions

The following are some of the basic questions that this study will try to answer:

1. What are the perceptions of graduate students regarding the intervention undertaken by
Addis Ababa University to enhance quality through remedial packages?
2. What factors and variables undermine graduate students satisfaction while attending
remedial course packages offered by the University?
3. Do demographic factors have relationship with the remedial programs to bear impact
on student’s satisfaction? If so, which demographic factor is a strong predictor of
satisfaction on remedial education?
4. What are the problems that undermine the effectiveness of remedial course packages
to bring the intended outcomes?
5. What problems and challenges that are faced in assuring the quality of graduate
education through preparatory courses? Are the main study areas

1.4. Objective of the Study

The study is concerned with the assessment of the implementation of remedial course packages
and the preparatory modules in enhancing quality of graduate education. In view of this, the
research has the following objectives.

1.4.1. General Objective

The general objective of the research is to examine and assess the challenges of
implementing quality enhancement intervention programs at the graduate level.

1.4.2. Specific objectives

Specific objectives of the current study includes
1. To examine the general conditions in which preparatory modules are conducted.
2. To assess the satisfaction of students as major stake holders on the programs
particularly by focusing on program and course learning experiences
3. To assess the efficacy of the intervention mechanisms implemented in view of
enhancing quality of education by measuring the outcome of quality intervention
from students’ perspective.
4. To point out the difference of perceptions in outcome on the general remedial
packages, between courses and if there is any by different demographic variables

1.5. Rationale of the Study

The dismal state of quality education in Ethiopian Higher Education institutions and the ways of
improving it, has unleashed debates among educationalists, policy makers, and politicians alike.
A report by the World Bank (2003) indicates that massive expansion in graduate education in
Ethiopia may run the risk of lowering the quality of education. The report further states that the
expansion in higher education without improving or maintaining quality will be
counterproductive to the extent of becoming a source of instability. Both external and internal Commented [BTC1]: Find a better word that explains what you
want to say unless it is a direct quote…
quality assurance measures should be in place to guard quality education. AAU has put such
quality assurance mechanisms to ensure higher quality of postgraduate education. In view of the
intervention mechanism being taken by AAU, the efficiency and effectiveness of the quality
assurance programs are worth studying and is the main rationale behind the study of this
research.
1.6. Research Methodology and Research Design
This section on research methodology and design provides the quantitative and qualitative
research methods, the researcher’s role, and procedures followed in collecting and interpreting
data, sampling techniques and size, research instrument, validity and reliability of the research.

1.6.1. Methods
The purpose of this study is to assess and compare the practices and problems encountered in
the course of applying remedial education program in the Addis Ababa University to enhance
quality of graduate education by measuring students’ satisfaction. It also intends to forward
possible recommendations based on the findings of the study. To address this objective,
descriptive survey method will be used.. The reason being, the method enables to gather
relevant research information on remedial education programs, practices and its problems.
The researcher will conduct assessments on the practices by selecting a sizeable sample from
part of graduate population enrolled at the academic year 2011/13 and 2013/14.

The research will adopt both quantitative and qualitative research approaches. Applying the
chosen research methods will help the researcher to draw together qualitative and
quantitative data that provide more flexibility to meet multiple research interests and needs.
Using combination of quantitative and qualitative research will also facilitate the generation
of richer and deeper facts that have potential to enrich the study findings.

1.6.2. Source of data

The target population of the study is intended to comprise graduate students from the class
of graduate population enrolled at the academic year 2012/13and 2013/14. Participants will
be selected based on their part in the conduct of remedial programs either as a student or as
an official who participated in the conduct of the training as program owner and coordinator.
Primary as well as secondary sources will be used to the conduct of research.

The researcher will collet primary data, by using a multi-method approach conducted
through a survey of self-administered questionnaire and semi structured interviews in a
complementary and supplementary way. The primary data will be obtained from
respondents through questionnaires and interviews.

Secondary data will be garthreded from review of various documents such as, books,
journals, articles, bulletins, and various internet sources. Other documents such as, business
process reengineering document and reports on the conduct of the training, strategic planning
documents of the AAU that relate to graduate programs were also utilized.

1.6.3 Population, Sampling Technique and Sample Size

the whole of students enrolled in the class of 2013 and 2014 will be enrolled as the study
population. And at least 10% of the graduate population will be subject of the study by
ensuring all categories and classes are represented in the study.
1.6.4. Instruments and procedures of Data gathering

1.6.4.1. Instruments
The main data gathering instruments used in this study are questionnaires. For
triangulating facts, and enrich the data, interview was conducted with responsible
officials and document analysis is conducted.

1.6.4.2 Questionnaire
Data will be acquired through personally administered questionnaires used as standard
instrument to evaluate course satisfaction among graduate students. For the purpose of
this research, these questionnaires will be customized and modified to fit into
remedial courses under discussion.

1.6.4.3. Interview

In addition to the data to be gathered via standard questionnaire, interview will be

conducted with the Chief Academic Officer for Graduate Development and Admission
to evaluate student responses in light of program owner’s perspective. The qualitative
data collected through interviews will be evaluated by content analysis. Semi-
structured interview will also be held to obtain data for further clarity and credibility
 of the research with key officials in the graduate admission and development office
responsible for the conduct of remedial packages. The officials will be selected on the
bases of official position they held in their respective offices as coordinators of
programs.

1.7. Data analysis

The method of data analysis will be on the type of instrument employed to gather information.
Therefore, so as to analyze the majority of data obtained through questionnaire, descriptive
statistics (mean and standard deviations) and inferential statistics (t-test and non-parametric
statistics), correlations, regressions analysis supported by SPSS software, will be applied to see
students perception on the conduct and outcome of remedial packages and their ability to
enhance quality by predicting students satisfaction.

Scope and Limitation of the study

The study area cannot address all quality issues related to higher institutions. The data gathered
will be limited to students who were in the campus since 2013. Thus, the study will be limited to
AAU and solely concentrate on quality assurance intervention packages provided as preparatory
or remedial at the year of entry to graduate students.

1.8. Organization of the Paper

The research is organized into four major chapters. The first chapter is an introduction, which
will give a clear highlight on background of the study, statement of the problem and related
topics. The second chapter will deal with the theoretical underpinnings of quality in higher
education and related literature on conceptual issues that will provide framework for the study.

The third chapter will present data collected from students, teachers and concerned officials
about the conduct of the program. the thired will illustrate analyanallyse the collected data and
gives a clear investigation of the intervention mechanisms employed in the views, perception,
and understandings of stakeholders. The fourth chapter will incorporates conclusions and
recommendations, which is thought to be relevant for stakeholders for both improving
performance or make policy adjustments.
 Chapter Two
2. Conceptual Framework and Literature Review

2.1. Higher Education: An Introduction

Education is regarded as the way out of poverty and backwardness in developing countries. More
importantly, expanding and maintaining higher education is believed to have a paramount
importance in producing the needed quality and quantity of educated men and women to support
the development of societies. In other words, higher education institutions are essential in
providing skilled and trained work force. That said, at this juncture, it is imperative to dedicate
few words to explain what is meant by higher education in this context to make our discussion
easier.

Higher education can generally be defined as “institutions whose legal mandates allow them to
award degrees which includes universities and other forms of institutions” (Materu, 2007:4).
Higher education institutions, includes legally formed colleges, universities and other related
institutions having a legal basis to accredit individuals on a certain defined field of study. The
core functions of higher education institutions are mainly concerned with teaching learning and
conduct of research by individuals or groups with skills on a specific discipline. As noted by
Mishara (2007:5), “higher education is about knowing more and more about less and less.” This
is to show the degree educational institutions focus on specialization.

Ronald Baarnet (1992) cited in (Mishara, 2007) identified the following four predominant
concepts of higher education.
i. Higher education as the production of qualified human resources which views education
as a process, and students as a product to be absorbed by the market
ii. Higher education as training for a research center which views higher education as a
preparation of qualified scientists who would continuously develop the frontiers of
knowledge
iii. Higher education as the efficient management of teaching provision… that considers
teaching as the core of educational provision
 iv. Higher education as a matter of extending life chances which in the case education
serves as to provide the opportunity to participate in the development process of the
individual through flexible and continuing education

If we look at the different activities of higher education institutions, these four concepts are
evident. In fact, teaching, research, and community services are of the three pillar functions of
higher education. Therefore, higher education encompasses interrelated functions of universities
colleges and research institutions, which will play crucial role in various development aspects of
societies.

2.2. Roles of Higher Education

Policy makers, students, parents and other stakeholders have varied views concerning the roles
of higher education. In the long history of higher education, the views and stances towards
higher education have undergone changes depending on the economic, political, and social
contexts of the world. In today’s world, the attitude and conception towards higher education has
undergone fundamental changes in particular due to the forces of globalization. The knowledge-
based competition within the globalizing economy is unleashing fresh consideration on the role
of higher education by both the public and policy makers (Bloom et al, 2006: I). Previously
higher education establishments were considered as expensive and inefficient public services that
benefited largely the wealthy and the privileged (ibid). Now states as well as other stakeholders
are of the opinion that and agree on its paramount importance for economic and social
development.

In addressing the role of higher education in Ethiopia context, Teshome (2003:1) stated, “...by
inculcating relevant knowledge and advanced skills, higher education provides the human
resources that are required for leadership, management, business and other professional
services.” UNESCO report (1998) attributes the 20th century scientific and technological
achievements to large part to correspond to the growth of higher education and the immense
contribution and endeavors of personnel trained in it. Educational institutions have different roles
in societies, as such, the development and advancement of a country is dependent on the level
and development of its tertiary education. This is because higher education is critical for
economic progress, political stability, peace, as well as building democratic culture and cohesive
societies (Teshome, 2005:5). In line with this Mishara asserts that “Scientific and technological
advancement and economic growth of a country are as dependent on the higher education system
as on the working class…” (Mishara, 2007:6).

Bloom et al. (2006:15) in emphasizing the role higher education to push forward the competitive
advantage of developing nations elucidate the matter saying, in a knowledge economy, territory
education can help economies keep up or catch up with more technologically advanced societies.
The idea is that, for developing countries or growing economies tertiary education is a means to
sustain and enhance their economies and attain technological advancement to join the developed
world. The main conception behind the work of Bloom et al is focused on the idea that for
continents likes Africa “investing in tertiary education… may accelerate technological diffusion,
which would decrease knowledge gaps and help reduce poverty in the region” (ibid: 30). Tesfaye
et al (2009:2) also noted that investing in the higher education institutions of a country is
tantamount to investing for development as higher education institution are the ways out from
poverty and means for development.

However, the role of education goes beyond the economic advancement of societies. Higher
education institutions engage in different actions and undertaking that may not have direct
bearing on development or poverty reduction. Mishara (2007:6) listed some of the role of higher
education institution as:
 To seek and cultivate new knowledge, to engage vigorously and fearlessly in the pursuit
of truth, and to interpret old knowledge and beliefs in light of new need discoveries;
 To provide the right kind of leadership in all walks of life, to identify gifted youth and
help them develop their potential to the full by acculturating physical fitness, developing
the powers of the mind and cultivating right interest, attitudes and moral and intellectual
values.
 To provide the society with competent men and women trained in agriculture, arts
medicine, science and technology and various other professions, who will also be
cultivated individuals, imbibe with a sense of social purpose.
  To strive to promote quality of social justice, and to reduce social and cultural differences
through diffusion of education; and
 To foster in the teachers and students and through them in the society generally, the
attitudes and values needed for developing the good like in individuals and society.

Furthermore, dealing with the broader benefits of higher education to society, Patel (2003:139
cited in Kapur and Crowley, 2008:15) argued that:
Higher education is necessary to satisfy some of the higher aspiration of a society.
Historical archeologists and men of letters chronicle the past and present in a way,
which shapes the future, and nurtures the roots that bind communities together.
Universities students as well as teachers everywhere are uniquely motivated to keep
alive the values of freedom and universality of individual dignity and as well as the
brotherhood of man… universities and in general higher education institutions are,
also the greatest force of change not just technological change but social and
cultural as well.

Report of UNESCO (1998:36), in recounting the missions of HISs urges them to be more future
oriented, and specifically emphasizes their role as “…who have to prepare students for the
future, as they have to educate people who are going to play an important role in shaping the
future path of the societies in which they are going to work.”

In sum, as can be garnered from the above discussion higher education is becoming a major
drive of economic competitiveness in an increasingly knowledge driven global economy. To
achieve the intended objective and goal, however, higher education institutions need to have the
necessary quality assurance mechanisms to be able to produce a qualified work force. The
question is what constitutes quality? Moreover, how can it be assessed?

2.3. Higher Education Quality Assurance (The Concepts of Quality Assurance and Quality
Enhancement)
The concept of quality is applicable in all fields or even phenomenon in any subject (Parri, 2006:
107). For some, quality education is taken as constant and continuous development and in some
other situations, the emphasis is on setting minimum standards (ibid: 110). Materu (2007:37)
defines quality as elastic, relative amorphous and contextual. This is because it can be used
differently in different contexts. Parri rightly captures it, “Quality is a concept that lacks a
common definition which can be broadly understood as meaning “fitness for purpose…meeting
or conforming to generally accepted standards bodies and appropriate academic and professional
communalities. In other words, quality is defined through to what extent the set goals have been
achieved” (2006:107). Quality can also be defined as “exceptionality: excellence”. This
definition sets a goal for universities and academic communities to be always the best belong to
the elite and achieve better outcomes than the others achieve (ibid).

What transpires from the above definition is that a given tertiary institution is qualified because it
is best as compared to others and it is labeled as institution of “center of excellence.” In this
context excellence is construed as, “… a performance stage of exclusiveness that is distinctive
from many others and stand out as demonstration of “zero defect” and highest level of
satisfaction of the stakeholders” (Mishara, 2007:13). Parri (2006:107) comparing zero defects
with others, states that, while other quality concepts seek to attain better position, the latter (zero
defect concept) worships perfection.

A more general and inclusive definition of quality is provided by Barrow (1991, cited by
Bennett, 1992:13). For Barrow quality in higher education is
…a high evaluation accorded to an educative process, where it has been demonstrated that,
through the process, the students’ education development has been enhanced… not only have
they achieved the particular objectives set for the course but, in doing so, they have also fulfilled
the general educational aims of autonomy of the ability of participate in reasoned discourse, of
critical self evaluation, and of coming to a proper awareness of the ultimate contingency of all
thought and action

Relating quality with the specific context of a state Mishara characterizes it as a notion that
reflects national, regional, and global socio-economic, cultural, and political visions (Mishara,
2008:9). Looking at the different definitions of quality in higher education, one can surmise that
the objectives of these institutions is to strive to achieve the standard’ and move towards
“excellence.” In this context to have a better picture of quality in higher education, it is
imperative to see the notion of quality assurance and quality enhancement in detail.

Quality assurance and quality enhancement are two interrelated activities seeking to ensure an
institution engages in the provision of quality service to satisfy concerned stakeholders and
realize its objectives. Dill (2007:1) defined quality assurance in higher education as one that “…
denotes the practices whereby academic, i.e., the level of academic achievement attained by
higher education graduates, are maintained, and improved.” Materu (2007:3) on his part also
defined this concept as “…a planned and systematic review process of an institution or program
to determine whether or not acceptable standards of education, scholarship and infrastructure are
being met, maintained and enhanced.” In this regard, quality assurance is regarded as a course of
action that involves whether tertiary institutions met the minimum standards set by the institution
and continually engaged in maintaining these standards as well as enhancing these standards.

According to the European Students Handbook on quality assurance, quality assurance strategies
“requires that higher education should be characterized by its international dimension, exchange
of knowledge, interactive networking, mobility of teachers and students and international
research projects, while taking into account the national cultural values and circumstances.” The
impression is that, quality assurance by its nature involves meeting international standards to the
minimum level by considering issues of a national nature such as culture and policy, for instance.

According to Mrozek et al, (1997:157) quality assurance includes all activities needed to provide
effective services for customers during the basic educational process and the full life cycle of the
graduate.” Here it must be also noted that quality assurance is the means by which an institution
can guarantee with confidence and certainty that the standards and quality of its educational
provision are being maintained and enhanced” (Pereira et al, 2007:7). Quality assurance as a
process is meant to be instrument or means to maintain and enhance the standards set by the
institution. Put in other terms, quality assurance in higher education involves ongoing efforts of
higher education institutions, in maintaining and enhancing educational provisions. In general,
quality assurance is construed broadly as maintaining the quality of the education process of
institutions.

A related concept in this regard, is Quality enhancement -specific concepts under which higher
education institution use different mechanisms and specific strategies to improve quality in
education. As defined in Pereira et al (2007:7) quality enhancement is the process of positively
changing activities in order to provide for a continuous improvement in the quality of
institutional provision. The provisions of remedial and developmental education, which are to be
dealt in detail in later chapter, are among quality enhancement mechanisms deployed by
institutions.

2.3.1. Why quality is needed?

As mentioned earlier, higher education institution policy is increasingly becoming an
important national agenda. This emanates, in fact from the mission, purpose, and role of the
institutions in the overall advancement of societies. In addressing the importance of quality in
tertiary education, (Costantinos, 2005: 19) argues that
The mission in guaranteeing education is to safeguard the public interest in sound
standards and of higher education qualifications and to encourage continuous improvement
in the management of quality of higher education.

He further argues that this is accomplished by working with institutions to define academic
standards of quality, and by carrying out reviews against these quality standards and publish
reviews against these standards, within a frame work that defines the purpose and, number of
levels and qualification descriptions of institutions.

To achieve the needed objectives therefore higher education institutions must provide
education with the necessary quality so that according to the official goals of the international
standard organization ISO 9000 achieve the following goal in their undertakings
 Customer (student, sponsor satisfaction) consistent with professional standards
 Engage in continuous improvement of services
 Give great consideration of to the requirement of industry commerce and the public
sector
 Become effective and efficient

According OECD report (2008:2) the major driving force behind quality-based policy of
countries in higher education institution is competition in the global market. This is pointed
out on OECD report “as the importance for countries to raise to higher level employment
skills, to sustain a globally competitive research based and to improve knowledge
dissemination to the benefit of society.” (Ibid)
Complementing prior arguments, Materu concluded that (2007:7-8) the basic factor for
country’s emphasis on quality to rise in the global political economy which most often is
characterized by competition. He further asserts that the economy of today’s world demands
for competences such as adaptability, team work, communication skills and the motivation
for construal learning which have become critical.

In one way or another, the following reasons make ensuing quality as an imperative for
policy makers, especially in developing countries.
 competition in the global knowledge economy
 the need for maintaining standards set by institutions
 demand for increased transparency and accountability
 improvement of employee morale and motivation
 credibility, prestige and status
 image and visibility
 increasing demand for graduates
 rapid expansion or massfication of higher education institution
 Need for reforms in higher education to address new challenges. (Materu, 2007:8-10,
Mishara, 2007: 13-14, OECD, 2008:2-3).

2.3.2. Quality Assurance Mechanisms in Higher Education Institutions

According to Walen (cited on Parri, 2006: 4), quality assurance in higher institutions is an
activity that aims at maintaining and raising quality through; research, analysis, assessing
acceptability, recruitment, appointment procedure and different mechanisms and systems.
The aim of quality assurance according to Loomas (cited ibid) is to guarantee the
improvement of standards and quality in higher education in order to make higher education
meet the needs of students,’ employers and financiers. Harvey (cited on Mishara, 2007:31)
describes quality assurance as a responsibility of every one working in an educational
institution, which is conducted as an ongoing process
 Parri (2006:109) categorizes Quality assurance as External and Internal mainly based on
customers of education and their opportunities.

External Quality Assurances

External quality assurances monitoring is a broad concept that includes several quality
related assessments provided by different bodies or individuals outside the higher education
institutions (Westerhidgen cited in Parri, 2006: 2). External quality assurance is necessary to
assure and demonstrate the public that goals set by the institution are achieved. This will help
the institutions to discharge their responsibilities by assuring supporters, society, and the state
and put a check if they are committed to the fulfillment of their mission, use resources
honestly, and they abide by legal rules and regulations (El-khawas cited on Parri, 2007: 109).
Internal or Institutional Quality Assurance
Unlike external quality assurance, internal quality assurance aims at institutional
development and assessment of internal accountability. El-khawhas (cited in Parri, 2007:
109), argues that institutional quality assurance incorporates every activity that focuses on
quality assurance and development, in all fields of activities of the institution. He further
states that internal quality assurance focuses mainly on academic issues and lies in collecting
evidences and information about mission fulfillment, efficiency of activity and ways of
insuring quality within the institution (Parry, 2006:109).

Explaining the mechanisms of quality assurances, Hanan (cited in Mishara, 2006: 31) lists
what is done through self-evaluation - peer review by panel of experts, analysis of statistical
information and or use of performance indicators, bench marking of best practices, survey of
students, graduates, employers, and professional bodies and finally testing the knowledge,
skills, and competencies of students. One of the initiatives institutions undertake to enhance
quality is supporting student’s thorough remedial and developmental educational programs.
Having said this we pass next to remedial education programs, which are of immense
importance in enhancing quality.

2.4. What are quality enhancement programs?

How institutions organize their strategies, processes, and resources appropriately to undertake
and support the enhancement of quality will depend largely on the way in which they conceive
‘enhancement’. The degree to which this conception is shared among the institutional
community will also influence the effectiveness of the processes (Higher education academy
2008:22). Put in other terms, quality Enhancement is the process of taking deliberate steps at
institutional level to improve the quality of learning opportunities (QAA, 2006: 46).

A quality enhancement plan is a course of action for institutional improvement that addresses
one or more issues contributing to quality enhancement of students. The Handbook for
Reaffirmation of Accreditation asserts that student learning should be at the heart of the mission
of all institutions of higher learning. Developing a Quality Enhancement Plan as a part of the
reaffirmation process is an opportunity and an impetus for the institution to enhance overall
institutional quality and effectiveness by focusing on an issue or concerns, the institution
considers important to improving student learning (QEP, 2004: 21). The Quality Enhancement
Plan must emerge from the institution's current planning and evaluation processes and must be
compatible with college's strategic plan. The QEP should not be seen as an "add-on" but rather it
should become an integral part of the institution and its activities. (ibid)

According to SACS, student learning is defined broadly in the context of the QEP. It addresses a
wide range of topics or issues. Student learning may include changes in students' knowledge,
skills, behaviors, and/or values that may be attributable to the collegiate experience. Examples of
topics or issues include, but are not limited to are, enhancing the academic climate for student
learning, strengthening the general studies curriculum, developing creative approaches to
experiential learning, enhancing critical thinking skills, introducing innovative teaching and
learning strategies, increasing student engagement in learning, and exploring imaginative ways
to use technology in the curriculum.

In all cases, the goals and evaluation strategies must be clearly linked to improving the quality of
student learning." (SACS Handbook for Reaffirmation of Accreditation, 2004: 22). This means
that formulating intended student learning outcomes that demonstrate the impact of the QEP on
students will be an integral part of the plan. Remedial education is one of the strategies to
enhance quality of learning and filling deficiencies’ of graduate students may have an impact on
institutional strategies as well on policy.

2.5. Higher Education and Quality in Ethiopian Context

The history of modern education in Ethiopia and notably higher education is not more than six
decades. Higher education began in Ethiopia with the establishment of the University College of
Addis Ababa in 1950, and which later was named as Hailesellssie I University. The imperial
regime attempted to maintain the quality even with weak economic capacity to finance those
efforts. According to Saint (2004: 84) “the nation’s new higher education institutions strove,
with considerable early success, to maintain international standards.” However, following the fall
of Hailesseie’s regime and the coming into power of the military junta, “Derg” the quality of
education significantly deteriorated and generally, the attention given to the education sector
became low as compared to other sectors.

The failure on this era was not limited to the quality of education rather it was “A multi
dimension crisis of profound economic impact and social deterioration (1974-1991) which
contributed to a weakening of institutions of higher education in Ethiopia. It has undermined the
confidence, which socio-economic patterns had in them and diminished their quality, efficiency,
and impact on development (Ashecrof, 2006:4). Many reform attempts and expansion efforts are
being undertaken after the fall of the Derg regime. Former Minister of Education of Ethiopia
explains Ethiopia’s commitment to upgrade higher institutions in the following terms; “Ethiopia
is currently engaged in a highly ambitions effort to re-design its higher education system in more
direct support of its national strategy for economic growth and poverty reduction” (Teshome,
2003:3). This involves a massive expansion of higher education in the four corners of the
country. Moreover, in the last few years, the number of universities alone has reached to 33
where 23 are functioning and the rest 10 are under construction.

As Ethiopia’s strive to expand education is believed to be an acceptable strategy, the

massfication of higher education in the country is, however subject to multiple criticisms, in
relation to the quality issues. Illustrating the predicament Zenawi elucidates (2006:2), “At
present the Ethiopian higher education is experiencing problems expressed in the form of
shortage of experienced academic staff, weak research output, and declining educational
quality”. The Ethiopian government has sought to solve this problem by incorporating the higher
education development plan in its national development program.

2.5.1. Higher Education and Ethiopia Government Capacity Development Program

(PASDEP)
The Ethiopian government in its five-year development plan envisions higher institutions to
produce competent and skilled work force, which can play greater role in the fight against
poverty and implementation of good governance. The Ethiopian Government Poverty
Alleviation and Sustainable Development Program (PASDEP, 2005-2010) envisages to
increase post graduate trainees at national level from 3884 national target number in 2005 to
26,000 in 2010 at national level. It also targets to increase the historically disadvantaged
women participation in postgraduate education from 24% in 2005-to 39% in 2010.

Commenting on this move, report by World Bank (January 20, 2003: VI) states that
Ethiopia clearly understands that economic growth in the 21 century will be driven by the
nation’s performance in raising its level of national productivity in comparison to its economic
competitors and it is determined to make up the ground lost over the past two decades because of
political instability and economic stagnation.

To solve the problem in quality and shortage of highly skilled academic staff, the
government is aggressively investing on postgraduate education. Accordingly, Addis Ababa
University is made to focus on graduate studies, which aims to produce the needed highly
trained work force for the newly established universities, the burgeoning private sector, and
civil service offices. Almost all universities of the country are sending their staff for
professional development, i.e. for masters and PhD studies to Addis Ababa University. Addis
Ababa University cognizant of the problem is undertaking quality assurance mechanisms to
enhance the capacity of students and trying to fill in the skill gap. So far, these intervention
mechanisms have not yet been evaluated. One possible reason could be that it is at its early
stage since it started in the year 2009.

Addis Ababa University (AAU) is one of the institutions that has and is vigorously
participating in the realization of this crucial call of the nation. The graduate program, of
 AAU, which was founded on 1978, currently has 6819 masters and 913 PhD students
enrolled in its various regular programs. The program has also expanded from only a few
thirty years ago to 215 currently. Expansion of the graduate program, both in terms of
student’s enrollment and program expansion has been followed by quality enhancement plan
that includes providing academic English training, research method courses, computational
skill courses (Informer, 2009: 9).

2.6. Remedial Education

Remedial and developmental educations are terms that are often used interchangeably to describe
a program or study designed for students that are ill- prepared for university or college level
course work (Tara et al, 2010:2). Remedial and developmental educations are often distinguished
with the remediation process, representing the increase of student skill level. Developmental
education represents a broader development of student academic abilities (Tseng 2008:9 cited on
Huang 2010: 3). Remedial education is a type of clinical teaching. It is a spiral process of
instruction and reassessment (Tseng, 2008:9). Remedial education is designed to help students
who fall behind academically so that they catch up to a desired level (Huang, 2010: 169). It has
become an indispensable “component of higher education” even in countries such as the United
States and Canada (Zhang and Ishino 2008:331).

As universities are made more accessible to students, the demand for a higher quality student
endowed with basic academic skill to get admission is declining throughout time (Huange,
2010:169). This in turn is affecting students who joined universities, as they are facing great
difficulties in comprehending the rigorous university teaching programs. Their failure to
comprehend lectures and their failure to cope up with university level teaching learning is
undoubtedly due to lack of the required academic knowledge. Thus remedial programs are set to
help these students compensate for the insufficient learning in previous academic settings so that
they could gain “the skills and knowledge necessary to complete college level course and
academic programs sufficiently (Weissam, et al cited on Hung 2010:169). Colleges and
universities usually apply different mechanisms’ to identify whether an admitted student posses
the required academic skill and be exempted or should pass through remediation program.
2.6.1. Identifying Remedial Students
Remedial students are generally defined as those who lack the basic skills (reading, writing,
and computational skills) essential to handle college level coursework successfully. The
definition of college level work varies from institution to institution and may be determined
by the level of institutional student selecting policy and procedure (Allen, 1989: 13).

In spite of the diversity that exists in many countries as regards to the college student
population, the basic approach in identifying students who need remedial education is testing,
with several variations of this approach being utilized in different places (Weber cited on
Allen1989: 14). Students are often placed in remedial and developmental education after
failing a placement exam in reading, writing, or mathematics. Generally, institutions use
standardized assessment and then assign cut off scores that students must achieve to be
exempt of remedial courses. Students whose scores fall below a given cut scores are
recommended for placement of remediation.

In defending the appropriateness of international and national test standards, Brown and
Neimi (2007 cited in Parker et al, 2010) expressed that in the absence of clear articulation on
college readiness level by systems or institutions, scores cut-off on these exams become the
detection standards of protection. Remediation is an expensive part of educational pipeline
costing public colleges and universities dearly (Bernenand 1998: cited on parker et al, 2010).

2.6.2. Policy Issues Concerning Remedial Education

The enrollment need for higher education is increasing all over the world. Expanding access
to knowledge is one of the cardinal constituent polices of democratic governments, whose
prior concern is to provide access to education to their citizens so that they could develop
themselves. Lyman, a preacher and a clergyman expressed the moral sentiments of providing
access to society as:
Break up and diffuse among the people that monopoly of knowledge and mental
power which despotic governments accumulated for the purpose of arbitrary rule
and bring to children of the humblest families of the nation a full and fair
 opportunity… giving thus nation the select talents and powers of her entire
population (Lyman cited on Tara et al. 2010:7).

The broadening of access to higher education has led the universities to use range of
strategies to remediate skill deficiencies, which among these; quality enhancement programs
are considered as major ones.

2.6.3. Effectiveness of remedial education

Higher education policies supporting open access to citizens have posed academic challenges
for educators and institutions. By implementing policies of inclusion, many institutions have
faced consistently with large proportions of student body, which are academically under
prepared for college-level studies (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 1996,
2003 cited on Moss and Yaton 2006). Accordingly, institutions have been obliged to adopt
educational strategies that address the needs of the under prepared student. One common
strategy has been to offer courses and academic programs that increase student capabilities,
with the aim of assisting students to successfully accomplish their studies. The adoption of
such strategy comes in two forms: remedial and developmental education (Moss and Yaton,
2006). There is dearth of literature (as to the knowledge of my search on internet) on the
impact of developmental education on graduate students. Almost all of the literatures
explored present their findings on freshman or first year under graduate students. This made
the insight of this research to be dependent on research findings on aforementioned study
results.

To list few of the researches made on developmental education, Moss and Yaton (2006, I)
researched on cohorts’ of six years student scores and have come up with research findings
that students who participated in developmental education program of academic English
training have increased their skill when compared with students that were not required to take
trainings. Based on this, they concluded that those students who were required to take
trainings have benefited a lot than those who have not taken remedial courses. Seybrt et al
(1992: 3) also come up with relatively positive outcome in the development of skill of
students that have participated in remedial courses. Teshager (2006: 159) in his research
 titled enhancing quality at input level came up with the conclusion that though there is no
clear criteria to place students on remedial education, suggests the high need for the program
by both college entry students and teachers.

2.6.4. Conceptualizing the Policy Problem of remediation

As can be seen from various studies, remedial and developmental education is wedged
between two ideological stances, which on the one hand is college’s responsibility to increase
access and opportunity to citizens while on the other is the loyalty to high academic
standards as a measure of quality. In view of that, remedial and developmental education has
been regarded as policy problem for policy makers whose concern has significantly
influenced public perception and its role in higher education.

In the case of Ethiopia, it is a truism that there are different problems of quality in every step
of educational level, which obviously escalated with the massive expansion of institutions
that issue Degree education in Ethiopia. Massive expansion of higher education in a situation
where there is no sufficient resource to enhance quality has resulted in graduates that do not
have the necessary skills to pursue postgraduate education. The critical policy questions that
are related to policy as articulated by Kozeracki (2002) and are applicable to our case are,
1. How to pay for remedial services,
2. Which institutors should give remedial and developmental education, and
3. How to measure its effectiveness,

The way today’s higher education system responds to these policy questions are likely to
help determine whether AAU’ s goal to enhance quality of education through the provision
of remedial education will lead to enhancement of quality on the students.

2.7. Why Investigate Remedial Education?

Remedial and developmental education has contributed a lot in expanding access and filling the
gap of skill exhibited on scores of individuals. This is an important agenda for institutional
policy makers for without the remedial and developmental courses, many students may have
never gained the opportunity to succeed in higher education. Nonetheless, a debate continued to
this day whether such program should be part of higher education. Added to this, the economic
implication of such programs in raising the cost of higher education and its impact on the
students, which one has to fund higher education, is a long-standing problem.

The practice of remedial education in Ethiopia is new practice, and very little is known about the
outcome of such practice on students. A research focusing on remedial education in the
Ethiopian context must be geared towards exploring the consequences of such programs, their
effectiveness, and the burden on institutions willing to adopt such schemes and outcomes of such
endeavor. Specific research direction must focus on the critical role these programs play in
expanding access and facilitating completion, the appropriateness of their placement on
campuses and the costs of the delivery. Survey of students and other stakeholder’s satisfaction on
the program is one among many other methods to evaluate success of the programs and take
corrective actions particularly on the initial stage of the program.

2.8. Models of Evaluating Quality and Quality Enhancement in Higher Education

There are different models of evaluating quality of education and quality enhancement in higher
institutions. However, the models must consider the very elusive character of quality especially
in relation of education and higher institutions. Quality of education is not a well-defined
concept especially with higher institutions. Kweek et al (2010, 155) citing many other authors
defined quality as excellence in education, specification and requirement, value addition, fitness
of educational outcome, experience for use, meeting and exceeding customer’s expectation of
education. Cheng and Tam (1997,23) also defined quality of education as the character set of
elements in the input process and output of education system, that provides services that
completely satisfy both internal and external strategic constituencies by meeting explicit and
implicit expectations. Different authors propose different models. Some of these models are
listed as Goal and specification model, Resource input model, Process model, Satisfaction
model, Legitimacy model, Absence of Problem model, and Organizational Learning
model.(Chang and Tam ,1997,cited on Kweek ,2010,155) Tam and Chang (cited ibid) describe
that these models will allow the administrators of territory institutions to assess their own
education quality. Among the models, advocacy for the process model asserts that education
quality can be enhanced if educational institutions can smooth the internal process and
subsequently provide fruitful learning experiences to the relevant stakeholders (Chang and Tam,
1997).

Chail, et al (2010, 155) advocates for the relevance and use of the process model in HIS,
especially when there is a clear relationship between process and educational outcome. He
further states that indicator of quality in the process model needs to include leadership, social
interactions, classroom climate, and learning activates and experiences.

Chung (2010, 251) criticizes quality assurance practices centered on the institutional aspects
rather than other aspects of quality issues, and likes to lean more on accountability led views
rather than the improvement led views. Vorke (1998, cited ibid) proposes that education system
could be treated as a nested set of levels with the higher (e.g. system or institution) more
responsible for the accountability and educational aspects and lower levels (e.g. the program or
the course) more responsible for the enhancement aspects.

In this aspect, regarding quality indicators, Chung states that:

When one move from higher level to lower level, quality indicators that are important for
change, tend to get softer, they are much more subjective than the quality indicator at
higher level (e.g. student attrition rates) and are more related to student experience, such
as the quality of teaching and learning and the student satisfaction with the various
experiences. (Chung, 2010:251)

There are different indicators of quality at the lower level of educational system (program level)
and via questionnaire of inventories of self-rapport; one may solicit students experience on
various facets of academic lives. (Law, 2010, 251)
These surveys collect feedback on individual modules of teaching, effectiveness, student’s
program experience, as well as student’s satisfaction with their views on the quality of services
provided by educational institutions.

2.9. Conceptual Frame Work of the Research

Student evaluation of teaching quality in higher education is a well-recognized practice and
research on the subject has been conducted for over seventy years (O’Neil, 1997 cited on
Brookes 2008:2). Brookes further argues that the merits of student evaluation have also been
well debated, with some academics arguing that students are not suitably qualified to judge
quality of teaching (see for example, Wallace, 1999) and others offering strong support for the
use of student evaluation for quality assurance purposes (see for example, Oldfield and Baron,
2000; Murray, 1997). On authoritative and very comprehensive review of this literature Marsh
(1987 cited on Awan, 2008:408) concluded that “student ratings are clearly multidimensional,
quite reliable, reasonably valid, relatively uncontaminated by many variables often seen as
sources of potential bias, and are seen to be useful by students, faculty, and administrators.”
Awan further argues that most of the questionnaires that focused upon students' evaluations of
individual programs or course units, yield a considerable amount of information that are “useful
for feedback to faculty, useful for personnel decisions, useful to students in the selection of
courses, and useful for the study of teaching (Ibid). Wilson further asserts that student feedback
is used as a mechanism for quality assurance; there is also support for student evaluation of
entire courses or programs of study in order to facilitate a more comprehensive assessment
(Wilson et al., 1997).

It has been argued that any quality management tool must serve two functions, one of
accountability and one of enhancement (Jackson, 1996). While the QAA approach serves the
accountability function, additional internal mechanisms are required to best serve the quality
enhancement function. Jackson (1996) argues that the function of enhancement is fulfilled when
institutions are better able to understand the strengths and weaknesses in their policies, practices,
and procedures. Soliciting feedback from students on their entire learning experience enables this
understanding to be achieved. Furthermore, if used appropriately, it enables student views to be
integrated into quality enhancement decisions (Aldridge and Rowley, 1998).

Hence, for the purpose of this study- “Effectiveness of remedial program in enhancing quality,” a
more appropriate method to solicit information on academic life is student’s experience of their
respective programs and their total experience as learners. Over the past century, students’
relationship with their schools and teachers is one of the most widely studied topics in
educational research.
Centra (1993) and Braskamp and Ory (1994) cited on Awan, 2008:409) identified five factors
commonly found in students rating forms. These factors include: (a) course organization and
planning (b) clarity and communication skills (c) teacher students’ interaction and rapport (d)
course structure and workload (e) grading and examination.

Ramsden (1991, cited on Awan, 2008:409) developed a revised instrument, the Course
Experience Questionnaire (CEQ), as a performance indicator for monitoring the quality of
teaching on particular academic programs. The instrument has been modified and applied in
different countries and colleges in a manner that consists of more than 30 items in five scales,
which had been identified in previous research as reflecting different dimensions of effective
instruction. These are listed as; Good teaching (eight items); Clear goals and standards (five
items); Appropriate workload (five items); Appropriate assessment (six items); Emphasis on
independence, the operational definition given to each item is listed in the following table.

Table.2.1. Defining Dimensions of the Scales in the Original Course Experience Questionnaire
Performance
Operational Definition
Dimensions
Good Teaching Teaching staff here normally give helpful feedback on how you are going.
Clear Goals and You usually have a clear idea of where you are going and what is expected
Standards of you in this course.
Appropriate Workload The sheer volume of work to get through in this course means you cannot
comprehend it all thoroughly.
Staff here seems more interested in testing what we have memorized than
Appropriate Assessment
what we have understood.
Emphasis on
Students here are given a lot of choice in the work they have to do.
Independence
Source: Ramsden, P. (1991) A performance indicator of teaching quality in higher education: the Course Experience
Questionnaire, Studies in Higher Education, 16, 129–150. (Cited onHayat, 2008:410)

A review of the current literature on student evaluation and feedback enabled the researcher to
make a number of initial decisions regarding the methodological approach to be adopted.

In order to evaluate the quality enhancement packages from student’s perspectives survey
method using self-completion questionnaires would enable data to be collected from a large
sample of the student population as far as possible, in a cost effective way (Finn et al., 2000).
Harvey et al.’s (1997) Student Satisfaction Manual and Ramsden’s Course Experience
Questionnaire (1991) were used as standard tool but slightly altered and adopted to meet the
unique context of the research.

The standard questionnaire is employed in a way that one section of the questionnaire would
determine student perceptions on course content and organization, students contribution and
involvement, learning environment and teaching methods ,provision of learning resources,
quality of delivery in the teaching and learning; assessment of students and instructors teaching
assistant evaluation, which are important elements in course evaluation. Additional four sections
were added to understand student’s perception on general course package indicators and learning
out come in individual course modules, which are Academic English training, research method,
and computational skills courses.

These sections contained a series of statements identified as important to students with much
shortened version. As the questionnaire is measuring student attitudes or perceptions, a
quantitative Likert-type scale was selected as appropriate (Clark et al., 1998). Student
perceptions and feelings are recognized as valid criteria for student feedback (Fraser, 1991). In
order to monitor how the needs of group’s student bodies are met, questionnaires were designed
to include demographic data such as age, gender, and streams of studies.

In order to be an effective quality enhancement appraisal tool (Jackson, 1996), the questionnaire
also had to provide richer data that would give insight on sections not covered by standard
attitude questionnaire. For this reason, the questionnaires were made to include another section
comprised of a series of open-ended questions. Students are asked to provide feedback on
different aspects of their experience and how they believe improvement could be made. In what
follows, the analysis of the survey on remedial course packages will be presented.
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