1|HK Roni Communication

Md. Hassanul Karim Roni

Introduction to Communication System

Section A: Overview of communication System

Class Khata

Communication: The word communication may be defined as the exchange of information of any kind by any means from one location to
another location. Other word, communication is the transfer of information over distance. Information can take many forms, including picture,
writing, speech, signal and so on.
Telecommunication: Telecommunication is the transfer of information over distance via transmission media such as wire or optical fiber.

Information: Information itself is what is conveyed. The amount of information contained in a given message can be measured in bits or dits.
Signal: A signal is an event that changes with time and can be used to convey information as a means to facilitate communication
Baseband signal: A signal with frequency content centered around DC. Typically the modulating signal for an RF carrier
Link: The radio connection between a transmitter and a receiver.
Downlink: The transmission path from the base station down to the mobile station. Downlink 869 – 894 MHz
Uplink The transmission path from the mobile station up to the base station. Uplink 824 – 849 MHz

Guard band: A set of frequencies or bandwidth used to prevent adjacent systems from interfering with each other. Guard bands are typically
used between different types of systems at the edges of the frequency allocations.

Fresnel zone: The Fresnel zone is the area of a circle around the line of sight.

Aliasing effect: A type of signal distortion that occurs when sampling frequency of a signal is less that the Nyquist rate.

Cross talk: The ability for unwanted information from one channel to "spill over" into an adjacent channel.

Image frequency: An image frequency is any frequency other than the selected radio frequency that, if allowed to enter a receiver and mix with
the local oscillator, will produce across. Product frequency that is equal to the intermediate frequency.

Transmitter: Functions of transmitter:

1. Modulation: Modulation is the process by which a low frequency signal (base band signal) is combined with a high frequency signal
(carrier signal) for transmitting to a long distance.
2. Encoding: Encoding is the process of putting a sequence of characters (letters, numbers, symbols etc.) into a specialized format for efficient
transmission or storage. Simply-encoding means converting message, information or an instruction into code.
3. Transmission: Transmission is the process of sending and propagating an analogue or digital information signal over a physical point-to-
point or point-to-multipoint transmission medium either wired, optical fiber or wireless.

Transmission Media:

1. Wire 2. Wireless
• Cable a) Air
• Optical Fiber b) Plasma (ionized gas)
• Wave guide

Channel: Channel is defined as the medium of communication which has a bandwidth.

Characteristics:

1. It has upper cut off frequency

2. It has lower cut off frequency
3. It has a frequency band
4. A property which opposes the flow of information (fading)

Wireless mediums are of two types-

i) Gaussian channel 𝑝 = ℎ𝑥 ; h = fading, x= information

ii) Fading channel

Based on antenna configuration channel is 6 kinds:

1. SISO: Single input single output

2. SIMO: Single input multiple output
3. MISO: Multiple input single output
4. MIMO: Multiple input multiple output
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All the wireless channels can be classified as the above category.

Fading channel is of 3 types:

Simple fading channel Generalized fading channel Composite Fading channel

1. Rayleigh 1. 𝜅 − 𝜇 fading channel 1. Composite Rayleigh/ log-normal
2. Nakagami-m 2. 𝜂 − 𝜇 fading channel fading channel
3. Nakagami-n 3. 𝛼 − 𝜇 fading channel 2. Composite Nakagami fading
4. Nakagami-q 4. 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 gamma fading channel channel.
5. Weibul 5. Extended generalized gamma fading channel
6. Log-normal 6. Generalized –K fading channel
7. Beckman 7. Generalized Nakagami-m fading channel
8. Hyper Fox’s fading channel
9. Hyper Gamma fading channel
Factors that affect information in a channel-

a) Fading: The property of a channel which opposes the flow of information through the channel.
b) Noise: Noise may be defined as any unwanted introduction of energy tending to interfere with the proper reception and reproduction
of transmitted signals.
c) Interference: The interaction between the two signals generated from two different sources of same frequency or very close
frequencies is known as interference.

Transmission Capacity: The maximum transmission rate through a channel with minimum error probability is known as transmission
capacity of a channel.

Shannon says- capacity of a channel depends on 3 factors-

a) Bandwidth, B 𝑃𝑡
𝑐 = 𝑏 log 𝑒 (1 + )
b) Transmit signal power, 𝑃0 𝑁𝑜
c) Noise signal power, 𝑁𝑜 𝑐 = 𝑏 log 𝑒 (1 + 𝑆𝑁𝑅)

From the above equation-

a) 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∝ 𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ, 𝐵
b) 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∝ 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑃𝑡
1
c) 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∝
𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑁𝑡

Receiver: Operation- Reception, Decoding and Demodulation

Bandwidth Requirement:

FM signal BW calculation:
1. Carson’s rule: This rule recognizes only the power in the most significant sidebands with amplitudes greater than 2 percent of the carrier

𝐵𝑊 = 2[ 𝑓𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥) + 𝑓𝑚(𝑚𝑎𝑥) ] = 2[𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚𝑎𝑥) + 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦]

2. 𝐵𝑊 = 2𝑓𝑚 𝑁
𝑓𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
Here N= number of significant sideband; N is determined from chart using the modulation index 𝑚 =
𝑓𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚𝑎𝑥)

𝑓𝑚 =Modulating frequency

AM signal BW calculation:
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Section B: Noise

Kennedy Chapter 2

Noise: Noise may be defined in electrical terms as any unwanted introduction of energy tending to interfere with the proper reception and
reproduction of transmitted signals.

Types of noise:

1. Internal (Generated by components

within a communication system)
a. Thermal agitation noise
b. Shot
c. Transit time noise
2. External
a. Atmospheric noise (Electrical
discharge)
b. Extra-terrestrial noise
c. Industrial noise

Noise characteristics:

1. Unwanted form of energy signal

2. Its frequency is approximately equal to the frequency of desired signal
3. Noise creates interference for easy reception.
4. Noise creates interference for proper reproduction
5. Noise creates an extra voltage source and resistance in the device

Disadvantage of noise:

1. It decreases capacity of channel 2. It reduces the quality of received signal 3. It reduces SNR of the channel

Thermal Agitation Noise (Johnson noise):

The noise generated in a resistance or the resistive components is random and is referred to as thermal agitation / white/ Johnson noise.

Derivation of equation:

Let

𝛿𝑓= bandwidth of interest T= Absolute temperature Pn=Maximum noise power output of a resistor

Then,

𝑃𝑛 ∝ 𝑇

𝑃𝑛 ∝ 𝛿𝑓

So,

𝑃𝑛 ∝ 𝑇𝛿𝑓

𝑃𝑛 = 𝐾𝑇𝛿𝑓

𝑘 = 1.38 × 10−23 𝐽/𝑘

Now

𝑉𝑛 2
𝑉𝐿2 ( 2 ) 𝑉𝑛2
𝑃𝑛 (𝑚𝑎𝑥) = = =
𝑅 𝑅 4𝑅
𝑉𝑛2 = 4𝑅𝑃𝑛 = 4𝑅𝐾𝑇𝛿𝑓

𝑽𝒏 = 𝟐√(𝑹𝑲𝑻𝜹𝒇)

Flicker: At low frequencies a poorly understood form of noise called flicker or modulation noise is found in transistor.
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Shot noise: The noise caused by random variation in the arrival or electrons (or holes) at the output electrode of an amplifying device and appears
as a randomly varying noise current superimposed on the output is known as shot noise.

Signal to noise ratio: The signal to noise ratio is given by

𝑆 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
=
𝑁 𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
The signal to noise in dB is expressed by

𝑆 𝑆
( ) = 10 log10
𝑁 𝑑𝑏 𝑁

Purpose of SNR

1. To compare between two kinds of equipment for performance

2. To compare noise and signal at the same point to ensure that the noise is not excessive.

How does SNR affect the channel capacity?

𝑃
We know 𝑆𝑁𝑅 =
𝑁

And capacity, 𝐶 = log 𝑒 (1 + 𝑆𝑁𝑅)

𝑃
𝐶 = log 𝑒 (1 + ) … … … … (1)
𝑁
From (1) it is observed that

1. If P increase, SNR increases, and C increases.

2. If P decreases, SNR decreases and C decreases.
3. If N increases, SNR decreases and C decreases.
4. If N decreases, SNR increases and C increases.

Therefore, at constant bandwidth if the transmit signal power increases or noise power decreases, then the channel capacity will increase.
Similarly, at constant bandwidth if the transmit signal power decreases or noise power increases, then the channel capacity will decrease.

If the SNR is high (i.e. the signal power is much greater than the noise power) few errors will occur. However, as the SNR reduces, the noise may
cause symbols to be demodulated incorrectly, and errors will occur.

Noise factor /figure:

𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑁𝑅 𝑃𝑖𝑛 /𝑁𝑖𝑛

𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 = =
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑁𝑅 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 /𝑁𝑜𝑢𝑡

N.F. =1 means 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑜 & 𝑁𝑖 = 𝑁𝑜

N.F. =2 means 𝑃𝑖 > 𝑃𝑜 & 𝑁𝑖 = 𝑁𝑜

N.F. =2 means 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑜 & 𝑁𝑖 < 𝑁𝑜

Noise figure of Cascaded amplifier:

Condition for cascading-

1. 𝑍𝑖 = 𝑍𝑜

Noise Figure Calculation:

Step 1: Determine signal input power

𝑉𝑠 𝑅𝑡
𝑉𝑠𝑡 = −
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡

𝑉𝑠𝑖2 𝑉𝑠2 𝑅𝑡
𝑃𝑠𝑖 = =
𝑅𝑡 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 )2

Step 2: Determine noise input power

Similarly, noise input voltage and power will be

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2 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏
𝑉𝑛𝑖 = 4𝑘𝑇 𝛿𝑓
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡
2
𝑉𝑛𝑖 4𝑘𝑇𝛿𝑓𝑅𝑎
𝑃𝑛𝑖 = =
𝑅𝑡 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 )

Step 3: calculate the SNR

The input signal to noise ratio will be

𝑆 𝑃𝑠𝑖 𝑉𝑠2 𝑅 4𝑘𝑇𝛿𝑓𝑅𝑎 𝑉𝑠2 𝑅𝑡

= = ÷ =
𝑁𝑖 𝑃𝑛𝑖 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 )2 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 ) 4𝑘𝑇𝛿𝑓𝑅𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 )

Step 4: Determine signal output power

𝑉𝑠𝑜2 𝐴2 𝑉𝑠2 𝐴2 𝑉𝑠2 𝑅𝑡2

𝑃𝑠𝑜 = = =
𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 )2 𝑅𝑙

Step 5: Noise output power

Let, the noise output power=𝑃𝑛𝑜

Step 6: Calculate output SNR

𝑆 𝑃𝑠𝑜 𝐴2 𝑉𝑠𝑜2 𝑅𝑡2

= =
𝑁𝑜 𝑃𝑛𝑜 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 )2 𝑅𝐿 𝑃𝑛𝑜

Step 7: Calculate the generalized form

Finally, the general expression for the noise figure is

𝑆
𝑁𝑖 2
𝑉𝑆𝑜 𝑅𝑡 𝐴2 𝑉𝑠2 𝑅𝑖2
𝐹= = ÷
𝑆 4𝑘𝑇𝛿𝑓 𝑅𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 ) (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 )2 𝑅𝐿 𝑃𝑛𝑜
𝑁𝑜

𝑅𝐿 𝑃𝑛𝑜 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 )
𝐹=
4𝑘𝑇𝛿𝑓 𝑅𝑎2 𝐴2 𝑅𝑡

Equivalent Noise Temperature

The temperature generated in a receiver or amplifier due to the generation of noise voltage.

It is expressed in terms of noise power following the equation below-

𝑉𝑛2 = 4𝐾𝑇𝑅 𝛿𝑓

𝑉𝑛
= 4𝐾𝑇 𝛿𝑓
𝑅
𝑃𝑛 = 4𝐾𝑇 𝛿𝑓

𝑃𝑛
𝑇=
4𝐾 𝛿𝑓

C/I ratio: The ratio of the carrier to the interference (from both sources) is called the carrier-to-interference ratio (C/I). A certain C/I ratio is
required to provide adequate quality transmission. Increasing the carrier power at the receiver will increase the interference for other mobiles
in the network.

Example: 2.1-2.5
Exercise: 2.1-2.6

Internal noise
Types Sources Cause Effect
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Thermal Agitation Resistance or It is due to rapid motion of molecules Noise voltage is given by
resistive inside component itself 𝑉𝑛 = 2√𝑅𝐾𝑇 𝛿𝑓
components
Shot noise All amplifying Due to random variation of electrons For a diode the noise current is given by 𝑖𝑛 = √2𝑒𝑖𝑝 𝛿𝑓
devices and at the output electrode of an
virtually all amplifying device and appear as a
active devices randomly varying noise current
superimposed on the output.
Transmit noise Amplifiers If the time taken by an electron from Once the high frequency noise makes it presence felt, it
(usually the emitter to the collector of goes on increasing with frequency at a rate that soon
transistor) transistor becomes significant to the approaches 6dB per octave and this random noise then
period of the signal being amplified , quickly predominates over the other forms.
the so called transit time effect takes
place and the noise input of the
transistor increases
External noise
Atmospheric noise Atmosphere Atmospheric noise is radio noise It is propagated over the earth in the same way as
caused by natural atmospheric ordinary radio waves of the same frequencies, so that at
processes. Primarily lighting any point on the ground, static will be received from all
discharges in thunderstorm. thunderstorms, local and distant. The static is likely to be
more severe but less frequent if the storm is local.
Again, atmospheric noise becomes less severe at
frequencies above about 30MHz.
Extraterrestrial a) Solar noise The sun radiates too many things to Sun radiates over a very broad frequency spectrum which
noise our way in which we can find that includes the frequencies we use for
noise is noticeable among them. communication.
Because it is a large body at a very
high temperature, there is a constant
noise radiation from the sun.
b)Cosmic noise Since distant stars are also suns and Because of lack of nearness cosmic noise can make up in
have high temperatures, the radiate numbers which in combination can
RF noise in the same become significant
manner as our sun.
Industrial noise Automobile and The noise is produced by the arc The nature of this noise is so variable that it is difficult to
aircraft ignition, discharge present in all these analyze it on any basis other than the
electric motors operations and under these statistical. It does, however, obey the general principle
and switching circumstances this noise is most that received noise increases as the receiver
equipment, intense in industrial and densely bandwidth is increased.
leakage from populated areas
high-voltage
lines and a
multitude of
other heavy
electric
machines are all
included.

Prove
𝑷
1. 𝑺𝑵𝑹 =
𝑵
𝑺
2. 𝑺𝑰𝑵𝑹 =
𝑵+𝑰
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Section C: Communication System

Class Khata
The system of transmission and reception between transmitter and receiver with the help of a proper communication medium is known as
communication system.

Technology of communication is of two types-

Topics Analog Communication Digital communication

Definition: Analog Communication is a data transmitting Digital communication is a high speed communication technique
technique in a format that utilizes continuous signals where messages are transmitted in the form of codes.
to transmit data including voice, image, video,
electrons etc. Analog signal is a variable signal
continuous in both time and amplitude which is
generally carried by use of modulation.

Block
diagram

Amplifier:
>>It amplifies the input signal
>>Increases the strength of input signal
>>It adds additional power to the baseband signal
>>Increases magnitude (average, rms, amplitude Regenerative repeater:
etc.) >>Reception >>Reconstruction>>Retransmission

Process of analog to digital conversion

>>Sampling >>Quantizing >>Encoding
Advantage 1. Comparatively low cost 1. Noise decrease
2. Comparatively easy circuitry 2. Fading decrease
3. Signal strength remain almost constant
4. Reception is slightly affected by noise
Disadvantag 1. Noise increase 1. Comparatively costly
e 2. Fading increase 2. Comparatively complex circuitry
3. Decrease Signal strength
4. Reception is affected by noise
5. Quality of information decreases
Application

Comparisons:

Analog communication Digital Communication

Amplifier is used Repeater is used
Encoding is not needed Encoding is needed
Decoder is not needed Needed
Analog transmission Digital transmission
Analog signal is transmitted Digital signal is transmitted

Section D: Continuous wave modulation

Kennedy

Transmission types: According to the nature of reception there are three types of transmission types

1. Uni-casting: The transmission from a single source to a single destination is known as

unicasting. Example: mobile to mobile.
2. Broadcasting: The transmission from a single source to infinite number of receiver is known as
broadcasting. Example : Radio, TV broadcasting etc.
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3. Multicasting: The transmission from a single source to a group of receivers. Example: Video
conference, military communication

Transmission types based on information:

Analog Transmission: If the transmitted information is analog Digital Transmission: If the transmitted information is digital
then, the transmission is known as analog transmission. then, the transmission is known as digital transmission.
Advantage: Advantage:
1. Low cost and portable 1. Immunity to noise and fading
2. Simple circuitry 2. Less expensive, better quality
3. No quantization error 3. Better signal strength even for long transmission.
4. No synchronization problem like digital 4. Faster processing
communication. 5. Easier for storage
5. Does not need encoder or decoder. 6. Parallel processing is possible
6. Use less bandwidth and smaller guard band 7. Error correction possibilities
7. More accurate. 8. Digital communication provides more secure
Disadvantage: communication than analog transmission.
1. More prone to noise, interference and fading. 9. More reliable
2. Comparatively slower 10. Easy to manipulate
3. Requires high quality processing which in turns 11. Compatibility with other digital systems
requires high costly hardware 12. Only digitized information can be transported through a
4. High power requirement noisy channel without degradation
5. Costly storage equipments Disadvantage:
6. No security / encryption is possible 1. Sampling error
2. Digital transmission requires greater bandwidth than
analog
3. Synchronization is required for the detection of digital
signals.

Modulation
Modulation: Modulation is the process by which a low frequency signal (Base band signal) is combined with a high frequency signal for
transmitting to a long distance.

Demodulation: Process of recovering the original modulating signal from a modulated carrier. The original modulating signal is usually the
information being transmitted, typically voice or data.
Significance of Modulation:
a) To reduce antenna size
b) To reduce interference
c) To increase signal strength (S/N ratio or capacity of the system)

Modulation

Analog Digital

Amplitude Frequency Phase Amplitude Shift Frequency shift Phase shift keying
Modulation(AM) Modulation(FM) modulation(PM) keying (ASK) keying (FSK) (PSK)
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Analog Modulation

Amplitude Modulation (AM) Frequency modulation (FM)

Definition: Definition:
The modulation technique in which the amplitude of a career signal Frequency modulation is a system in which the amplitude of the
is varied by the baseband voltage whose frequency is invariably modulated carrier is kept constant, while its frequency and rate of
lower than that of carrier. change are varied by the modulating signal.

Another Definition: Derivation of frequency modulated signal:

The amplitude modulation is defined as a system of modulation in Let the instantaneous frequency f of the frequency modulated wave
which the amplitude of the carrier is made proportional to the be given by
instantaneous amplitude of the baseband voltage. 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐 (1 + 𝑘𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡)
𝑣𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 Where 𝑓𝑐 =unmodulated carrier frequency
𝑣𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 k= proportionality constant
As we know, 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 =instantaneous modulating voltage
𝑉𝑐 ∝ 𝑉𝑚 The maximum deviation for this particular signal will occur when
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐾𝑉𝑚 the cosine term has its maximum value, ±1. Under these conditions,
1 the instantaneous frequency will be
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑚
𝑚 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐 (1 ± 𝑘𝑉𝑚 )
𝑉𝑚 So that the maximum deviation 𝛿 will be given by 𝛿 = 𝑘𝑉𝑚 𝑓𝑐
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚 =
𝑉𝑐 The instantaneous amplitude of the FM signal will be given by a
Derivation of amplitude modulation signal formula of the form
Let, the baseband signal and carrier signal be, 𝑣 = 𝐴 sin[𝐹(𝑤𝑐 , 𝑤𝑚 )] = 𝐴 sin 𝜃………………….. (1)
𝑣𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 Where 𝐹(𝑤𝑐 , 𝑤𝑚 ) is some function of the carrier and modulating
𝑣𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 frequencies. This function represents an angle and will be called 𝜃
For amplitude modulation for convenience.
Modulation index 𝑚 = 𝑚
𝑉 In order to find𝜃, 𝜔 must be integrated with respect to time. Thus
𝑉𝑐
𝜃 = ∫ 𝜔 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑤𝑐 (1 + 𝑘𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝜔𝑐 ∫ (1 + 𝑘𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡)𝑑𝑡
Amplitude of modulated signal 𝐴 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑣𝑚 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑚𝑉𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑘𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 𝑘𝑉𝑚 𝜔𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
𝑉𝑐 (1 + 𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡) = 𝑤𝑐 (1 + ) = 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 +
𝜔𝑚 𝜔𝑚
𝑘 𝑉𝑚 𝑓𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
Amplitude modulated signal = 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 +
𝑓𝑚
𝑣 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 𝛿
= 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡…………………………………….. (2)
= 𝑉𝑐 (1 + 𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡) sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 𝑓𝑚
= 𝑉𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚 𝑉𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 Now substituting (2) into (1) we get
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐 𝛿
𝑣=𝐴 sin (𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡)
= 𝑉𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 )𝑡 − 𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 )𝑡 𝑓𝑚
2 2 The modulation index for FM, 𝑚𝑓 , is defined as
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐
= 𝑉𝑐 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 − 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 )𝑡 − 𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 + 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 )𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝛿
2 2 𝑚𝑓 = =
𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑚
Finally, we get
𝑣=𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑓 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡)

Application: Application:
1. AM broadcast radio 1. FM Radio broadcasting
2. TV picture (vedio) 2. Television sound information is transmitted using FM
3. TV color signal -(QDSB) 3. Mobile and handheld radio
4. Aircraft radio 4. VCR
5. Computer modem by FSK, PSK, QAM(AM+ PM) 5. Cordless telephone by FM,PSK
Merits: Merits of FM:
1. Coverage area of AM receiver is wider than FM 1. Less prone to noise and hence increase in S/N ration. Noise
2. AM circuitry is cheaper and non complex system may be decreased by increasing deviation
3. AM requires lower bandwidth and lower guard band for each 2. Frequency allocation allows for a guard band which reduces
signal channel interferances.
10 | H K R o n i Communication

4. It consumes less power 3. Less fading

Demerits: 4. Superior signal quality
1. Prone to noise, fading 5. Opertes in very high frequency
2. Signal quality is comparatively less than FM 6. Superion SNR
3. Inferior SNR Demerits:
1. Requires costly and complex circuitry
2. Reception using conventional method is limited to line of sight
3. FM based signal transmission consumes a higher amount of
power than an equivalent AM based system
4. Less coverage area than AM
5. A much wider channel is needed for FM typically 200KHz
Difference between AM and FM

AM FM
Technology AM stands for amplitude modulation where the FM means frequency modulation where the frequency of the
amplitude of the carrier is modulated as per the modulated signal is varied by the modulating signal while it’s
message signal. amplitude, phase remain the same.
Frequency Frequency range is 540-1650 KHz with 10 KHz Frequency range is 88-108 MHz with 200 KHz guard band
guard band
SNR SNR is worse than FM Superior SNR in FM
Power It consumes less power FM based signal transmission consumes a higher amount of
consumption power than an equivalent AM based system.
Signal Comparatively less than FM A lot superior than AM
quality
Noise AM based systems are more susceptible to noise Less prone to noise
Fading Fading refers to power variation during signal Less prominent
transmission. Fading is more prominent in AM
BW AM consumes 30 KHz of BW for each FM consumes 80KHz by each signal
consumption
Circuit It is a n older process and has simple circuitry Requires more complex circuitry for transmission and
complexity reception
Useful Carrier power and one sideband power is useless All transmitted power is useful
power
Channel AM use amplifier FM use regenerative repeater
Commercial Setting up an AM based radio communication is Fairly complex communication system and requires high
aspect economic and requires less complex circuit. capital investment.

Comparison between FM and PM

Frequency Modulation Phase Modulation

Change Frequency deviation is proportion to modulating voltage Phase deviation is proportional to the modulating voltage
Noise Noise immunity is better than AM and PM Noise immunity is better than AM but worse than FM
Application FM is widely used for radio broadcasting PM is only used in some mobile system
Reception It is possible to receive FM on PM receive It is possible to receive PM on FM receive
Modulating Modulating index is proportional to modulating voltage as Modulating index is proportional to modulating voltage
index well as modulating frequency
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝛿
𝑚𝑓 = =
𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑚

Types of AM:

1. Double sideband with carrier [Full AM] (DSBC)

2. Double sideband with suppressed carrier (DBS-SC)
3. Single sideband with suppressed carrier (SSB-SC)
4. Vestigial sideband (VSB)

Power of AM:

The modulated wave contains extra energy in the two sideband.

Hence the total energy is given by
2 2 2
𝑉𝑐𝑎𝑟 𝑉𝐿𝑆𝐵 𝑉𝑈𝑆𝐵
𝑃𝑡 = + +
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
Here all the three voltages are rms values and R is the resistance
where all the power gets dissipated.
11 | H K R o n i Communication

2
𝑉𝑐𝑎𝑟 𝑉 2
Here power of unmodulated carrier signal, 𝑃𝑐 = = ( 𝑐 ) /𝑅
𝑅 √2

𝑚𝑉𝑐 2
2
𝑉𝑠𝑏 ( ) 𝑚2 𝑉𝑐2
Similarly, 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 = = 2
=
𝑅 √2 𝑅 4×2 𝑅

Substituting the values, we get,

(𝑉𝑐 )2 𝑚2 𝑉𝑐2 𝑚2 𝑉𝑐2 𝑚2 𝑚2 (𝑉𝑐 )2

𝑃𝑡 = + + = 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃 {𝑎𝑠, 𝑃𝑐 = }
2𝑅 4×2𝑅 4×2𝑅 4 4 𝑐 2𝑅
𝑃𝑡 𝑚2
=1+
𝑃𝑐 2

Am modulator:

AM demodulator: Demodulators, or detectors, are circuits that accept modulated signals and recover the original modulating information.

The simplest and most widely used amplitude demodulator is the diode
detector. The AM signal is usually transformer-coupled and applied to a
basic half wave rectifier circuit consisting of D1 and R1. The diode
conducts when the positive half-cycles of the AM signals occur. During
the negative half-cycles, the diode is reverse-biased and no current
flows through it. As a result, the voltage across R1 is a series of positive
pulses whose amplitude varies with the modulating signal. A capacitor
C1 is connected across resistor R1, effectively filtering out the carrier
and thus recovering the original modulating signal.

What is SSB?

Single sideband modulation is a form of amplitude modulation. As the name implies, single sideband SSB uses only one sideband for a given
audio path to provide the final signal.

Single sideband modulation provides a considerably more efficient form of communication when compared to ordinary amplitude modulation.

Advantage of SSB:

1. The improvement in signal to noise ratio is 10 to 12 decibels at the receiver output over DSB.
2. The bandwidth required is reduced to half. Thus twice the number of channels can be accommodated in a given frequency.

Extension of SSB:

There are a number of different SSB- Kennedy page-70

1. J3E: Single sideband suppressed carrier, SSBSC

2. R3E: Single sideband reduced carrier
3. H3E: Single sideband full carrier
4. C3F: Single sideband vestigial carrier
5. B8E: Independent sideband carrier, ISB

What is DSB:

Double sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) transmission is transmission in which frequency produced by amplitude modulation AM are
symmetrically spaced above and below the carrier frequency and the carrier level is reduced to the lowest practical level, ideally being
completely suppressed.
12 | H K R o n i Communication

Prove that (Example 4.1) Kennedy

i. 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.5 𝑃𝑐
𝑃𝑐 𝑚2
ii. 𝑃𝑠𝑏 =
4

FM modulator circuits: A frequency

modulator is a circuit that varies carrier
frequency in accordance with the
modulating signal.

➢ VCO IC based modulator:

For FM modulation one widely used VCO IC

is the popular NE566.

External resistor R1 at pin 6 sets the value

of current produced by the internal current sources. The current sources linearly charge and discharge external capacitor C1 at pin 7. An
external voltage VC applied at pin 5 is used to vary the amount of current produced by the current sources. The Schmitt trigger circuit is a level
detector that controls the current source by switching between charging and discharging when the capacitor charges or discharges to a specific
voltage level. A linear saw-tooth of voltage is developed across the capacitor by the current source. This is buffered by an amplifier and made
available at pin 4. The Schmitt trigger output is a square wave at the same frequency available at pin 3. If a sine wave output is desired, the
triangular wave is usually filtered with a tuned circuit resonant to the desired carrier frequency.

FM demodulation circuits:

➢ FM demodulator 1: Slope detector:

The simplest frequency demodulator, the slope detector, makes use of a tuned
circuit and a diode detector to convert frequency variations to voltage variations.

The FM signal is applied to transformer T1 made up of L1 and L2. Together L2 and

C1 form a series resonant circuit. Remember that the signal voltage induced into
L2 appears in series with L2 and C1 and the output voltage is taken from across
C1. The response curve of this tuned circuit.

To use the circuit to detect or recover FM, the circuit is tuned so that the center or
carrier frequency of the FM signals is approximately centered on the leading edge
of the response curve, as shown in Fig. 6-12(b). As the carrier frequency varies
above and below its center frequency, the tuned circuit responds. If the frequency
goes lower than the carrier frequency, the output voltage across C1 decreases. If
the frequency goes higher, the output across C1 goes higher. Thus, the ac voltage
across C1 is proportional to the frequency of the FM signal. The voltage across C1
is rectified into dc pulses that appear across the load R1. These are filtered into a
varying dc signal that is an exact reproduction of the original modulating signal.

Phase modulation: Phase modulation consists in varying the phase angle of a carrier voltage in accordance with the instantaneous value of the
modulating voltage.

➢ FM demodulator 2: Pulse-Averaging Discriminators

The FM signal is applied to a zero-crossing detector or a

clipper-limiter that generates a binary voltage-level
change each time the FM signal varies from minus to
plus or from plus to minus. The result is a rectangular
wave containing all the frequency variations of the
original signal but without amplitude variations. The FM
square wave is then applied to a one-shot (mono-stable)
multi-vibrator that generates a fixed-amplitude, fixed-width dc pulse on the leading edge of each FM cycle. The duration of the one shot is set so
it is less than one-half the period of the highest frequency expected during maximum deviation. The one-shot output pulses are then fed to a
simple RC low-pass filter that averages the dc pulses to recover the original modulating signal.
13 | H K R o n i Communication

Section E: Sampling and pulse modulation

Haykin

Problems of Quantizing:

Problems of Nyquist rate:

Sampling: Sampling is the process of reducing/converting a continuous signal to

discrete signal.
1
Sampling frequency: The sampling frequency is the average number of samples obtained in one second. 𝑓𝑠 =
𝑇

Sampling theorem: In 1993 Nyquist gave this theory of sampling which is as follows-

“If the sampling rate in any pulse modulation system exceeds twice the maximum signal frequency, the original signal can be reconstructed in the
receiver with minimal distortion.”

Nyquist rate: The minimum rate at which a signal can be sampled without introducing errors, which is twice the highest frequency present in the
signal.

Sampling and hold circuit:

Circuit diagram: Block diagram:

Circuit description:
It consists of a sampling switch, a discharge switch, a pulse generator to control the switches and a capacitor to hold the charge
and discharge.
Working procedure:
1. Discharge capacitor and open all switch
2. Generate and appropriate pulse using timing pulse generator.
3. Close switches by timing pulse by and start charging
4. Open sw1 and close sw2 and discharge.
5. Again open sw2 and close sw1 to get charged.

Quantizing: Quantization is the process of mapping a large set of input values to a smaller set. Rounding and truncations are the examples of
quantization.

Quantizing Noise: The difference between the input and output signals of the quantizer becomes the quantizing error or quantizing noise.

Aliasing effect: Aliasing is caused by discrete sampling below the Nyquist frequency.

It can be minimized by
14 | H K R o n i Communication

1. Prior to sampling, a low pass anti-aliasing filter is used to attenuate those high frequency components of the signal that are not essential
to the information being conveyed by the signal.
2. The filtered signal is sampled at a rate slightly higher than the nyquist rate.

Encoding: To convert any signal into binary expression in accordance with amplitude, time and position is known as coding.

Pulse modulation
Definition: Pulse modulation is the process of changing a binary pulse signal to represent the information to be transmitted.
Types:
1. Analog Pulse modulation
a. Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM): In pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM), the amplitudes of regularly spaced pulses are varied in
proportion to the corresponding sample values of a continuous message signal
b. Pulse timing modulation (PTM)
i. Pulse width modulation (PWM): A fixed amplitude and starting time of each pulse, but the width of each pulse is made
proportional to the amplitude of the signal at the instant
ii. Pulse position modulation (PPM): The amplitude and width of the pulses in kept constant in the system, while the position of
each pulse, in relation to the position of a recurrent reference pulse is varied by each instantaneous sampled value of the
modulating wave.
iii. Pulse frequency modulation (PFM)
2. Digital Pulse modulation

1. Pulse code modulation (PCM): In pulse code modulation (PCM), a message signal is represented by a sequence of coded pulses, which
is accomplished by representing the signal in discrete form in both time and amplitude.
2. Delta modulation (DM): A pulse modulation technique in which a continuous signal is converted into a binary pulse patterns, for
transmission through low quality channels. A technique that is used to sample voice waves and convert them into digital code. Delta
modulation typically samples the wave 32,000 times/ sec, but generates only one bit per sample.

Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM)

Definition: Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM), is a form of signal modulation where the message information is encoded in the amplitude of a
series of signal pulses. It is an analog pulse modulation scheme in which the amplitudes of a train of carrier pulses are varied according to the
sample value of the message signal.

Or, In PAM, amplitude of pulses is varied in accordance with instantaneous value of modulating signal.

Or, in pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM), the amplitudes of regularly spaced pulses are varied in proportion to the corresponding sample values of
a continuous message signal

Graphical representation:

Advantage Disadvantage
it’s a base for all the digital modulation technique 1.since amplitude keeps varying so there is noise
associated with it.
2.due to nyquist criteria its require high bandwidth.
3.due to amplitude variation peak power of receiver
also varies with it

Application:

PCM (Mithal 509)

PCM is the most basic form of digital pulse modulation. In pulse code modulation (PCM),
a message signal is represented by a sequence of coded pulses, which is accomplished by
representing the signal in discrete form in both time and amplitude.

The essential processes of PCM are sampling, quantizing, and encoding, as shown in the
figure below.
15 | H K R o n i Communication

Block diagram of PCM:p

Delta modulation: In delta modulation (DM), an incoming

message signal is oversampled (i.e., at a rate much higher
than the Nyquist rate) to purposely increase the correlation
between adjacent samples of the signal. The increased
correlation is done so as to permit the use of a simple
quantizing strategy for constructing the encoded signal.

Or, A pulse modulation technique in which a continuous

signal is converted into a binary pulse patterns, for
transmission through low quality channels. A technique that
is used to sample voice waves and convert them into digital
code. Delta modulation typically samples the wave 32,000
times/ sec, but generates only one bit per sample.

Block diagram of DM:

Advantage and disadvantage of DM and PCM:

Working principal of PCM and DM:

Define differential Pulse Code modulation (DPCM): Pulse

code modulation in which an analog signal is sampled and the
difference between tha actual value of each sample and its
predicated value, derived from the previous sample or samples,
is quantized and converted, by encoding to a digital signal.

Difference between PCM and DM:

PCM DM
1. Consists of sampling 1. Deals with sampling with 1 bit quantization
2. It is used for voice communication 2. Used for satellite communication
3. Comparatively much Error 3. Less error
4. Power requirement is greater 4. Less power is required.

Pulse modulation
Definition: Pulse modulation is the process of changing a binary pulse signal to represent the information to be transmitted.
Types:
3. Analog Pulse modulation
a. Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)
b. Pulse timing modulation (PTM)
i. Pulse width modulation (PWM)
ii. Pulse position modulation (PPM)
iii. Pulse frequency modulation (PFM)
4. Digital Pulse modulation
a. Pulse code modulation (PCM)***
b. Delta modulation (DM)
Demodulation of PAM
Demodulation of PWM
Demodulation of PPM
16 | H K R o n i Communication

Section 6: Binary modulated band pass signaling

Digital Modulation
• ASK:
o ASK is a simple version of amplitude modulation used for digital modulation.
o Two binary values (1 and 0) are represented by two different amplitudes of the carrier frequency (normally, ‘on’ and ‘off’)
• FSK:

o FSK is the simplest (binary) form of frequency modulation used for digital modulation
o The two binary values are represented by two different frequencies near the carrier frequency
o Normally, the carrier is shifted high for a 1 and low for a 0
• PSK
o PSK is a form of modulation in which the phase of the carrier signal is shifted to represent digital data
• QAM:
o Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) is a modulation technique in which both the phase and amplitude of a carrier are
varied by the symbols of the message
o Amplitude and phase-shift keying are combined
o Reduces probability of error
•
Types of PSK modulation:
1. BPSK: Binary Phase Shift-Keying (BPSK) is PSK between two phase states, normally 180° apart
2. QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying): Quadrature Phase Shift-Keying (QPSK) is a form of PSK using four phase states, normally 90°
apart to represent digital data
3. M-ary:

a. BPSK/ 2PSK: Binary Phase Shift-Keying (BPSK) is PSK between two phase states, normally 180° apart

2. OOK (or ASK):

Definition: If the information signal is digital and the amplitude of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal, a digitally
modulated signal called amplitude shift keying (ASK) is produced.
17 | H K R o n i Communication

ASK waveform: Block diagram of ASK modulation:

Block diagram of ASK demodulation:

Block diagram of ASK demodulation:

Rectifier:
1. Rectifies the input ASK waveform to contain only positive signal
2. However, signal still contains unwanted carrier wave components, and waveform is too rounded and of unreliable amplitudes
Low pass filter: Remove remnants of carrier wave
Voltage comparator: Signal passes through a voltage level to output a true copy of the original data stream

a. Bandwidth requirement of ASK:

b. Noise perform for ASK
3. FSK

Definition: If the information signal is digital and the frequency (f) is varied proportional to the information signal, frequency shift keying (FSK)
is produced.

a. Block diagram of FSK modulation:

FSK waveform:
18 | H K R o n i Communication

b. Block diagram of FSK demodulation:

c. Bandwidth requirement of FSK:
d. Noise perform for FSK
4. PSK

Definition: Phase Shift-Keying (PSK) is a form of digital modulation in which the phase of the carrier signal is shifted to represent digital data.

Block diagram of ASK modulation:

Block diagram of ASK demodulation:

a. Bandwidth requirement of ASK:

b. Noise perform for ASK
5. Miscellaneous
a. Constellation diagram
b. M-ary 8QAM

Phasor diagram Constellation diagram for 8QAM

19 | H K R o n i Communication

Constellation diagram of QPSK

c. Types of PSK
d. Eye diagram
e. Block diagram of BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying) +
constellation diagram

f. Block diagram of DPSK+ constellation diagram

g. Comparison between BPSK and DPSK

6. MSK
a. Definition
b. Multilevel modulation
20 | H K R o n i Communication

Section H: Multiplexing
Multiplexing:

Multiplexing is a switching system in which a particular switch is turned on based on the select input. Multiplexing is the process of simultaneously
transmitting two or more individual signals over a single communication channel, cable or wireless.

Application:

1. In telephone system
2. Long distance fiber optics lines
3. Satellites
4. Wireless paths
5. Telemetry
6. Modern FM stereo broadcasting
7. Stereo sound in modern TV

Classification: The two most common types of multiplexing are

1. Time division multiplexing (TDM): In TDM, the multiple signals are transmitted in different time slots on a single channel
2. Frequency division multiplexing (FDM): In FDM, individual signals to be transmitted are assigned a different frequency within a
common bandwidth.

Spatial multiplexing: Spatial multiplexing is the term used to describe the transmission of multiple wireless signals on a common frequency in
such a way that they do not interfere with one another. Spatial multiplexing is sometimes referred to as frequency reuse. This technique is
widely used in satellite and cellular telephone systems.

FDM

In frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), multiple signals share the bandwidth of a common communication channel.

Figure 1: Block diagram of FDM system

TDM:

The multiplexing system which enables the joint use of common transmission channel by a polarity of independent message sources without
mutual interference.

In time-division multiplexing (TDM), each signal occupies the entire bandwidth of the channel. However, each signal is transmitted for only a
brief time.

Each user is given a time slot to transmit his data and this time slot is periodic in a round robin fashion.

TDM is classified into two section:

1. Synchronous TDM: There should be synchronism between the MUX and DEMUX otherwise signal will be lost. And in this system there
is a fair chance of time slot waste. That’s why statistical TDM is used.
2. Statistical TDM: Time slots are given on demand rather than in round fashion. Each user is given two consecutive slots. If time slots is
not required it is not allocated. Hence the time slot is not wasted.
21 | H K R o n i Communication

FDM TDM
Advantage:
1. It increases the number of communication channel Advantage:
2. Greater speed 1. Better flexibility and efficiency
3. FDM provides much better latency 2. Less costly
4. No synchronization is required 3. Less complex circuitry
Disadvantage: 4. Cross talk problem is not severe like FDM
1. Less flexibility Disadvantage:
2. Much costly 1. Synchronization is required
3. Complex circuitry Application:
4. Suffer from crosstalk problem 1. Digital transmission of several telephone calls
Application:
1. Telemetry:
2. Cable TV
3. FM stereo broadcasting

Comparison between TDM and FDM

FDM TDM
Definition FDM divides the channel into multiple, but smaller TDM divides a channel by allocating a time period for each
frequency ranges to accommodate more users channel.
Preference FDM is preferred for analog signals TDM is preferred for digital signals
Flexibility FDM provides less flexibility TDM provides much better flexibility and efficiency
Latency FDM proves much better latency. Latency is the time it Less latency
takes for the data to reach its destination
Cost Much costly Less costly
Carrier Multiple carrier Same carrier
Speed Greater Comparatively Less
22 | H K R o n i Communication

Section 8: Multiple access technique

Goldsmith
Based on antenna configuration channel is 6 kinds:

1. SISO: Single input single output

2. SIMO: Single input multiple output
3. MISO: Multiple input single output
4. MIMO: Multiple input multiple output

All the wireless channels can be classified as the above category.

Multiple access: The technique by which multiple transmitter communicate with a single receive without making any interference is known as
multiple access technique.

Types of Multiple access:

1. TDMA (Time division multiple access)

2. FDMA (Frequency division multiple access)
3. CDMA (Code division multiple access)
4. SDMA (Space division multiple access)

TDMA:

Definition: The MA in which he system dimensions are divided along the time
axis into non-overlapping channels and each user is assigned a different
cyclically repeating time slot is known as TDMA.

In TDMA each user is allowed to transmit only in specified time-slots with a

common frequency band. Multiple users can transmit at the same frequency
at different times.

Application:

Because of same frequency TDMA can used in low cost area and also can
easily transmit a carrier signal by creating oscillator

1. 2G cellular systems are based on a combination of TDMA and FDMA

2. GSM, IS-136 digital cellular phone.

Advantage:

• Easy to understand.
• As a low cost system, TDMA is the most cost effective technology to convert an analog system to digital.
• TDMA can easily adapt to transmission of data as well as voice communication
• TDMA has an ability to carry 64kbps to 120 mbps of data rates.
• Since TDMA technology separates users according to time, it ensures that there will be no interference from simultaneous
transmissions
• TDMA provides users with an extended battery life, since it transmits only portion of the time during conversations.

Disadvantage:

• Its main disadvantage is that user has a predefined time slot. When moving from one cell to another, if all the time slots in this cell are
full the user might be disconnected.
• Slow speed, time delay is high.
• Synchronization is required and possibilities of cross correlation is high.
• A disadvantage of TDMA system is that they create interference at a frequency which is directly connected to the time slot length.
• Another disadvantage is the “dead time” between time slots limits the potential bandwidth of a TDMA channel.

FDMA:

Definition: The multiple access method in which the system signaling dimensions are divided along the frequency axis into non-overlapping channels
and each user is assigned a different frequency channel is known as FDMA.

In FDMA multiple users can transmit at the same time but on different frequency channel.

Application:
23 | H K R o n i Communication

1. FM radio
2. First generation 1G cellular system
3. Cable television system
4. Fiber optics communication
5. Original aerospace telemetry system

Advantage:

• High speed, low time delay, synchronization is not required and

possibilities of cross correlation is low.
• FDMA can be used with both analog and digital signal
• FDMA is not vulnerable to the timing problems lime TDMA
• Due to filtering FDMA is not sensitive to far and near problems
which is pronounced for CDMA.

Disadvantage:

• More oscillator is needed and complex system.

• High cost.
• Interference occurs
• Crosstalk may cause interference among frequencies and disrupt the transmission.
• FDMA requires high performance filters in the radio hardware in contrast to TDMA or CDMA.

CDMA:

Definition: The communication technique in which the information signal of different users
is modulated by orthogonal or non-orthogonal spreading codes is known as CDMA.

In CDMA users may transmit at the same time using the same frequency band but using
different codes so that we can decode to identify particular user.

Application:

• GPS unit, PDA’s, wireless laptop modems, internet capable cell phones.

Advantage:

• increased user resources.

• Secure and
• Increased user capacity. It has a very high spectral capacity which can
accommodate more users per MHz of bandwidth.
• Decreased rates in dropped calls. Dropout only occurs when phone is at least
twice as far from the base station. Thus it is used in rural areas where GSM cannot cover.
• Better quality is achieved at reproduction.
• Easy implementation.

Disadvantage:

• Channel pollution where signals from too many cell sites are present in the
subscriber’s phone but none of them are dominant.
• When compared to GSM is the lack of international roaming capabilities.
• Speed varies
• Low speed transmission.
• Maintenance is difficult.

SDMA:

Definition: The MA technique which uses direction (angle) as another dimension in

signal space which can be channelized and assigned to different users. This is generally
done with directional antennas.

Space division multiple access optimizes the use of radio spectrum and minimizes system cost by taking advantage of the directional properties
of dish antennas.
Application:
• It is often implemented using sectorized antenna arrays.
Advantage:
• Faster speed
• Less fading effect
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Disadvantage:
• Reproduction problem
• Interference
• It requires careful choice of zones for each transmitter and also requires precise antenna alignment.
• A small error can result in failure of one or more channels, interference among channels and confusion between surface coverage
zones.
TDMA FDMA CDMA
Def Def Def
Orthogonal channelization method Orthogonal channelization method Orthogonal/non orthogonal
channelization method
Time limit No time limit No time limit
Synchorization is needed. Synchorization is not needed. Orthogonalization is needed.
No Near and far problem No Near and far problem Near and far problem exits
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