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Canine Radiographs
Canine Radiographs
Frontal sinuses
The Head
Skull
Tympanic Bullae
Larynx
The Skull
Skull:
V-D view
For this ventrodorsal view the
endotracheal tube has been
removed to prevent
superimposition with anatomical
structures. Try to identify the
rami of the mandible, the
zygomatic arches, the external
auditory canals and the atlas.
Pot
Full screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Mandibular
symphysis
Mental
foramen
Mandible
Zygomatic
arch
Rostral alar Coronoid process
foramen
Foramen ovale
Angular process
Foramen lacerum
Pot Comparison
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Frontal bone
Angular process of
mandible Condyloid process of
Zygomatic process of mandible
temporal bone
Temporomandibular Air within external
joint acoustic meatus
Tympanic bulla
Wing of atlas
2nd cervical vertebrae No Labels
(axis)
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot 1
Pot 2
Full screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pituitary gland
Hard palate Olfactory bulb Frontal sinus (hypophysis) Corpus callosum Interthalamic
adhesion
Pons
Nasal septum
(cartilage) Cerebellum
Fourth ventricle
Medulla
oblongata
Opening of
Genioglossal phargyngeal
m. tube
Ventral
straight
Geniohyoid m. muscle of the
head
Longus
Body of tongue colli m.
4 9
A B
1
3
2
10
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Ethmoidal conchae Frontal sinus Frontal bone Coronoid Calveria
process of Sagittal
mandible crest
Nasal
bone
Hard
palate
Root of
canine
tooth
Incisive
bone
Oral
cavity
Skull:
V-D view, Calvaria
This ventrodorsal radiograph of
the same dog, as in the
following lateral radiograph,
shows a distinct opaque,
slightly wiggly line on the mid-
line superimposed on the
calvaria, which represents the
thick mid-line crest that was
noted on the lateral view. This
ventrodorsal also provides a
clear view of the mandibular
condyles, the zygomatic
arches and the external ear
canals.
Mandibular
symphysis
Mental
foramen
Mandible
Zygomatic arch
Pot Comparison
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Nasal conchae
Medial border
Mandible of orbit
Pterygoid bone
Coronoid process of Frontal bone
mandible
Zygomatic arch
Condyloid process of
mandible
Wing of atlas
Skull: In this dog the frontal sinuses are relatively large and the crest on the dorsal
aspect of the skull is relatively tall giving the impression that the calvaria
(bones around the brain) are extremely thick in this dog. In reality it is only
Lateral view, the crest that is thick, the bones to either side will be relatively much
thinner. Compared to humans in which the bones around the brain are very
calvaria thin and there is very minimal soft tissue coverage, the skull and brain of
the dog are well protected by large chewing muscles and is therefore
relatively infrequently injured compared to humans. This well-positioned
lateral view shows the temporomandibular joints and the tympanic bullae
which are almost perfectly superimposed. It also gives a good view of the
endotracheal tube in the oral cavity and extending down through the larynx
towards the trachea, the soft palate and the nasopharynx.
4 9
A B
1
3
2
10
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Dorsal tubercle
Frontal bone Frontal sinus of atlas
Temporozygomatic
suture
Lateral vertebral
Zygomatic formen
arch
Axis
Wing of atlas
Hard palate
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Right frontal sinus Left frontal sinus
Supraorbital process (zygomatic
process of frontal bone)
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Nasal Cavity
Upper cheek
tooth
Jugular foramen
Nasopharynx Petrous part of
temporal bone
Tympanic bullae
Atlanto-occipital
joint
Atlantoaxial
joint
Mandible
2nd cervical
vertebrae (axis)
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
The Larynx
Pot
Full screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Stylohyoid bone
Masseter m.
Ceratohyoideus m.
Thyrohoid
bone
Thyroid
cartilage
Body of tongue
Thyrohyoideus m.
Trachea
Sternothyroideus m.
Geniohyoideus m. Styloglossus m. Hyoglossus m.
Cricothyroideus m.
Mylohyoideus m.
Sternohyoideus m.
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Stylohoid bone Wing of atlas Cervical Cervical Cervical
Soft palate Tympanic bulla Atlas vertebrae 2 vertebrae 3 vertebrae 4
Pot 1
Pot 2
Full screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Hard palate
Nasal
septum;
cartilage
Body of
tongue
Mandible
5
Infraorbital foramen
6
1
2 4
3
8
7 Paracondylar
process
Tympanic bulla
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Atlas Axis
The Mandible
Mandible: IO view
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Mandible:
IO view
By placing the dog in dorsal recumbency
and putting the radiographic film in the oral
cavity for a ventrodorsal projection, a view of
the rostral part of the mandible may be
obtained. Just as for the intraoral
dorsoventral, which is very useful for
examining the nasal cavity, this radiograph
provides a nice view of the mandible without
superimposition by other structures. Note
the variation in the size and shape of the
incisors which is typical and unimportant.
Similarly notice the rough appearance of the
bone on each side of the mandibular
symphesis; this is also normal.
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Lower incisor 2
Lower incisor 3 Lower incisor 1
Lower canine
Mandibular symphysis
Lower premolar 1
Lower premolar 2
Lower premolar 3
Lower premolar 4
Lower molar 1
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Nasal chambers:
IO view, young adult
An excellent examination of the nasal cavity in a dog
or cat can be done by placing the film in the oral
cavity and making a dorsoventral radiograph so that
only the nasal cavity appears in the image. This view
enables detailed comparison of left and right sided
structures. Notice that the nasal cavity is filled with
numerous tiny linear structures oriented roughly
parallel to the mid-line in the rostral part of the nasal
cavity, and forming a more complicated pattern in the
middle of the nasal cavity. These small lines
represent the shadows cast by the nasal turbinates
and their mucosae. This is a young adult dog; it has
its permanent dentition (no deciduous teeth are
visible) but the adult teeth appear very hollow
because the pulp cavity is wide and the dentine is
thin. As a dog ages the pulp cavity steadily reduces
in size so the teeth become progressively more solid
in appearance.
Palatine fissure
Canine
Zygomatic arch
Pterygoid bone Choanal region
Rostral alar Presphenoid bone
foramen
Foramen ovale Basisphenoid bone
Foramen lacerum
Paracondylar process
Pot Comparison
Occipital condyle
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot Comparison
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Interincisive suture
Palatine fissure
Canine tooth
Dental cavity
Maxillary recess
Upper Molar 1
Ethmoidal conchae
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Nasal chambers:
IO view
Palatine fissure
Canine
Zygomatic arch
Pterygoid bone Choanal region
Rostral alar Presphenoid bone
foramen
Foramen ovale Basisphenoid bone
Foramen lacerum
Paracondylar process
Pot Comparison
Occipital condyle
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot Comparison
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Nostril
Interincisive suture
Canine tooth
Palatine fissure
Dental cavity
Upper premolar 4
Maxillary recess
Ethmoidal conchae
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Nasal chambers:
IO view, dolicocephalic
Palatine fissure
Canine
Zygomatic arch
Pterygoid bone Choanal region
Rostral alar Presphenoid bone
foramen
Foramen ovale Basisphenoid bone
Foramen lacerum
Paracondylar process
Pot Comparison
Occipital condyle
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot Comparison
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Nostril
Upper incisors 1-3
Interincisive suture
Upper premolar 4
Upper Molar 2
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Nasal chambers:
IO view,
brachycephalic
This radiograph of the nasal cavity of a
Bulldog clearly shows foreshortening
of the nasal cavity compared to that
seen in mesaticephalic or
dolicocephalic dogs. With this
foreshortening comes a relative
increase in opacity of the nasal
structures because the skull is
relatively thicker at this point and
because of the abundant, often folded,
skin over the face. Orientation of the
teeth in the maxillary arcade is often
abnormal in such dogs, with the third
premolar aligned roughly transverse to
the arcade in this example.
Palatine fissure
Canine
Zygomatic arch
Pterygoid bone Choanal region
Rostral alar Presphenoid bone
foramen
Foramen ovale Basisphenoid bone
Foramen lacerum
Paracondylar process
Pot Comparison
Occipital condyle
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot Comparison
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Canine tooth
Palatine fissure
Upper Molar 1
Upper Molar 2
Ethmoidal conchae
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
U. Incisor 1
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Catheter in ventral
lacrimal punctum
The Shoulder
The Elbow
The Carpus
The Manus
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
The Shoulder
Shoulder: lateral view
Shoulder:
lateral view
This radiograph is usually made with
the animal in lateral recumbency
with the shoulder of interest on the
down side. The limb is protracted to
move the humerus away from the
sternum for clearer visualisation.
The tip of an endotracheal tube is
superimposed on the scapula in this
dog. If the tube is inadvertently
superimposed over the shoulder
joint, it can interfere with
visualisation of the bones.
Infraspinatus m
Teres major m
Supraspinatus m
Latissimus dorsi m
Stump of trapezius m
Deltoid m
Triceps brachii m – long
head
Pot Comparison
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot
Full screen
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Supraspinous
ET tube within the
fossa
trachea
Scapular spine
Infraspinous fossa
Supraglenoid
tubercle Acromion process
Shoulder joint
Intertubercular
groove
Head of humerus
Deltoid tuberosity
Humerus
Shoulder:
Cr-Cd view
This radiograph is usually made with the animal in
dorsal recumbency with the limb extended.
Rhomboid m
Deltoid m
Cleidobrachialis m
Brachialis m
Pot Comparison
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot
Full screen
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Scapula spine
Acromion process
Greater Tubercle
Supraglenoid tubercle
Tricipital line
Lesser tubercle of humerus
No labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Large Shoulder:
lateral view
An example of the shoulder in a larger
dog, which has a somewhat flatter
humeral head and wider glenoid fossa
than the other dog.
Pot
Full screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Canine Forelimb;
Left, lateral view Rhomboid m
Dorsal border of scapula
Infraspinatus m
Teres major m
Supraspinatus m
Latissimus dorsi m
Stump of trapezius m
Deltoid m
Triceps brachii m – long
head
Pot Comparison
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot
Full screen
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Supraspinous
Scapula spine
fossa
Infraspinous fssa
Head of humerus
Greater tubercle
Intertubercular
groove
Deltoid tuberosity
No labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Immature Shoulder:
lateral view
The proximal humeral physis is open.
This dog is 6-9m old.
Pot
Full screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Canine Forelimb;
Left, lateral view Rhomboid m
Dorsal border of scapula
Infraspinatus m
Teres major m
Supraspinatus m
Latissimus dorsi m
Stump of trapezius m
Deltoid m
Triceps brachii m – long
head
Brachioradialis m
Pot Comparison
Extensor carpi radialis m Olecranon
Pot Comparison
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot
Full screen
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Supraspinous fossa
Scapula spine
Infraspinous fossa
Supragleoid
tubercle
Head of humerus
Intertubecular
groove Prox. Physis of
humerus
Deltoid tuberosity
No labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Immature Shoulder
Arthrogram:
Lateral view
Compared to the previous radiograph,
5ml of radiographic contrast medium
(iohexol @100mgI/ml) was injected into
the scapulohumeral joint using a lateral
approach. The joint is quite well filled,
showing the caudal compartment and
the cranial compartment. The cranial
compartment surrounds the biceps
tendon, which appears as a curvilinear
filling defect within the contrast medium.
This appearance is normal.
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Contrast media in
the intertubecular
groove, beneath the
biceps tendon. Contrast media
within the shoulder
joint.
No labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
The Elbow
Immature Elbow: lateral view
Immature Elbow:
Lateral view
This joint belongs to a 6m
old Labrador. Notice the
open growth plates at the
distal humerus, proximal
radius and olecranon
process of the ulna.
Olecranon
Lateral humeral
Anconeus m epicondyle
Lateral collateral
ligament
Supinator m
Interosseus space
Ulna Radius
Pot Comparison
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot Comparison
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Humerus
Lat.
Epicondylar
crest
Craniolateral
Med. border of tuberosity of olecranon
supratrochlear Medial epicondyle
foramen of humerus
Anconeal
process Prox. Ulnar physis
Lat. Epicondyle
of humerus Prox. Ulnar epiphysis
Elbow (Olecranon)
(cubital)Joint
Prox. Radial
physis
Radius Ulna
No labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Young Elbow:
Cr-Med, Cd-Lat
Oblique view
The elbow has been pronated, so the
articulation between the humerus and
the radius is emphasised. This
radiograph is rarely made in clinical
practice.
Craniolateral
Humerus tuberosity of
olecranon
Olecranon
Lat. Epicondyle of
humerus
Pronator teres m. Coronoid process
Flexor carpi radialis
m.
Ulnar
Radius
Pot Comparison
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot Comparison
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot
Full screen
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Humerus
Supratrochlear
foramen
Anconeal process
Olecranon
Lateral condyle
Medial epicondyle
Coronoid process
Prox. Radial physis Medial condyle
Radius
Ulna
No labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Immature Elbow:
Cr-Lat, Cd-Med
Oblique view
In this radiograph the elbow has been
supinated, producing a view of the
medial aspect of the humeral condyle
and the joint between the humerus
and medial coronoid process of the
ulna. This view might be useful if there
is fragmentation of the medial
coronoid process.
Olecranon
Lateral humeral
Anconeus m epicondyle
Lateral collateral
ligament
Supinator m
Interosseus space
Ulna Radius
Pot Comparison
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot Comparison
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Supratrochlear foramen
Olecranon
Anconeal Process
Articulating surfaces:
Lateral Humeral
humerus and ulna
epicondyle
Articulating surfaces:
Medial coronoid Humerus and radius
process of ulna
Prox. radial epiphysis
Prox. radial physis
Radius
No labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Immature Elbow:
Cr-Cd view
The same dog as the previous lateral. Notice
the angular shape of the humeral condyle,
which articulates on the lateral aspect with
the radius and on the medial aspect with the
medial coronoid process of the ulna. The
medial aspect of the elbow is a frequent site
of lesions in dogs with elbow arthritis.
Pot 1
Pot 2
Full screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Radial nerve
Lateral humeral
epicondyle
Supinator muscle
Radius
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Canine right
elbow;
Cranial view
Humerus
Supratrochlear foramen
Lateral humeral epicondyle
Radius
Pot Comparison
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot Comparison
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Body of Humerus
Olecranon
Supratrochlear foramen
Lateral epicondyle
Medial Humeral
epicondyle
Radius + ulna
superimposed
No labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Flexed Elbow:
lateral view
This radiograph, with the elbow
maximally flexed, is done to
examine the anconeal process. This
is considered one of the first places
that osteophytes develop in dogs
with elbow arthritis and hence this
view is frequently used by clinicians
looking for signs of arthritis.
Suspected ununited anconeal
process is another indication for this
radiograph.
Olecranon
Lateral humeral
Anconeus m epicondyle
Lateral collateral
ligament
Supinator m
Interosseus space
Ulna Radius
Pot Comparison
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot Comparison
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Anconeal process
Olecranon
Lateral epicondyle of
humerus
Coronoid process
Head of radius
Radius Ulna
No labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
Distal physis of humerus © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Radius
Ulna
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Distal humeral physis Humerus
Lateral humeral epicondyle Olecranon
Distal humeral epiphysis Medial humeral epicondyle
Prox. Radial physis Prox. Radial epiphysis
Radius
Ulna
The Carpus
Immature Carpus: D-P view
Immature Carpus:
Lateral view
Radiograph of the same dog as in the dorsopalmar
view. An open growth plate is visible in the accessory
carpal bone.
Metacarpus
Pot Comparison
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot
Full screen
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Radius
Ulna
Metacarpal 1
Immature Carpus:
D-P view
This radiograph of the carpus of a 3m old puppy
shows the growth plates at the distal radius, ulna
and metacarpals. Notice that in each instance the
metaphysis adjacent to the open physis appears
more opaque and wider than the diaphysis of the
bone. This is a normal appearance and should not
be misinterpreted as a sign of metabolic bone
disease.
Flexor retinaculum
Extensor Accessory carpal bone
retinaculum
Extensor
carpi Tendon of deep
Tendon of digital flexor
radialis m.
common tendon
digital
extensor m.
Digit 1
Metacarpal
pad
Digital
pad
Pot Comparison
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Superficial digital flexor m
Ulnaris lateralis m Flexor carpi ulnaris
Flexor carpi ulnaris m
Superficial digital
Distal forelimb; flexor m
Palmer view
Adductor m digit 5
Metacarpal 1
Adductor m digit 4
Interosseus m Metacarpal 3
Metacarpal 4
Paired sesamoids of
digit 5
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot Comparison
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot
Full screen
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Ulna
Radius
Metacarpal 4 Metacarpal 1
The Manus
Manus: D-P view
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Flexor retinaculum
Extensor Accessory carpal bone
retinaculum
Extensor
carpi Tendon of deep
Tendon of digital flexor
radialis m.
common tendon
digital
extensor m.
Digit 1
Metacarpal
pad
Digital
pad
Pot Comparison
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Superficial digital flexor m
Ulnaris lateralis m Flexor carpi ulnaris
Flexor carpi ulnaris m
Superficial digital
Distal forelimb; flexor m
Palmer view
Adductor m digit 5
Metacarpal 1
Adductor m digit 4
Interosseus m Metacarpal 3
Metacarpal 4
Paired sesamoids of
digit 5
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot Comparison
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot
Full screen
Distal radius © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Metacarpal 5 Metacarpal 1
Metacarpal 3 Metacarpal 2
Proximal phalanx
Middle Phalanx
No labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
The Hip
(covered in “The Pelvis”)
The Femur
The Stifle
The Tarsus
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
The Femur
Femur: Lateral view
Femur:
Lateral view
This radiograph is made with the animal in lateral
recumbency with the femur to be radiographed on
the table and the upper limb rotated out of the
primary x-ray beam. The thigh of the dog is much
thicker proximally than distally, which means that
making the radiograph of the femur is compromise
between adequately exposing the proximal part and
not over-exposing the distal part. Note that in a
typical dog the femur has a gentle curve. This
means that an intramedullary pin cannot normally be
inserted all the way down the medullary cavity. Note
that this patient is a male.
Gemelli mm
Deep gluteal m
Stump of Piriform m
External obturator m
Rectus femoris m Quadratus femoris m
Semitendinous m
Adductor magnus m
Vastus lateralis m
Gastrocenemius m
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Body of ilium
Acetabula incisura
Head of femur Ischiatic tuber
Intertrochanteric crest
Lesser trochanter of femur
Os Penis
Body of femur
Femur:
Cr-Cd view
A corresponding cranial caudal view of the same femur as
in the Lateral Femur radiograph shows that in the sagittal
plane the bone is almost perfectly straight. In this well
positioned radiograph the patella is superimposed over
the mid-line of the femur.
Labels
Head of femur © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Neck of femur
Hip joint
Greater trochanter of femur
Trichanteric fossa and
intertrochanteric crest
Obturator foramen
Lateral border of tuber ischiadicum
Lesser trochanter
Ischiatic tuber
Body of femur
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Femoral Arteriogram:
Lateral view
Injection of radiopaque contrast medium into
the abdominal aorta has opacified the arteries
of the pelvis and pelvic limb. In this
radiograph the femoral artery and its branches
are clearly seen, mainly on the caudal aspect
of the femur.
Gemelli mm
Deep gluteal m
Stump of Piriform m
External obturator m
Rectus femoris m Quadratus femoris m
Semitendinous m
Adductor magnus m
Vastus lateralis m
Gastrocenemius m
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
Lateral circumflex © Royal Veterinary College 2009
from external iliac a
Femoral artery from
external iliac artery
Proximal caudal
femoral artery
Saphenous artery
Descending genicular
artery Middle caudal artery
Popliteal artery
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
The Stifle
Stifle: Lateral view
Stifle:
Lateral view
The stifle is one of the most commonly
radiographed joints of the dog and it is well
worth being familiar with its radiographic
anatomy. Note the patella and the two
fabellae, sesamoid bones embedded in the
gastrocnemius tendon. Note also a lucent
space on the cranial aspect of the joint that
is formed by a fat pad between the patellar
tendon and the joint. This is a useful
anatomical feature because any joint
effusion will tend to impinge upon the fat
pad from the caudal aspect and reduce its
size in a lateral radiograph.
Pot
Full screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Femoropatella
Patella ligament
Patella ligament
Patella Menisci
ligament Patella
Fibula ligament
Medial &
lateral
Tibia collateral
ligament
Femur
Trochlea
Caudal cruciate
ligament
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Femoropatella Femur
joint
Lateral supracondylar
Patella tuberosity
Fibula
Tibial tuberosity Tibia
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Stifle:
Cd-Cr view
Although it is possible to extend the stifle with a
dog in dorsal recumbency for a craniocaudal
radiograph, it is often easier to place the dog in
sternal recumbency and extend the limb
caudally for a caudocranial radiograph, using the
dog’s body weight to better extend the joint.
Again note the position of the patella, which is
projected some distance proximal to the joint
when the stifle is properly extended. Note also
the medial and lateral fabellae, which are
unequal in size and shape. The fibula lies on
the lateral aspect of the tibia.
Patella ligament
Patella Menisci
ligament Patella
Fibula ligament
Medial &
lateral
Tibia collateral
ligament
Femur
Trochlea
Caudal cruciate
ligament
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Femur
Intercondylar fossa of femur
Patella
Tibial tuberosity
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Immature Stifle:
Lateral view
This radiograph of a five month old
Labrador shows open growth plates at
the distal femur, proximal tibia and
proximal fibula. Note the separate
centre of ossification at the tibial
tuberosity and the wide and irregular
physis between it and the tibial crest.
This is considered to be a normal
appearance. In this dog the medial
fabella is positioned slightly distal
compared to the lateral; this is
considered normal variant.
Patella ligament
Patella Menisci
ligament Patella
Fibula ligament
Medial &
lateral
Tibia collateral
ligament
Femur
Trochlea
Caudal cruciate
ligament
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Distal femoral physis Femur
Patella
Medial fabella of
gastrocnemius muscle.
Tibial tuberosity
Immature Stifle:
Lateral view
This radiograph of a slightly younger dog
than in the other lateral immature stifle
example shows a roughened appearance of
the femoral condyles, which could be
mistaken for some form of joint disease;
however, this is a normal appearance in a
skeletally immature animal in which the
subchondral bone has not completely
ossified and has an uneven interface with
the overlying articular cartilage. Within a
few weeks this rough appearance will be
replaced by a perfectly regular distinct
curve.
Patella ligament
Patella Menisci
ligament Patella
Fibula ligament
Medial &
lateral
Tibia collateral
ligament
Femur
Trochlea
Caudal cruciate
ligament
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Distal femoral physis Femur
Patella
Sesamoid bone of
Distal femoral epiphysis gastrocnemius
Fibula
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Immature Stifle:
Cd-Cr view
This is a caudo-cranial view of a stifle.
As in the lateral immature stifle
radiograph, it shows open growth
plates in the distal femur, proximal tibia
and proximal fibula and the position of
the medial fabella.
Patella ligament
Patella Menisci
ligament Patella
Fibula ligament
Medial &
lateral
Tibia collateral
ligament
Femur
Trochlea
Caudal cruciate
ligament
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Femur
Patella
Fibula
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Stifle:
Lateral view, tibial
tuberosity fusion
This radiograph is of a nine month
old dog in which the growth plates
are almost closed. The growth plate
of the tibial tuberosity has an
interesting pointed shape. This is a
normal anatomical variant.
Patella ligament
Patella Menisci
ligament Patella
Fibula ligament
Medial &
lateral
Tibia collateral
ligament
Femur
Trochlea
Caudal cruciate
ligament
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Femur
Patella
Distal femoral physis
Sesamoid bones of
gastrocnemius
Infrapatellar fat pad
Femoral condyles
Patellar ligament
Prox. Tibial
physis
Tibial tuberosity
Tibial tuberosity
growth plate
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
The Tarsus
Immature Tarsus: Lateral view
Immature Tarsus:
Lateral view
This radiograph of a four month old dog
shows open growth plates at the distal tibia
and at the tip of the tuber calcis. The
proximal intertarsal and tarsometatarsal joint
appear wide, which is a normal appearance
at this age; these joints will gradually
become narrower with skeletal maturity.
Note the linear soft tissue structure that runs
from the tuber calcis proximally, roughly
parallel to the distal tibia; this is the Achilles
tendon.
Interosseus m. (Digit V)
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Tibia
Tibia Achilles tendon
Calcanean tuber
Calcanean physis
Trochlea of
talus
Tarsal bone 4
2nd & 3rd Tarsal
bone
Metatarsal bone 1
Superimposed
metatarsals 2-5
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Immature Tarsus:
D-P view
The dorsoplantar radiograph of the same dog as
in the previous radiograph again shows the
relatively wide proximal intertarsal and
tarsometatarsal joints and open growth plates at
the distal tibia and distal fibula. The tuber calcis is
a relatively substantial piece of bone that is
superimposed on the tibiotarsal joint and tends to
obscure it in the DP view.
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Gastrocnemius m
superimposed on the tibia.
Body of fibula
Calcaneus
Sustentaculum tali
of calcaneus
Talus
Tarsal bone 4
Tarsal bone 2
Tarsal bone 3
The Pelvis
Pelvis: This lateral radiograph shows the pelvis, the lumbosacral joint and the first
few caudal vertebrae. The end of the tail is relatively thin and therefore is
Lateral view over-exposed in this radiograph and cannot be seen. Note that the two
halves of the pelvis and the coxofemoral joints are almost perfectly
superimposed in this well positioned radiograph, which makes them difficult
to examine because a structure on one side effectively hides that on the
other side. For this reason, it is usual to position one of the femurs more
cranial than the other and to place a left or right marker adjacent to it so that
at least the femurs can be distinguished in a lateral radiograph.
Labels
Vertebral Left & right dorsal © Royal Veterinary College 2009
canal at L7 iliac crest Sacrum Caudal vertebrae 1
Intervertebral
disc space
between L7 & Body of
S1 ilium
Hip joint
(right)
Caudal
extremity of
L6 Superimposed
Hip joint ischiatic tuber
(right)
Head of
femur Superimposed
(right) obturator
foramina
Pelvis:
VD view
This ventrodorsal shows clearly the bones forming the
pelvis and the coxofemoral joints. For this radiograph
the dog has been positioned in dorsal recumbency and
the pelvic limbs have been extended fully. The femurs
are parallel and the patella is superimposed over the
distal femur. It is usually necessary to use sticky tape
or a Velcro band to keep the femurs in this position,
which is very unnatural for a dog. Note the shape of
the proximal femur which has a distinct neck and
rounded head that is well seated in the acetabulum.
The sacroiliac joints may also be examined in a
ventrodorsal view, although they are not clearly visible
because they are slightly oblique to the primary x-ray
beam and because the rough surface of the bones
forming the joint means there is no clearly discernible
joint space. The sacroiliac joint is prone to luxation
following trauma such as hit by car.
Labels
Intervertebral disc space © Royal Veterinary College 2009
between L7 &S1
Left transverse process of L7
Right sacroiliac joint
Wing of ilium
Body of ilium
Sacrum
Iliopubic eminence
Right hip joint Head of femur
Neck of femur
Greater trochanter
Pubis Obturator
Ischiatic table foramen
Ischiatic tuber
Femur
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pelvis:
V-D view
Compared to the other VD Pelvic radiograph this
film has a higher contrast, a slightly speckly
appearance and improved definition of the
borders of the bones. It is an example of a
computed radiograph whereas the previous was a
radiographic film. Vets are increasingly using
computed (digital) radiography to produce images
such as this, which are viewed on a monitor rather
than as a piece of film placed on a light box. As in
the previous dog, the coxofemoral joints are
clearly visible with a normal relationship between
the femoral head and the acetabulum. The
radiographic joint space forms a narrow curve of
uniform width on the cranial aspect of the
coxofemoral joint. The subchondral plate of the
acetabulum is quite broad and very opaque
radiographically whereas the convex surface of
the adjacent femoral head is less opaque. The
narrow lucent space between them represents the
articular cartilage on each side of the joint plus a
film of interposed synovial fluid.
Labels
Intervertebral disc space © Royal Veterinary College 2009
between L7 &S1 Wing of ilium
Right sacroiliac joint
Faeces in descending
colon
Sacrum
Body of ilium
Iliopubic eminence
Head of femur
Greater trochanter
Ischiatic tuber
Femur
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pelvis:
V-D view, Hip dysplasia
This radiograph of a young dog shows
subluxation of the left coxofemoral joint,
which is a typical appearance for hip
dysplasia. Note the scrotum on the
midline; some vets will routinely cover it
with a lead sheet to protect the testicles
from x-rays.
Labels
Intervertebral disc space © Royal Veterinary College 2009
between L7 &S1
Wing of ilium
Faeces in descending colon
Right sacroiliac joint
Sacrum
Body of ilium Iliopubic eminence
Right hip joint Head of femur
Neck of femur
Fovea capitis
Pubis Greater trochanter
Obturator foramen
Lesser trochanter
Ischiatic tuber
Ischiatic table
Scrotum
Femur
Patella
Lateral sesamoid bone of
gastrocnemius m
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
The Thorax
The Oesophagus
The Lungs
The Ribs
The Thymus The Heart
Thorax: VD view
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Thorax:
Overweight,
DV view
This radiograph shows that
although there is air within both
the left and right lung the
cardiac border is indistinct. The
cranial mediastinum is wide as
a result of fat deposition.
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Rib 1
Trachea
Left ventricle
Apex of Heart
Ribs
Diaphragm
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Right crus
Left crus
Trachea
Left ventricle
Cr. lobar
Pulmonary
artery.
Cr. lobar Stomach
Pulmonary
vein
Liver
Spleen
No Labels
Cervicothoracic © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Middle cervical ganglion Dorsal Thoracic Vagus n.: dorsal &
ganglion Sympathetic trunk intercostal a.v. aorta ventral branches
(sympathetic)
Subclavian a. Oesophagus
Vago-
sympathetic
trunk
Internal
thoracic a.v.
Diaphragm
Phrenic n.
Mediastinum: over the
Left ventricle right accesssory lung
Right auricle Mediastiinum:over right
Left auricle Right ventricle Left principal middle lung lobe
Right cranial lung lobe bronchus
Paraclonal a.v.
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot
Full screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Right crus
Cr. Lobar
Pulmonary Liver
vein Left ventricle
Right ventricle
Heart apex
No Labels
Cervicothoracic © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Middle cervical ganglion Dorsal Thoracic Vagus n.: dorsal &
ganglion Sympathetic trunk intercostal a.v. aorta ventral branches
(sympathetic)
Subclavian a. Oesophagus
Vago-
sympathetic
trunk
Internal
thoracic a.v.
Diaphragm
Phrenic n.
Mediastinum: over the
Left ventricle right accesssory lung
Right auricle Mediastiinum:over right
Left auricle Right ventricle Left principal middle lung lobe
Right cranial lung lobe bronchus
Paraclonal a.v.
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot
Full screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Left crus
Right crus
Trachea
Caudal vena cava
Right cr. Lobar
Pulmonary artery
Left ventricle
Right ventricle
Heart apex
No Labels
Cervicothoracic © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Middle cervical ganglion Dorsal Thoracic Vagus n.: dorsal &
ganglion Sympathetic trunk intercostal a.v. aorta ventral branches
(sympathetic)
Subclavian a. Oesophagus
Vago-
sympathetic
trunk
Internal
thoracic a.v.
Diaphragm
Phrenic n.
Mediastinum: over the
Left ventricle right accesssory lung
Right auricle Mediastiinum:over right
Left auricle Right ventricle Left principal middle lung lobe
Right cranial lung lobe bronchus
Paraclonal a.v.
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot
Full screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pulmonary vessels to
Thoracic caudal lobes of lungs
aorta
Right crus
Left crus
Caudal vena
Trachea cava
Cr. Lobar
Pulmonary
artery
Cr. Lobar
Pulmonary Liver
vein Left ventricle
No Labels
Cervicothoracic © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Middle cervical ganglion Dorsal Thoracic Vagus n.: dorsal &
ganglion Sympathetic trunk intercostal a.v. aorta ventral branches
(sympathetic)
Subclavian a. Oesophagus
Vago-
sympathetic
trunk
Internal
thoracic a.v.
Diaphragm
Phrenic n.
Mediastinum: over the
Left ventricle right accesssory lung
Right auricle Mediastiinum:over right
Left auricle Right ventricle Left principal middle lung lobe
Right cranial lung lobe bronchus
Paraclonal a.v.
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Thorax:
VD view
Pot
Full screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Cr Vena Cava
Pulmonary artery
Rt. atrium Lt. atrium
Aorta
Rt. Ventricle
Lt. Ventricle
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Aorta
Pulmonary trunk
Left
L. Subclavian artery subclavian
L. auricle Brachiocephalic
L. pulmonary artery
trunk
artery
L. atrium
L. pulmonary
veins
Brachiocephalic
trunk
Cranial
R. auricle vena cava
Caudal
vena cava Azygous vein
L. ventricle R. pulmonary
artery
R. pulmonary
R. ventricle veins
Apex
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
The Heart
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Left crus of
diaphragm
Right crus of
diaphragm
Common
carotids
Brachiocephalic
trunk
Left ventricle
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Aorta
Pulmonary trunk
Left
L. Subclavian artery subclavian
L. auricle Brachiocephalic
L. pulmonary artery
trunk
artery
L. atrium
L. pulmonary
veins
Brachiocephalic
trunk
Cranial
R. auricle vena cava
Caudal
vena cava Azygous vein
L. ventricle R. pulmonary
artery
R. pulmonary
R. ventricle veins
Apex
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot
Full screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Left pulmonary
artery
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Aorta
Pulmonary trunk
Left
L. Subclavian artery subclavian
L. auricle Brachiocephalic
L. pulmonary artery
trunk
artery
L. atrium
L. pulmonary
veins
Brachiocephalic
trunk
Cranial
R. auricle vena cava
Caudal
vena cava Azygous vein
L. ventricle R. pulmonary
artery
R. pulmonary
R. ventricle veins
Apex
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
The Lungs
Bronchogram: Lateral view
Pot 1
Pot 2
Full screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Bronchi of caudal
lobes
Bronchus–
end on
Tracheal
bifurcation
Trachea
Right
principle
bronchus to
cranial lobe
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Caudal lobe
Obtuse margin of left lung
Trachea
Cranial part of
cranial lobe of
left lung
Trachea
Right cranial lobes
Primary bronchii
Bronchioles
Caudal lobes
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot
Full screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Heart
Left caudal
lobar vessels
Right caudal
lobar vessels
Diaphragm
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Trachea
Right cranial lobes
Primary bronchii
Bronchioles
Caudal lobes
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot 1
Pot 2
Full screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Right ventricle
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Caudal lobe
Obtuse margin of left lung
Trachea
Cranial part of
cranial lobe of
left lung
Trachea
Right cranial lobes
Primary bronchii
Bronchioles
Caudal lobes
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
The Ribs
Pot
Full screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Caudal vena
cava
Left ventricle
Exotoses at
costochondral Liver
junctions
Heart apex
Right ventricle
No Labels
Cervicothoracic © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Middle cervical ganglion Dorsal Thoracic Vagus n.: dorsal &
ganglion Sympathetic trunk intercostal a.v. aorta ventral branches
(sympathetic)
Subclavian a. Oesophagus
Vago-
sympathetic
trunk
Internal
thoracic a.v.
Diaphragm
Phrenic n.
Mediastinum: over the
Left ventricle right accesssory lung
Right auricle Mediastiinum:over right
Left auricle Right ventricle Left principal middle lung lobe
Right cranial lung lobe bronchus
Paraclonal a.v.
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
The Oesophagus
Oesophagram:
lateral view
The oesophagus is not normally visible
radiographically, although it might be if it is dilated or
has abnormal contents. To make the oesophagus
visible and to assess its function, we perform contrast
radiography. This series of radiographs made at 1
second intervals shows a bolus of food/barium mixture
passing through the thoracic oesophagus, leaving a
slight mucosal coating behind. This is a normal
appearance.
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Oesophageal
Thoracic aorta bolus
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Oesophageal
Thoracic aorta bolus
Vago-
sympathetic
trunk
Internal
thoracic a.v.
Diaphragm
Phrenic n.
Mediastinum: over the
Left ventricle right accesssory lung
Right auricle Mediastiinum:over right
Left auricle Right ventricle Left principal middle lung lobe
Right cranial lung lobe bronchus
Paraclonal a.v.
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
The Thymus
Thymus: DV view
Thymus:
DV view
A dorsoventral radiograph of a
3-month-old pup shows a broad
curved soft tissue structure on
the left cranial aspect of the
heart. This is the thymus,
which will shortly involute and
cease to be visible
radiographically.
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Thymus
Lt. atrium
Rt. Ventricle
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot
Full screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Common
carotid a.
Lung (left)
Oesophagus
Thymus Diaphragm
Heart
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Thoracic
aorta
Right crus
Left crus
Trachea
Liver
Left ventricle
The Spleen
The Liver
The Bladder
The Kidneys and Ureters
and Urethra
Pneumogastrogram: VD view
Caecum detail:
VD view
This close up view of part of the
ventrodorsal abdominal radiograph
of the dog shows gas filling the
caecum, which lies just right of the
mid-line at the level of L3 to L5.
This is a normal appearance.
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
L3
L5
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot 1
Pot 2
Full Screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Reflected
abdominal
muscles & skin
Left kidney
Stomach;
fundus
Pericaridal
fat
Left auricle Left Left medial Left lateral lobe Stomach; body
ventricle lobe
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Gas filled
gastric
fundus
Pot 1
Pot 2
Full Screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Descending
duodenum
Greater omentum
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Caudate lobe Right lateral lobe
Right kidney of liver Caudal, middle & cranial
of liver
lobes of the right lung
Stomach; antrum
Diaphragm
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Fluid filled
gastric
fundus
Gastric Rugae:
Lateral view
This close-up view of part of the lateral
abdominal radiograph of a dog shows
the appearance of the gastric rugae,
which in this instance are well outlined
by gas. They have fairly uniform
thickness and an undulating course. As
the stomach distends, gastric rugae are
stretched out and flattened and are less
visible radiographically.
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Gastric rugae
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot 1 Pot 2
Pot 3
Full Screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Stomach;
antrum
Cranial duodenal
flexure
Stomach; fundus
Right lobe of
pancreas
Left lobe of
Descending pancreas
duodenum
Caudal duodenal
flexure
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Sternum
Quadrate lobe
Left lateral lobe
Xiphoid process
Right medial
lobe
Stomach; fundus
Left kidney
Right
kidney Caudal
vena cava
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Stomach
Greater
omentum
Descending Enlarged
duodenum spleen
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Caudal lobar
branches of
pulmonary
vessels
superimposed on
Liver the liver
Gas in gastric
fundus
Gas in duodenum
Gas in gastric
antrum
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pneumogastrogram:
Lateral view
For this radiograph a large bore
gastric tube has been passed
and the stomach inflated to
more clearly demonstrate its
size, position and shape.
Pot 1
Pot 2
Full Screen Labels
Serratus Serratus dorsalis pars
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
dorsalis pars caudalis Cut edge of internal
cranialis Perirenal fat abdominal oblique
Right lobe of
pancreas
Descending duodenum
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Large bore
gastric tube
Liver
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Intra-venous
Ureterogram (IVU):
VD view
This ventrodorsal radiograph was made several
minutes after injection of contrast medium into a
peripheral vein. Circulation of the contrast through
the heart and lungs is followed by systemic
distribution to all organs, including the kidneys.
The kidneys filter contrast and excrete it into the
renal pelvis and ureters which are visible clearly in
this instance. This procedure is called an
intravenous urogram (IVU). Opacification of the
renal collecting system, pelvis and ureters is also
known as a pyelogram. Note that the urinary
bladder has been filled with air (pneumocystogram)
to help identify it and to improve visualisation of the
ureters as they pass over the urinary bladder in this
view. Each ureter in this dog passes in a caudal
direction and then makes an approximately 180º
turn before draining into the bladder. This is a
completely normal appearance.
Pot 1
Pot 2
Pot 3
Full Screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Medulla
Cortex
Renal artery
Arcuate aa
Renal vein
Renal sinus
Ureter
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Interlobular artery
Pelvis recess
Interlobar artery
Ureter
Renal artery
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Vena cava
Aorta
Oesophagus
Quadrate lobe of
liver
Left medial
lobe of liver
Adrenal gland
Right kidney
Left kidney
Renal a&v
Caudal vena cava
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Renal pelvis
Ureter
Bladder
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Nephrogram:
VD view, DSA
This radiograph was made in a similar
way to the renal non-selective
angiogram, but the technique of digital
subtraction has enabled other
abdominal structures not containing
contrast medium to be removed from
the image, leaving a particularly clear
depiction of the contrast within the
aorta and its various branches.
Contrast medium arriving in the
kidneys is quickly distributed evenly
through the cortex where it is filtered
by the glomerulus. Opacification of the
renal parenchyma is known as a
nephrogram.
Pot 1
Pot 2
Pot 3
Full Screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Medulla
Cortex
Renal artery
Arcuate aa
Renal vein
Renal sinus
Ureter
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Interlobular artery
Pelvis recess
Interlobar artery
Ureter
Renal artery
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Vena cava
Aorta
Oesophagus
Quadrate lobe of
liver
Left medial
lobe of liver
Adrenal gland
Right kidney
Left kidney
Renal a&v
Caudal vena cava
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Celiac a
Cr. Mesenteric a
Interlobar aa
Renal aa
External iliac a
Internal iliac a
Median sacral a
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Renal non-selective
angiogram:
VD view
This radiograph was made
during injection of contrast
medium into the mid-abdominal
aorta via a catheter and shows
contrast predominantly filling the
renal arteries and the interlobar
arteries of the kidneys. In many
dogs, each kidney has two renal
arteries.
Pot 1
Pot 2
Pot 3
Full Screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Medulla
Cortex
Renal artery
Arcuate aa
Renal vein
Renal sinus
Ureter
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Interlobular artery
Pelvis recess
Interlobar artery
Ureter
Renal artery
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Vena cava
Aorta
Oesophagus
Quadrate lobe of
liver
Left medial
lobe of liver
Adrenal gland
Right kidney
Left kidney
Renal a&v
Caudal vena cava
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Interlobar aa
Renal aa
Deep circumflex a
External iliac a
Internal iliac a
Median sacral a
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot
Full Screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Anus
Rectus abdominis m.
Bladder Adductor m. Lips of vulva
Intervertebral disc
Symphyseal surface
of os coxae
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Vagina
Pot
Full Screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Right ovary
Cervix Bladder
Dorsomedian fold
continuing the cervix
Vagina
Clitoris
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
L5
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot
Full Screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Right ovary
Cervix Bladder
Dorsomedian fold
continuing the cervix
Vagina
Clitoris
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Uterus
Prostate: In this radiograph of a male dog a rounded soft tissue structure is visible just
caudal to the bladder and ventral to the faeces-filled colon at the pelvic inlet.
Lateral view This is the prostate. It is often difficult to see the prostate because it is usually
within the pelvis, so is obscured by the surrounding bones. In entire male dogs
the prostate gradually enlarges with increasing age and moves cranially so that
it becomes visible cranial to the pelvic inlet, as in this instance. Note the
triangular lucency that occupies the angle formed by the ventral abdominal wall,
the ventral wall of the bladder and the cranioventral aspect of the prostate; this
is abdominal fat and it is the fact that it is less opaque than soft tissues that
enables visualisation of the prostate.
Pot 1
Pot 2
Full Screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Rectum
Anus
Deferent
duct
Pelvic
urethra
Bladder Prostate
gland Retractor
penis m.
Bulbospongiosus
Body of penis m.
Ischiocavernosus m.
over left crus
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Anus
Urethra
Bulbospongiosus
m. Descending
colon
Ureter (right)
Bladder
Right crus Kidney (left)
Deferent duct
(right) Testicular
vessels
Retractor
penis m.
Dorsal a. and v.
of penis Bulbus
glandis
Spermatic cord
Pars longa
Testis (right) glandis
Prepuce
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
L5
Ilium
Hip joint
Femoral
head
Prostate
Fat
between
bladder
neck &
abdominal
wall
Abdomen: VD view
Muscle layers
Pot 1
Pot 2
Pot 3
Full Screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Reflected
abdominal
muscles & skin
Left kidney
Stomach; fundus
Pericaridal fat
Left ventricle
Left auricle Left medial lobe Left lateral lobe Stomach; body
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Serratus dorsalis Serratus dorsalis pars caudalis
Cut edge of internal
pars cranialis Perirenal fat abdominal oblique
Transverse abdominal m
Internal abdominal oblique m
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Right kidney Left kidney L4
Renal aa
External iliac aa
Deep femoral aa
Small Bladder
intestines No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Abdomen: This is a typical lateral abdominal radiograph of a dog, in which the abdominal
viscera are visible but are difficult to discern because of superimposition and
Lateral because of the similar opacity of the organs and surrounding tissues. The liver is
present on the cranioventral aspect of the abdomen between the stomach, which is
view gas-filled, and the diaphragm. In this instance the caudal port of the liver extends
several centimetres caudal to the last ribs and some would interpret this as
enlarged. Just caudal to the liver is an oblong soft tissue structure that corresponds
to the tail of the spleen. Dorsal to this there are numerous loops of small intestine,
some containing gas which makes them easier to see, and others containing a small
amount of fluid. Dorsal to the small intestinal loops and bladder is the colon. This is
recognisable because of its speckled content, which represents faeces. The kidneys
are relatively difficult to see in many dogs and this is no exception. The left kidney is
present in the mid-dorsal abdomen from the level of L2 to L4. The right kidney
overlaps with the left and occupies the region from approximately T13 to L2.
Reflected
abdominal
muscles & skin
Left kidney
Stomach;
fundus
Pericaridal
fat
Left auricle Left Left medial Left lateral lobe Stomach; body
ventricle lobe
Serratus Serratus dorsalis pars
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
dorsalis pars caudalis Cut edge of internal
cranialis Perirenal fat abdominal oblique
External External
abdominal Internal abdominal abdominal
oblique m oblique m oblique m
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Gas in body of Faeces in
stomach Right kidney Left kidney L4 descending colon
Abdomen:
VD view
This is the corresponding ventrodorsal view to the
previous lateral. Again it is difficult to discern the
individual abdominal organs in this typical dog. The
left kidney is visible from approximately L1 to L3 with
the elongated curvilinear spleen lateral to it and
overlapping its caudal pole. The right kidney is virtually
invisible. In this dog most of the small intestine
appears to lie to the right of midline; this is not
abnormal. The stomach is gas-filled, as it was in the
lateral view, and has a rounded fundus to the left of
midline and a narrower, more elongated body that
crosses the midline towards the antrum, which lies on
the right. The gas-filled piece of small intestine seen
superimposed over the right 12th and 13th ribs is
probably the duodenum, although its connection to the
stomach is not visible. An incidental finding in this dog
is the unusual left rib at T13, which is shorter and
thicker than the other ribs. This represents transitional
anatomy, having some of the features of a normal rib
and some of the features of a normal lumbar
transverse process. Transitional thoracolumbar
vertebrae or lumbosacral vertebrae are commonly
seen in dogs but are usually of no clinical significance.
Pot 1 Pot 2
Pot 3 Pot 4
Full Screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Vena cava
Aorta
Oesophagus
Quadrate lobe of
liver
Left medial
lobe of liver
Adrenal gland
Right kidney
Left kidney
Renal a&v
Caudal vena cava
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Stomach;
antrum
Cranial duodenal
flexure
Stomach; fundus
Right lobe of
pancreas
Left lobe of
Descending pancreas
duodenum
Caudal duodenal
flexure
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Sternum
Quadrate lobe
Left lateral lobe
Xiphoid process
Right medial
lobe
Stomach; fundus
Left kidney
Right
kidney Caudal
vena cava
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Stomach
Greater
omentum
Descending Enlarged
duodenum spleen
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Body of spleen
Left kidney
Faeces within
descending colon
Vertebrae L5
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pup Abdomen: This lateral abdominal radiograph of a very young puppy shows
open growth plates in the vertebrae, the pelvis and distal femurs.
Lateral view The abdomen has a virtually featureless, uniform opacity except for
a few gas shadows in the stomach and parts of the intestine. Other
abdominal organs are invisible. This is a normal appearance that
occurs because in neonatal puppies and kittens there is very little
abdominal fat, and in the absence of fat there is no contrast
(difference) between the opacity of the different abdominal
structures which therefore merge into one uniform grey.
Labels
Physes © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Ilium Pubis
Ischium
Liver No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
The Spleen
Spleen: A lateral abdominal radiograph shows the spleen having a more elongated
and shapely demarcated appearance than in the ‘Abdomen: Lateral View’
Lateral view radiograph. The appearance of the spleen depends greatly on its position
in the abdomen and as it is somewhat mobile it can vary from dog to dog
and even from minute to minute. It is very easy to over-interpret the
appearance of the spleen because of these variations. Dorsal to the
spleen in the mid-abdomen there are a few small intestinal loops which
are non-dilated and dorsal to that there is gas outlining the large intestine
and caecum. The bladder occupies the caudoventral part of the abdomen
and has the large intestine and rectum draped over its dorsal aspect.
Pot
Full Screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Reflected
abdominal
muscles & skin
Labels
Ascending colon Faeces within © Royal Veterinary College 2009
descending colon Lumbar vertebrae 5
The Liver
Liver: Portogram
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Intrahepatic
portalveins
Splenic vein
Hepatic Portal
vein
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
The Spine
Coccygeal vertebrae
The Vertebrae;
Atlas Axis Cervical, thoracic & lumbar
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
1= Dorsal Tubercle
2= Cranial articular fovea 1
3= Transverse process
4= Body 5
5= Dorsal arch Cranial aspect
3
6= Arch
7= Caudal articular fovea 4
8= Odontoid process (fovea for dens) 2
9= Ventral tubercle
10= Lateral vertebral foramen
11= Transverse foramen
1
6
10 11
Lateral aspect
ATLAS
9
7
3 Caudal aspect
8
9
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
1= Transverse process
2= Body 3
3= Spinous process 4
4= Caudal articular process
5= Cranial articular process 7 Cranial aspect
6= Dens (Odontoid process)
7= Transverse canal 1
8= Body of axis 6 5
9= Arch 2
4 9 Lateral aspect
10
AXIS
6 6
5
1
4
Caudal aspect
7
8 1
1
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
2 2 2 3
1 1
1
Thoracic v. 8 6
1= Spinous process 6 7
2= Body 2 4 5
3= Transverse process 3 9 11
4= Vertebral foramen 2 10
9
5= Lamina 2
6= Cranial articular surface 2
7= Caudal articular surface
8= Mamillary process 1
6 12
9= Caudal costal fovea 1 1
10= Cranial costal fovea 8 8
11= Cranial articular process 12 8
12= Caudal articular process 4 11 12
4
2 3 3 2
2
Lumbar v.
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Cervical region
Pot
Full Screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Atlas
Axis
1 3
6
3 3rd Ce
4 3 4th Ce
2 8
7
5th Ce
4 3
1= Lateral vertebral foramen
2= Wing of atlas 4 3
3= Spinous processes
4= Transverse processes
5= Extended plate of 4
transverse process of Ce 6
6= Vertebral foramen
7= Cranial articular process 4
8= Caudal articular process 5
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
Spinous Dorsal & ventral Caudal
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Dorsal process of borders of
tubercle of articular Cranial articular process
axis (C2) vertebral canal process of C3
atlas (C1) of C4
Atlas
Axis
1 3
6
3 3rd Ce
4 3 4th Ce
2 8
7
5th Ce
4 3
1= Lateral vertebral foramen
2= Wing of atlas 4 3
3= Spinous processes
4= Transverse processes
5= Extended plate of 4
transverse process of Ce 6
6= Vertebral foramen
7= Cranial articular process 4
8= Caudal articular process 5
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
External © Royal Veterinary College 2009
occiptal
protruberance
Spinous
Dorsal
process of
tubercle of
axis (C2)
atlas (C1)
Atlanto -
occipital
condyle
Transverse
Tympanic process
bullae (wings) of
atlas
Endotracheal
tube within
trachea
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Pot
Full Screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Atlas
Axis
1 3
6
3 3rd Ce
4 3 4th Ce
2 8
7
5th Ce
4 3
1= Lateral vertebral foramen
2= Wing of atlas 4 3
3= Spinous processes
4= Transverse processes
5= Extended plate of 4
transverse process of Ce 6
6= Vertebral foramen
7= Cranial articular process 4
8= Caudal articular process 5
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
Atlas Spinous © Royal Veterinary College 2009
(cervical process of Dorsal & ventral
vertebrae 1) axis (C2) borders of
vertebral canal Dorsal spinous
process of C7
Pot
Full Screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Atlas
Axis
1 3
6
3 3rd Ce
4 3 4th Ce
2 8
7
5th Ce
4 3
1= Lateral vertebral foramen
2= Wing of atlas 4 3
3= Spinous processes
4= Transverse processes
5= Extended plate of 4
transverse process of Ce 6
6= Vertebral foramen
7= Cranial articular process 4
8= Caudal articular process 5
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
Dorsal & ventral © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Dorsal borders of
tubercle vertebral canal
Lateral Cranial
vertebral Caudal
articular articular
foramen Spinous process of C4 Dorsal spinous
process of process of C3 process of C7
axis (C2)
Atlas
(cervical
vertebrae 1)
Ventral
tubercle of Transvese Intervertebral Intervertebral Extended plate of
atlas process axis foramina disc space transverse process of
Occipital condyle (C2) between C4 between C4 C6
Tympanic bulla Cr. & Cd. &C5 &C5
Transvese process Transverse
(wings) of atlas processes Endotracheal tube within No Labels
Stylohyoid bone trachea
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Cervical myelogram:
Lateral view
Injection of contrast medium into the subarachnoid space of the same dog as in the
cervical spine survey image outlines the spinal cord, which is now visible as a lucent
space between the two thin contrast lines. The ventral contrast line bends slightly
dorsal above the intervertebral spaces, most noticeable at C2-3 and C6-7; this
appearance is normal.
Pot
Full Screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Atlas
Axis
1 3
6
3 3rd Ce
4 3 4th Ce
2 8
7
5th Ce
4 3
1= Lateral vertebral foramen
2= Wing of atlas 4 3
3= Spinous processes
4= Transverse processes
5= Extended plate of 4
transverse process of Ce 6
6= Vertebral foramen
7= Cranial articular process 4
8= Caudal articular process 5
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
Dorsal & ventral © Royal Veterinary College 2009
borders of
vertebral canal
Thoracic region
Pot
Full Screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Caudal articular
Tubercle process
Spinous process
Labels
Caudal articular Cranial articular Dorsal spinous © Royal Veterinary College 2009
process process process
Intervertebral
foramina
Thoraco-lumbar spondylosis:
Lateral view
In middle aged or old dogs (and cats), exostoses are frequently observed arising
from the ventral and lateral aspects of the vertebral bodies adjacent to the end-
plates. These exostoses can be quite large and pointed and extend ventral to the
intervertebral space, sometimes bridging the space with solid bone. This condition is
called spondylosis deformans. It is not a cause of clinical signs.
Labels
Caudal articular Cranial articular Dorsal spinous © Royal Veterinary College 2009
process process process Intervertebral
foramina
Lumbar region
Lumbar spine:
Lateral view
This lateral radiograph of the lumbar spine shows the normal features of the 7
lumbar vertebrae, which are well aligned and the intervertebral spaces are
regular in width. L7 is often a bit shorter than the others, although that is not very
noticeable in this dog.
Pot
Full Screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Lumbar myelogram:
Lateral view
This lumbar myelogram shows the very regular, almost straight, contrast
lines that we see in large breed dogs. Note that the ventral contrast line
goes over each intervertebral space (i.e. over each disc) without any dorsal
deviation. Also note the gradually tapered thecal sac, which contains the
cauda equina. In this dog it terminates at the cranial aspect of the sacrum.
Pot
Full Screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Caudal articular Cranial articular Dorsal spinous Contrast medium within Wings of the
process process process the subarachnoid space ilium
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Lumbar epidurogram:
Lateral view
A myelogram is a radiograph made after contrast medium has been injected into the
subarachnoid space. To do this a needle is inserted through the dura, the thick outer layer of
the meninges. Sometimes it is difficult to place the needle accurately, and if the tip fails to
penetrate the dura there is the possibility that injected contrast will be deposited in the tissues
around the dura instead (i.e. in the epidural space). This lateral radiograph of the lumbar spine
shows epidural deposition of contrast medium. Compared to a myelogram, the contrast has
an uneven wavy appearance with focal accumulations at each of the intervertebral foramina
because epidural contrast ends to spread along the spinal nerves. An epidurogram is not as
satisfactory for diagnosis as a myelogram.
Pot
Full Screen Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
1st Lumbar Vertebral body Transverse Dorsal & ventral Contrast medium within
vertebrae process borders of the epidural space
vertebral
foramen
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Sacral region
Thecal sac myelogram: VD view, normal appearance
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Lumbar
vertebrae 7
Cranial ventral
iliac spine
Lumbosacral
joint
Hip joints
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Dura mater & arachnoid mater: Iliac crest Cranial dorsal
iliac spine 1st caudal
the thecal sac.
vertebrae
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Cranial dorsal
iliac spine
Lumbar
vertebrae 7 End plates of L7 and sacrum
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Coccygeal vertebrae
“Screw-tail”: Lateral view
“Screw-tail”:
Lateral view
Congenital anomalies affecting the vertebrae are common in brachycephalic breeds such as
the bulldog and pug. This lateral radiograph shows a short, bent tail in an English bulldog.
This malformation is known as a screw tail.
Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
Short, bent
screw tail
Labels
Cranial dorsal Caudal dorsal © Royal Veterinary College 2009
Iliac crest iliac spine iliac spine 1st caudal
vertebrae
Lumbar
vertebrae 7 Faeces in rectum
Cranial ventral Lesser ischiatic
iliac spine notch
Ischiatic
Body of ilium tuberosity
Obturator
Hip joints foramen
Head of femur
Femur Pubis
No Labels
© Royal Veterinary College 2009
What do I need to
know?
Pre-clinical students:
This is a reference resource for you to use to improve your gross anatomical
knowledge whilst becoming familiar with normal radiographic anatomy.
Each image is labelled in great detail; each detail is NOT ESSENTIAL knowledge.
This resource is designed as a comprehensible reference tool.
Clinical students:
Useful resources
Credits