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ECOLOGY LABORATORY (Exercises 1-4)

Exercise 1: Data Sampling Techniques

 Data sampling is used in order Formula

to capture, manipulate, analyze
and display data
 This may be done manually
(written) or electronically
Expected value: sample size /
1. Data Gathering
(number of rows) (number of
2. Statistical Analysis
columns)
Parametric Non-Parametric
 Comparison of  RANKS Degrees of freedom: (rows -1)
the means and  Comparison of the (columns -1)
variances Medians
 Normal  Ex: Number of
Distribution males in the Sample Problem:
 Ex: Length, time, classroom
weight and
1. A reforested area consists of the
temperature tree species A, B, and C, and four
T-Test, Z-Test, Pearson Mann-Whitney, Kruskal- species of endemic bird species
and ANOVA Wallis, Wilcoxon, Chi- 1,2,3, and 4. The timber concession
Square, Spearman that owns the area is preparing to cut
down the trees for use as wood pulp
Chi-Square Test for paper manufacturing. As part of
 Non-Parametric Test the deal with the WWF, the timber
 Two categorical variables from a concession can only cut down one
single population species of tree. To help them decide
 Test for independence what species of tree to cut, the
 Test if there is a significant company hired an ornithologist who
association between the two did a survey of each tree species, and
categories what bird species was found utilizing
 Test if there is a difference each tree species. The results of the
between the distributions of a survey are listed as:
categorical data
 Comparison of the observed and Solution:
expected frequencies 1. Make the null and alternate
 Are the two nominal values hypothesis
independent? HO: “the two variables are
independent”
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HA: “the two variables are not Chi-Square value is greater than the critical
independent” value, reject Ho.
2. Get the expected value
3. Compute for the Chi-square Kruskal-Wallis Test
statistic  Non-Parametric Test
4. Degrees of Freedom  Test for comparison
5. Compare the Chi-square  Only use the Kruskal-Wallis when
statistic to the critical value comparing 3 or more conditions
6. If the Chi-square statistic
<critical value, accept the Ho. Formula
If the Chi-square statistic >
Bird 1 Bird 2 Bird 3 Bird 4 Total Kruskal-Wallis value
Tree A 12 7 5 17 41
Tree B 14 6 22 9 51
Tree C 35 12 7 11 65
Total 61 25 34 37 157

critical value, reject Ho.

Where H = Kruskal-Wallis value
N = number of total scores
Computation for the expected value: k = sample size
= 61+25+34+37/ (3)(4) = 13 Ri = ranked total per sample
ni = number of scores per sample
Chi-Square Statistic
Bird 1 Bird 2 Bird 3 Bird 4 Formula for df:
2 2 2 2 Df= number of groups -1
(12-13) / 13 (7-13) / 13 (5-13) / 13 (17-13) /
= 0.077 = 2.77 = 4.92 13 = 1.23
2 2 2 2 Mean rank
(14-13) / (6-13) / 13 (22-13) / (9-13) / 13
13 = 0.077 = 3.77 13 = 6.23 =1.23 Bird 1 Bird 2 Bird 3 Bird 4
2 2 2 2
(35-13) / (12-13) / (7-13) / 13 (11-13) /
13 = 37.23 13 = 0.077 = 2.77 13 = 0.31 Tree A 12 7 5 17

Tree B 14 6 22 9
Computation for df:
= (3-1) x (4-1) = 6 Tree C 35 12 7 11

Level of confidence: 0.05

Critical X2= 12.592 (based on the table) Solution:
1. Get the mean rank per category
Sum of all Chi-Square Statistic: 60.691 2. Get the Kruskal wallis value or
the H value
Answer: 60.691 > 12.592
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3. Compute for the degrees of he designated a single species
freedom Acanthurus olivaceus as the test
4. Get the Critical value species, and
5. Compare the Critical value with established ten counting stations and
the H value noted the number of A. olivaceus in
6. If the H value > critical value, each station and noted those in the
reject Ho. data sheet. He did this for all areas and
If H value < critical value, accept listed his data below.
Ho.
Mean Rank
Sample Problem:

1. A marine biologist in charge of four

marine reserves located on a small
island noticed that one of the marine
reserves (Area ‘A’) was twice the
other areas (‘B’,’C’ and ‘D’).
Considering that all other aspects of
the marine reserves were equal except
for size, the biologist wanted to find
out if the size of the marine reserve
had an effect on the overall number of
Degrees of freedom: 4-1 = 3
A rank B rank C rank D rank Level of confidence = 0.05
78 17 78 17 79 20.5 77 12.5 Critical x2 value = 7.8147

88 38.5 78 17 73 3 69 1 H value = 16.34

87 37 83 33.5 79 20.5 75 6.5
Answer: 16.34 >7.8147
88 38.5 81 27.5 75 6.5 70 2 Reject Ho.
83 33.5 78 17 77 12.5 74 4
Area ANOVA (Analysis of Variance Test)
82 30.5 81 27.5 78 17 8380 33.5
A 78 88 87 88 83 82 81 80 89  Parametric Test
Area
B81 78 27.5
78 81
83 81 27.5
78 80
81 81 23.5
82 8076 7623.5
 To test if there is any
Area significant difference between
C80 79 23.5
73 82
79 75 30.5
77 78
78 80 17
78 7583 846.5 the means of three or more
Area
D80 77 23.5
69 76
75 70 1074 83
83 80 33.5
75 7676 7510 independent (unrelated)
groups
89 40 76 10 84 36 75 6.5
 Any group differences
TOTAL 309.5 TOTAL 217.5 TOTAL 190 TOTAL 106  Two-way or One-way ANOVA
A rank B rank C rank D rank
 Used for Comparisson
fishes living within them. To test this,
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Sample Problem
1. A marine biologist in charge of
four marine reserves located on a
small island noticed that one of
the marine reserves (Area ‘A’)
was twice the size of the other
areas (‘B’, ‘C’, and ‘D’).
Considering that all other aspects
of the marine reserves were equal
Reject H0 if the computed F value > critical
except for size, the biologist
F value.
wanted to find out if the size of
𝑑�𝑓�𝑡�𝑟�=3; 𝑑�𝑓�𝑒�=36; level of confidence =
the marine reserve had an effect
0.05
on the overall size of fish species
9.0024>2.87
living within them. To test this, he
Reject H0.
designated a single fish species
Acanthurus olivaceous as the test
species, and collected 10
specimens of this fish in each of
the four marine reserves. He
measured each fish (in
cm) and tabulated the
Area
A 78 88 87 88 83 82 81 80 80 89
Area
B 78 78 83 81 78 81 81 82 76 76
Area
C 79 73 79 75 77 78 80 78 83 84
Area
D 77 69 75 70 74 83 80 75 76 75
data below.

Solution
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How to solve ANOVA
1. Compute for the mean of
each category
2. Compute for the grand mean:
Mean of a+b+c+d/4
3. Compute for Xc
4. Compute for the Treatment
of the Sum of the Squares
5. Compute for the Error for the
Sum of the Squares
6. Compute for the Total Sum of
the Squares
7. Make the Data Summary
Table
Exercise 2: Winogradsky Column
 Microbial communities are found
in pond mud, and these organisms
are capable of producing metabolic
by-products that are required for
the survival of other organisms
within the environment. By using
the Winogradsky column, these
products can be studied, and the
interdependent relationship of
the microorganisms can be
observed. This column can act as
a replica of the microbial
environment.
 The Winogradsky column is a
miniature, self-contained
ecosystem which models
ecological conditions in varying
ways.
 It was invented by the Russian
bacteriologist Sergei N.
Winogradsky in 1880.
 The column is composed of a
transparent cylindrical container
which is filled with a few
substrates (ex. Soil/mud) and
marine or freshwater.
 The column is usually covered to
prevent evaporation.
 Illumination (sunlight) is
provided to promote the growth
of microscopic organisms (ex.
phototrophs). This composition
will provide the information
needed to study sulfur, nitrogen,
carbon, phosphorus, and other
nutrients, which undergo cycling
between the aerobic zone (upper
layer) and the anaerobic zone
(lower layer).
 Gradients (light gradient,
temperature gradient, nutrient, O2
and H2S concentration gradients)
result in a complex interaction of
microbes with their environment
and with one another resulting in a
series of community successions
and, ultimately, stratification of
microbial populations in the water
column.
Key to potential observations:
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a) Aerobic colors
 Green – eukaryal algae or
cyanobacteria
 Red/brown – cyanobacteria or
thiobacilli
 Red/purple – purple non-sulfur
Bacteria
 White – sulfur oxidizing Bacteria
b) Anaerobic colors
 Red/purple – purple sulfur
Bacteria
 Green – green sulfur Bacteria
 Black – sulfate reducers
c) Gas
 In the water column is probably
O2 from oxygenic
photosynthesis
 In the aerobic zone is probably
CO2 from respiration
 In the anaerobic zone is
probably CH4 from
methanogenesis
 Tracks in the upper layers of the
sediment are formed by “worms”
 Small specks swimming in the
water column are crustaceans,
e.g. Daphnia & Cyclops
Interpretation of the Results:
 Over time there is more oxygen at
the top of a column than at the
bottom, and this means that
microbes that can tolerate or
produce oxygen will be found at
the top.
 Microbes that cannot tolerate
free oxygen (called anaerobic
bacteria) will be further down.
 Similarly, microbes that need
light to make energy (via
photosynthesis or a similar
process) will need to live where
they can get light in the column.
 Some green coloring should
appear in the columns receiving
light on the illuminated sides.
This is mostly due to
cyanobacteria and algae, which
needs light.
 The column in the dark should
remain dark brown. In the
column that had egg yolk, areas of
darker green, purple, and/or black
coloring may have developed over
time near the bottom— these
colorings could be groups of
certain anaerobic bacteria:
green sulfur bacteria, purple
sulfur bacteria, and sulfate-
reducing bacteria, respectively.
 Sulfate-reducing bacteria actually
eat sulfur and make hydrogen
sulfide gas, which is eaten by the
green and purple sulfur bacteria.
 In the column that had newspaper,
some areas of brown, orange,
red or purple may be evident
near the middle— these colorings
could be groups of purple non-
sulfur bacteria, which need a
carbon source to thrive. In
addition, worms, snails, shrimp or
other small organisms in the
water, but probably not many (if
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any) in the bottle with the egg
yolk, because hydrogen sulfide is
toxic to most organisms.
 The GPS is used to locate positions
 The space segment currently
Exercise 3: Global Positioning System
 The GPS receiver specifies the
 The Global Positioning System
(GPS) is the best example. The GPS
was first designed in 1960 under
of the United States (U.S.) Air
Force for military purposes. The
first satellites were launched into
space in 1978 but the system was
declared fully operational on April
1995. It consists of 24 active
satellites (21 GPS and 3 spare
satellites) that circle the globe
once every 12 hours in order to
provide worldwide position, time
and velocity information.
anywhere on earth with the use of
the location coordinates. The
information it calculated is
transmitted via the ground
stations on earth along with the
satellites. It is composed of three
segments such as the space,
ground and user segment.
consists of 28 satellites that orbit
the earth on 6 different orbital
planes, and orbit at the height of
20,180 km above the earth’s
surface. The ground or control
segment observe the satellite
movement, compute orbital data,
monitor satellite data, and further
relay information such as satellite
health, clock hours or orbital data
of the satellites. Lastly, the user
segment, known as the receiver,
with four satellites determines the
position, transit time and velocity
(Zogg, 2001).
geographic position (longitude and
latitude) within 100 meters from
the device. It gets its information
from three of the four satellites.
The receiver may also have a
screen that shows a map, and
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pinpoints the position on the map.2. Line Transect
The accuracy of the information3. Point-Quarter
that the receiver transmits is
dependent on the distance of theIndexes Used:
unit from the ground stations and1. Simpson
the satellites. Usually, readings are2. Shannon-Wiener
within 10 to 16 feet of the actual3. Jaccard
location.
The Simpson index is used to measure the
species siversity. The main index (D)
indicates total diversity. The (d), which is 1-D
is the index of diversity which indicates the
dominance of the species. The Shannon-
Wiener index of diversity indicates the
diversity of pseudo-species per quadrat or
sample set. This takes into account the
number of species present or absent. Lastly,
the Jaccard index is known as the similarity
coefficient. This index indicates the similarity
and diversity between two sample sets or
quadrats. This uses the absence and presence
of a pseudo-species.

Exercise 4. Terrestial Sampling Techniques

Methods Used:
1. Quadrat A.1 Simpson’s Index
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ni = number of individuals (per A. 4. Formula and sample solution
species) for Average Density
Pi: number of individualsTOTAL
number of individuals (all species)
Simpson’s Index (D): Sum of all Pi2
values
Simpson’s Index of Diversity: 1-D
Simpson’s reciprocal index: 1/D

A.2 Shannon-Wiener Index

ni = number of individuals (per
species)
Pi: number of individualsTOTAL
number of individuals (all species)
Ln(pi)
Pi x ln (Pi) A.5. Formula and sample solution for
H (max) = ln (number of species) Standard Error

A. 3 Jaccard Index
K1: Sum of all species in Quadrat 1
K2: Sum of all species in Quadrat 2
K12: Sum of the Square of all
species in Quadrat 1
K22: Sum of the Square of all
species in Quadrat 2
K1K2: Combination of all species in √
Quadrat 1 and 2

Jaccard Index = K1K2/ K1+K2+ A.6 Formula and sample used for
K1K2 Standard Deviation

1.c. Jaccard Index for Quadrat 1.

K1 1+1+1+2+1+1+2+5 = 14

K2 2+1+4+2+2=11
2
K1 1+1+1+4+1+1+25=38
2
K2 4+1+16+4+4=29
K1UK2 (1x1)+(2x4)+(1x2)+(2x2)=15
Jaccard 0.375
Index A.7. Formula and sample solution for
15/14+11+15
Spatial Dispersion
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A.8. Formula and sample solution for

Density

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