2016

We call on Governments of the top ten economies of the world to enact laws, at least as strong
as the UK Modern Slavery Act 2015, with a budget and capability to ensure organisations are
held to account for modern slavery in their supply chains, and to empower independent oversight.
Government intervention
can have immediate impact
The men in this photo are raising their hands, having been asked “who
wants to go home?” by the Indonesian authorities who came to rescue
them in April 2015. The men, mostly from Myanmar, were used as slave
labour on Thai fishing boats, where they were beaten with sting-ray tails,
shocked with Taser-like devices at sea, forced to work almost non-stop
without clean water or proper food, paid little or nothing and prevented
from going home.
These men were saved by government intervention. We call on all
Governments to take action to identify and release victims of slavery,
and to hold those responsible to account.
Photo credit, AP Photo/Dita Alangkara

call to action
We call on Governments of the top ten economies of the world to
enact laws, at least as strong as the UK Modern Slavery Act 2015,
with a budget and capability to ensure organisations are held to
account for modern slavery in their supply chains, and to empower
independent oversight.

Cover image:
A Syrian family flees to In few other spheres is the need
Turkey when Islamic State for courageous and committed
attacked their home town
Kobane in September 2014.
leadership so critical. Personally,
Some 3,500 people, mainly I unashamedly use business to
women and children, were help end slavery and I ask every
being held in slavery in Iraq
by Islamic State in January chairman and chief executive to join
2016. This family fleeing is me. Organisations that don’t actively
highly vulnerable to modern look for forced labour within their
slavery and governments
who make the decisions we supply chains are standing on a
recommend will not only burning platform.
protect these people by their
own actions but provide These leaders, like all of us need
invaluable leadership to
the rest of the world.
support and empowerment to
Photo Credit, Ismail Ferdous
make major change. This is where
governments can play a leading role.
Copyright © 2016. Walk Free Foundation. All rights reserved.
Andrew Forrest
Printed in Australia/ United Kingdom/ India A Personal Message to Leaders

These chains were used to keep
Geronimo Sanchez Bravo inside
a truck every night after he
worked picking tomatoes for his
captors in the United States. He
escaped and testified against his
captors, who were sentenced to
12 years in prison.
Photo credit, Jon Lowenstein/NOOR.
2 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
FOREWORD By Andrew Forrest
– A Personal Message to Leaders
Slavery is abhorrent, more rampant than at any time in history,
and entirely avoidable. Unlike major world epidemics such as
malaria and HIV/AIDS, slavery is a human condition of our own
making. While that in itself is a tragedy, it also means that we
have the power to end it. And end slavery we must; we cannot
allow future generations to fall prey to this hideous practice.
Improving the rights of 45.8 million human beings is both
wise and urgent for all leaders of countries and organisations.
Eradicating slavery makes sense, morally, politically, logically
and economically.
Slavery and its components, forced labour and trafficking, are
the ultimate economic negative multipliers. Nowhere is this more
apparent than the powerful economic forces unleashed by the
liberation of Chinese people, the greatest freeing from poverty
in human history. From President Deng to President Xi, the most
compelling evidence that freedom of people leads to immediate
economic growth is proved. Where slavery is allowed to exist for
the few pennies it might save, the host economy loses hundreds,
if not many thousands of times more in economic terms.
In few other spheres is the need for courageous and committed
leadership so critical. Personally, I unashamedly use business to
help end slavery and I ask every chairman and chief executive
to join me. Businesses that don’t actively look for forced labour
within their supply chains are standing on a burning platform.
These leaders, like all of us, need support and empowerment to
make major change. This is where governments can play a leading
role. We call on Governments of the top ten economies of the world
to enact laws, at least as strong as the UK Modern Slavery Act 2015,
with a budget and capability to ensure organisations are held to
account for modern slavery in their supply chains, and to empower
independent oversight.
As the slavery consciousness of the world increases, the types
of practices that I found in child “sanctuaries” in Nepal and
discovered in my own supply chains in the Middle East, will be
in the spotlight. I found slavery everywhere, simply because I
looked. Leaders who refuse to look into the realities of their own
supply chains are deluded and irresponsible.
Slavery is an evil and corrupt practice. The sovereign leaders
and corporations, who signal they have had enough of slavery
in their social systems and are prepared to move quickly to
eradicate slave masters and incarcerate those who continue to
practice after warnings, will send the best possible economic
signals to the investment world. I can confidently state that there
is no shortage of capital in the world, but there is a dearth of
responsible, attractive investment destinations.
Rapid economic growth brings great challenges and the opportunity Slavery Act 2015, which requires all companies with a turnover
to balance the imperatives of fiscal growth with social justice. of more than 36 million GBP, an estimated 17,000 UK-based
In this regard, it is critical that India is moving both to build the businesses, to report on their efforts in ensuring they are not
economy while undertaking significant reforms against slavery. using slave labour in their supply chains. For the multiplier
Its Prime Minister, its Cabinet Ministers, its various states, effect to truly take hold, we must see similar actions throughout
and its major faith leaders are making their intolerance for the all major world economies.
continuance of this practice clear. The Indian government’s
In the business of commerce or government, there can be no
imminent anti-trafficking bill is an unambiguous statement that
effective management without measurement. This Global
change is happening. The proposed new legal and legislative
Slavery Index deploys the worldwide power of Gallup to survey
framework is a huge step forward, and it comes as the words
entire countries and provinces in more than 50 languages.
“modern slavery” have been brought into the Indian lexicon by
These surveys have underscored the accuracy and relevance of
the efforts of leaders across sectors. The public declaration of the
the award-winning data collection and methodology we have
existence of slavery is the first step to conquering it, and India
developed over many years. While I have had no influence over
is demonstrating it is up for the challenge of defeating slavery
the findings of the Index, I am satisfied with the diligence of
within its borders. When I travel throughout India, business and
its work that has created the best measurement of slavery yet.
religious leaders share with me the feeling that this time, all the
This is a brave “line in the sand” measurement of an illegal and
economic pointers are different. In my 30 years of visiting India
previously very hard to measure industry, that can empower
never have I felt so strongly the grass roots communities’ belief
governments, businesses and individuals to act. We are proud to
in, and enthusiasm for, freedom.
contribute this information freely to the world. To all those who
By investing in countries where governments and organisations seek to criticise the imperfection of the Index, may I humbly
are actively taking steps to end slavery and aggressively ask that you attach a solution, or at least an alternative, to your
measuring their effectiveness, businesses are in a prime position criticism so that the world can continue its emancipation journey.
to deploy the positive economic multiplier of investment to
This is not an academic note. It is a straight-up call to action
ending slavery. People freed from bondage become the world’s
for leaders. It does not pretend to be concise or detailed, but it
most incentivised work force; they never want to return to their
does portray accurately my belief in the critical role of leaders
previous existence. The freeing of communities from slavery
in government, business and civil society. Should they use their
not only brings in the rule of law, it emphasises property
responsible power, strength of conviction, determination and
rights, common decency and strength of family for each former
collective will, we all can lead the world to end slavery.
individual in slavery.
Leaders of the world’s major economies – the United States,
China, Japan, Germany, the UK, France, Brazil, Italy, Russia
and India - must bring the power of business to this issue, by
requiring through law, a focus on supply chain transparency for all
goods and services imported or sold in their countries. Brazil was
an early leader in this field, pioneering an approach that brings
together business with civil society and government, through a
national dirty list of companies fined for the use of forced labour
by court order. While the list is currently suspended following
legal action, Brazil has shown rare courage on this issue.
In the period since the last Global Slavery Index, we have
witnessed important innovations by governments which place
responsibility squarely on the private sector to undertake supply
chain due diligence. In 2016, the US President closed loopholes
in the US Tariff Act 1930, with the result that it will no longer be
possible to import goods made with forced or slave labour into ANDREW FORREST
the country. The UK also recently signed into law the Modern Founder and Chairman of Walk Free Foundation.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 3

HIGHLIGHTS
This is the third edition of the Global Slavery Index.
It provides an estimate, country by country of the number of people living
in modern slavery today and the steps governments are taking to respond
to this crime.

45.8
ESTIMATED NUMBER OF PEOPLE IN MODERN SLAVERY GLOBALLY

MILLION

58%
The countries with the highest proportion
of their population in modern slavery are:
North Korea Syria
OF THOSE LIVING Uzbekistan South Sudan
IN SLAVERY ARE IN
Cambodia Somalia

COUNTRIES
5 India
Qatar
Libya
Central African
Pakistan Republic
INDIA Democratic Republic Mauritania
CHINA of the Congo Haiti
Sudan Dominican Republic
PAKISTAN
Iraq Myanmar
BANGLADESH Afghanistan Bangladesh
UZBEKISTAN Yemen
 GOVERNMENTS TAKING ACTION
MOST ACTION MOST ACTION BY GDP*
++The Netherlands ++Philippines
++United States of America ++Georgia
++United Kingdom ++Brazil
++Sweden ++Jamaica
++Australia ++Croatia
++Portugal ++Montenegro
++Croatia ++Macedonia
++Spain ++Moldova
++Belgium ++Albania
++Norway ++Serbia

LEAST ACTION LEAST ACTION BY GDP*

-- North Korea -- Qatar
-- Iran -- Singapore
-- Eritrea -- Kuwait
-- Equatorial Guinea -- Brunei
-- Hong Kong -- Hong Kong
-- Central African Republic -- Saudi Arabia
-- Papua New Guinea -- Bahrain
-- Guinea -- Oman
-- Democratic Republic of the Congo -- Japan
-- South Sudan -- South Korea

*GDP = Gross Domestic Product per capita in terms of Purchasing Power Parity

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 5

CONTENTS
 FOREWORD.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

HIGHLIGHTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

ABOUT THE 2016 GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Terminology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
About Modern Slavery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
THE METHODOLOGY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

COMMENTARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Measuring Modern Slavery - Work in Rapid Progress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Jan Van Dijk
Connecting Slavery and Environmental Destruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Kevin Bales
Distress Migration and Modern Slavery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fiona David
GLOBAL FINDINGS.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Prevalence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Table 1 - Estimated proportion of population in modern slavery by counrty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Table 2 - Absolute number of people in modern slavery by country. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Vulnerability.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Table 3 - Measures of vulnerability to modern slavery by country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Government Responses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Table 4 - Rank of countries by government response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
REGIONAL ANALYSIS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Asia Pacific. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Europe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Russia and Eurasia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Sub-Saharan Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Middle East and Northern Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
The Americas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
SELECTED COUNTRY STUDIES.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Cambodia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Dominican Republic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Iraq. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Mauritania. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Mexico. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Poland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Qatar.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Russia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
South Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Thailand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
United Kingdom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
APPENDICES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Appendix 1: Terminology.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Appendix 2: Summary of Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
ENDNOTES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

Stone Scavengers of Jafflong, Bangladesh. At least 10,000 people, including over 2,500 women and 1,000 child labourers, are
engaged in stone and sand collection. Limited job opportunities push these individuals to migrate from other parts of Bangladesh.
They survive on less than 150 taka a day (about US$2).
Photo credit, GMB Akash

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 7

 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Global Slavery Index (‘the Index’) provides an estimate of
the number of people in modern slavery, the factors that make
individuals vulnerable to this crime, and an assessment of
government action across 167 countries.
The 2016 Global Slavery Index
estimates there are 45.8 million
people subject to some form of
modern slavery in the world today.
The Global Slavery Index is based on state of the art research
methodology that has been developed with the assistance of an
independent Expert Working Group, comprised of world leading
experts. The methodology has also been subjected to independent
external review. This estimate is based on data from nationally-
representative, random sample surveys conducted in 25 countries.
All surveys were conducted face-to-face in key local languages
using a standardised instrument. Collectively, these surveys
represent 44 percent of the global population. The results of these
surveys have been extrapolated to countries with an equivalent
risk profile.
The 2016 estimate is an increase on the estimate provided in the
previous edition of the Index. As efforts to measure this hidden
crime are still relatively new, we are not asserting that modern
slavery has increased in the intervening period. Indeed, results
from our surveys reveal some national estimates have increased
while others have decreased. We believe that the overall larger
number reflects a significant increase in the quality and quantity
of research on this issue. While the methodology will continually
improve, even at this early stage, survey data have greatly improved
the accuracy of our measures.
From the 'Less than Human'
series. A large cargo boat is
seen in Songkla Port, Thailand.
09/03/2014. Photographer Chris Kelly
worked undercover to expose the link
between prawns being sold in big name
supermarkets, and the slaves who live and
work on Thai fishing boats miles out to sea.
Photo credit, Chris Kelly
8 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
In 2016, the country with the highest estimated proportion
of modern slavery by population is North Korea. Though
information on North Korea is difficult to verify, pervasive evidence
exists that citizens are subjected to state-sanctioned forced labour,
including through forced labour as political prisoners and as
workers on overseas contracts.
Uzbekistan has the second highest estimated proportion of
prevalence of modern slavery by population. While some steps
have been taken to address forced labour in the cotton industry,
the Uzbek government continues to subject its citizens to forced
labour in the cotton harvest each year.
In 2016, Cambodia has the third highest estimated prevalence
of modern slavery. In Cambodia, extensive literature details the
prevalence of commercial sexual exploitation and forced begging.
Our survey data highlight the existence of modern slavery in
manufacturing, farming, construction and domestic work.
In 2016, we estimate 18.3 million people are in some form of
modern slavery in India. This estimate reflects extensive surveying
conducted in 2016 in 15 states. While many impressive efforts are
being taken by the Indian Government to address vulnerability,
survey data suggest that domestic work, construction, farming,
fishing, manual labour and the sex industry remain sectors of concern.
The ten countries with the largest estimated absolute numbers
of people in modern slavery include some of the world’s most
populous countries: India, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh,
Uzbekistan, North Korea, Russia, Nigeria, the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, and Indonesia. Several of these
countries provide the low cost labour that produces consumer
goods for markets in Western Europe, Japan, North America and
Australia. Some of these countries are taking important steps
towards stamping out abuses in key industries. For example,
Indonesia’s work on rescuing and repatriating two thousand
trafficked fishermen is commendable.
While the lowest prevalence of modern slavery continues to be
found in countries in Western Europe, North America, and Australia
and New Zealand, estimates for these countries have increased
following the application of a new estimation technique called
multiple systems estimation. This allows more precise measurement
when random sample surveys are not appropriate. The United
Kingdom was the first government to adopt this technique, which
increased the UK estimate to 11,700 people in modern slavery.
In 2016, a further test of this technique was completed in the
Netherlands. This is reflected in the Netherlands estimate of 17,500
in modern slavery.
Governments play a central role in responding to modern
slavery. The Index examines steps being taken by governments
to achieve the following critical outcomes:
• Survivors are identified, supported to exit and remain out of
modern slavery.
• Criminal justice mechanisms address modern slavery.
• Coordination and accountability mechanisms for the
government are in place.
• Attitudes, social systems and institutions that enable modern
slavery are addressed.
• Businesses and governments through their procurement systems
stop sourcing goods and services that use modern slavery.
Research for this component of the Index involved a partnership
between the Walk Free Foundation and DataMotivate, an
organisation that provides training and employment for survivors
of modern slavery in the Philippines.
The governments taking the most steps to respond to modern slavery
are predominantly high GDP(PPP) countries: the Netherlands,
the United States, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Australia,
Portugal, Croatia, Spain, Belgium and Norway.
The list is very different when correlated against GDP(PPP).
The Philippines, Georgia, Brazil,
Jamaica and Albania are making
strong efforts despite having
relatively less resources than
wealthier countries.
The governments taking the least action are: North Korea,
Iran, Eritrea, Equatorial Guinea, Hong Kong, Central African
Republic, Papua New Guinea, Guinea, the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, and South Sudan. The tragedy is that
the populations of some of these countries concurrently face a high
risk of enslavement.
When GDP(PPP) is accounted for, it is clear that despite their
relative wealth, Hong Kong, Qatar, Singapore, Saudi Arabia,
Bahrain, Oman, Kuwait, Japan and South Korea can and
should be doing more to address modern slavery problems within
their borders.
Many countries, including wealthy countries, continue to detain and
deport victims, while many fail to ensure meaningful protections for
the most vulnerable workers. With a few notable exceptions, there
is also an almost complete failure to seek survivor feedback on
experiences of the justice system and service provision.
There are increasing legal imperatives for large companies to
identify and address labour abuses in their supply chains. The UK
enacted the landmark Modern Slavery Act 2015, which requires
large companies to report on steps they have taken to safeguard
supply chains from modern slavery. Over 100 companies have
submitted reports to date. In 2016, the United States amended a
loophole in the Tariff Act of 1930 requiring Customs and Border
Protection to seize and block imports made with forced labour.
Previously, if there was 'consumptive demand' for a product and
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 9
10 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
insufficient domestic supply to meet that demand, imports were
accepted regardless of how they were produced. While these
efforts originate from just two countries, the reach of these
laws into international supply chains means their impact is
felt well beyond national borders.
The regional studies highlight the interplay between environmental
destruction, natural disasters and human trafficking; the impact of
conflict on forced marriage, commercial sexual exploitation and
child soldiers; and the effect of limited education and employment
opportunities in situations of forced and bonded labour. In 2016,
unprecedented global displacement and migration increased
vulnerability to all forms of modern slavery.
Asia, the most populous region in the world, has an estimated two
thirds of the total number of people in modern slavery. This region
provides low-skilled labour for the production stage of global
supply chains for industries including food production, garments
and technology.
Despite having the lowest regional prevalence of modern slavery
in the world, Europe remains a source and destination for forced
labour and commercial sexual exploitation. While the impact of the
massive influx of migrants and refugees in 2015 and 2016 remains
to be seen, it is already clear that this group is highly vulnerable
to exploitation and abuse.
In Russia and Eurasia, cases of state-sponsored forced labour have
been documented in several countries, including in Turkmenistan
and Uzbekistan. Reports suggest instances of forced labour and
recruitment of children for armed conflict in Ukraine.
Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for approximately 15 percent of the
world's total enslaved population. Escalation of violence in Nigeria
following the Boko Haram conflict has sparked a humanitarian
crisis in neighbouring countries. New survey data from South
Africa confirms the existence of forced labour in the commercial
sex industry, construction, manufacturing and factory work, and
drug trafficking.
As violent conflict escalates in the Middle East and North
Africa, the profile of victims vulnerable to modern slavery has
shifted. While migrant workers from Asia remain vulnerable,
increasingly Middle Easterners themselves face exploitation and
slavery in 2016.
In the Americas, new survey data allows modern slavery to be
more precisely identified including in Guatemala, Mexico, Chile,
Dominican Republic and Bolivia. The results suggest that forced
labour is particularly prevalent in manual labour sectors such as
construction, manufacturing and factory work, and domestic work.
The 12 country studies included in the Index are a snapshot of the
diversity and similarity of modern slavery crimes across the globe,
such as the short and long term impact of conflict on slavery (Iraq
and Cambodia), and show the role of the private sector (Thailand
and Qatar), and the responsibility of highly developed countries
(the UK). New data on under researched countries (such as South
Africa and Mexico) is also highlighted. The studies present a range
of government responses and confirm that while much work has
been done, there is still more to do. Lack of implementation and
enforcement of laws, and the importance of countering corruption
are recurring themes.
The studies confirm that poverty and lack of livelihood opportunities
play a major role in increasing vulnerability to modern slavery.
They also point to deeper social and structural inequalities that
enable exploitation to persist – xenophobia, patriarchy, class,
caste, and discriminatory gender norms. Discrimination against
minorities traps migrant workers in inhumane working conditions
in every continent. The control of women’s sexuality in many
societies leads to forced marriage and commercial sexual
exploitation. Hierarchical cultures continue to abuse the ‘lowest’
among them, perpetuating intergenerational exploitation.

We cannot continue to view ending modern slavery in isolation to other

issues. In times of conflict and mass displacement, the heightened risk of
slavery-like abuses must be factored into emergency responses. In countries
that host migrant workers, companies and governments must focus on
ensuring workers not only have rights and entitlements but can also access
them. Any system, practice or belief that results in certain parts of society,
whether women, people with disabilities or ethnic groups, being unable to
access the necessities of life—food, shelter, water, basic health care and
capacity to earn an income—must be challenged. This is the responsibility
of governments, the private sector, civil society and consumers.

Gayatri, one of the trafficked girls who was lured into

marriage by traffickers, at her house in Haryana's Jind
district. In Haryana, trafficked brides are locally known
as Paro. All the activities of Paro are dependent on the
inclinations and circumstances of their buyer.
Photo credit, Subrata Biswas/ Hindustan Times

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 11

 ABOUT THE INDEX

TERMINOLOGY

Different countries use different terminology to describe modern forms of slavery, including the term
slavery itself, but also other concepts such as human trafficking, forced labour, debt bondage, forced
or servile marriage, and the sale and exploitation of children.
While definitions vary, in this report, modern slavery refers to situations of exploitation that a person
cannot refuse or leave because of threats, violence, coercion, abuse of power or deception, with
treatment akin to a farm animal. For example, their passport might be taken away if they are in a
foreign country, they may experience or be threatened with violence or their family might be threatened.
Refer to Appendix 1 for full terminology.

ABOUT MODERN SLAVERY

Modern slavery is a hidden crime that affects every country in the world. In 2015–2016, modern
slavery was found in many industries including the Thai fishing, Uzbek and Turkmenistan cotton, and
the Qatari construction industries. It was identified in the domestic households of diplomats, in Islamic
State (IS)[1] controlled areas, and in areas that have experienced natural disasters, such as Nepal, and
environmental destruction, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It impacts on all of us,
from the food we consume and the goods we purchase. It is our responsibility to tackle this crime.
Nearly every country in the world has committed to eradicate modern slavery through their national
legislation and policies. Governments have a central role to play by enacting legislation, providing safety
nets to their populations, and pursuing criminals who participate in this heinous crime. Governments
need the support and engagement of civil society, the private sector and the community.

THE INDEX

The Global Slavery Index is a tool for citizens, non-government organisations (NGOs), businesses, and
governments to understand the size of the problem, existing responses, and contributing factors so that
they can advocate for and build sound policies that will eradicate modern slavery.

WHAT INFORMATION IS INCLUDED IN THE GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX?

The Global Slavery Index has quantified data across three dimensions:

SIZE OF THE PROBLEM VULNERABILITY GOVERNMENT RESPONSE

What is the estimated
prevalence of modern slavery
country by country, and what
is the absolute number by
population?
What factors explain or How are governments
predict the prevalence of tackling modern slavery?
modern slavery?

All supporting data tables and methodology are available to download from the Global Slavery
Index website: www.globalslaveryindex.org

12 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

METHODOLOGY

HOW DID WE MEASURE PREVALENCE?

Measuring the number of people in modern slavery is a difficult undertaking due to the hidden nature
of this crime and low levels of victim identification. Since 2014, we have conducted 25 surveys with
the Gallup[2] through their World Poll, interviewing over 28,000 respondents in 52 languages. This
year we also conducted state-level surveys in India. When these are included, we have interviewed
over 42,000 respondents in 53 different languages. The prevalence estimates in the Index are based on
data from these surveys, the results of which have been extrapolated to countries with an equivalent
risk profile.

Gallup teams survey respondents in Ethiopia and Indonesia

Photo credit, Gallup

HOW DID WE MEASURE VULNERABILITY?

The Global Slavery Index includes a model of 24 variables which affect vulnerability to enslavement.
These include:
• Civil and political protections
• Social, health and economic rights
• Personal security
• Refugees and conflict
These factors were identified by statistical testing as being relevant to prevalence of modern slavery.

HOW DID WE MEASURE GOVERNMENT RESPONSES?

The final component of the Index is a score of 161[3] government responses based on an assessment
of 98 indicators of good practice, taking into account factors such as whether each country has the
necessary laws in place, provides support to victims, and ensures application of labour standards
to vulnerable populations. Research for this aspect of the Index involved a partnership between the
Walk Free Foundation’s research team and DataMotivate, an organisation that provides training and
employment for survivors of modern slavery in the Philippines.
A summary of the methodology is Appendix 2, and a detailed methodology paper is available online.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 13

 COMMENTARY
Measuring Modern Slavery
- Work in Rapid Progress
JAN VAN DIJK
Tilburg University, The Netherlands, winner of the Stockholm
Prize in Criminology 2012
International organisations such as the United Nations
Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and the International
Labour Organization (ILO) over the past twenty years,
have made great strides in the measurement of modern
slavery across the world with their Global Reports on
Trafficking in Persons and Global Estimates of Forced
Labour respectively. With the adoption by the United
Nations of eradicating human trafficking as a Sustainable
Development Goal (SDG), this challenging work now
needs to be geared up. As a performance measure, the
UN member states have agreed on the “number of victims
of human trafficking per 100,000 population, by sex,
age group and form of exploitation”. But how can this
possibly be done when the numbers of officially identified
victims tell us next to nothing about the real numbers, and
international research on the prevalence of crime remains
fraught with political sensitivities? Might the adoption
of this ambitious performance measure prove to be just
another 'pie in the sky'?
Against this background, the fact that the Walk Free
Foundation now presents a Global Slavery Index—based
on the results of standardised surveys on family-wide
experiences with victimisation by modern slavery in 25
countries—is an extraordinarily well-timed feat. Although
much work remains to be done, these 25 surveys conducted
by Gallup Inc. show the global community the way forward
with monitoring the SDG to end human trafficking.
If the prevalence of crime is ever to be reliably measured
in a comparative fashion, standardised surveys among the
population surely are the only viable approach. The track
record of the International Crime Victims Survey, up till
now carried out in about 90 countries once or more, and
most recently in five countries in the Caribbean, bears
testimony to this.
The global community is well-advised to follow this
best practice and start securing funds for carrying out
standardised surveys not only on experiences with
modern slavery, but with other types of violent crime
including domestic violence against women and children.
Partnerships between International Organisations and
private foundations have proved to be instrumental in many
of the achievements under the UN’s previous development
agenda. It is hoped that similar cooperation will drive the
implementation of the new development agenda, including
by facilitating statistical monitoring of successes and
lapses with the use of innovative metrics.
As discussed in the Index, survey-based measures, although
holding great promise, have their own methodological
limitations. In the most-developed countries, victimisation by
14 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
modern slavery might be too rare, and unevenly distributed
among the population, to be measurable through random
sampling among national populations. Focussed sampling,
for example among vulnerable immigrant populations, might
be required. Also, successful interviewing of respondents
about victimisation by sexual slavery may, just like other
sensitive crimes, need special interview techniques.
Interestingly, an alternative and complementary method to
estimate the true numbers of victims of modern slavery is
also identified in the Index. For the calculation of rates for
Western countries, the report has made use of the results of
the application of Multiple Systems Estimation (MSE) to
the multi-source data on victims identified by the British
authorities. According to this innovative study the real
number of persons exploited in the United Kingdom is
four to five times higher than those formally identified.[4] A
UNODC-sponsored replication of this work on the dataset
of the Dutch National Rapporteur on Human Trafficking
came up with an even higher ratio between identified and
real numbers in the Netherlands.[5]
MSE, like standardised population surveys, holds great
promise for better international crime statistics. This seems
especially to be the case with statistics on the complex crime
of modern slavery. In many countries across the world,
possible victims of modern slavery are identified through
multi-agency National Referral Mechanisms comprising of
police forces, immigration and labour inspectorates as well
as NGOs. In many such countries, multi-source datasets are
available on the possible victims of modern slavery. While
the possibility of victims being recorded by two or more
organisations was initially regarded as complicating their
accumulation to total counts, the double or triple counting
of the same victims on different lists now proves to be an
asset by offering unique opportunities for estimating the true
numbers through statistical modelling. If more countries
would apply the same estimation technique to their multi-
agency databases on identified victims, a new source of
international statistics on the prevalence of victimisation
by human trafficking becomes available. Since the datasets
on identified victims in many countries predominantly refer
to victims of modern sexual slavery, MSE-based estimates
provide a welcome complement to survey-based estimates
of modern slavery largely focusing on forced labour. MSE
has the potential to produce estimates of modern slavery by
sex, age and type of exploitation, just as suggested in the
Monitoring Framework for the SDGs.
The new Global Slavery Index, then, shows us two new,
parallel tracks to collect reliable statistics on the numbers
of victims of modern slavery: the conduct of standardised
surveys on experiences with victimisation by this crime, and
the execution of Multiple Systems Estimation using data
on identified victims. Just when this was more opportune
than ever before, a promising new generation of statistics on
modern slavery has been launched.
Photos from the Pipeline series. The Nigeria women in these photographs are working as sex workers in the countryside of Italy,
having had passports confiscated and with families back home under threat. Some are both living and conducting their work on
the sides of roads or in fields. They are vulnerable to arrest for soliciting. 
Photo credits: Elena Perlino.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 15

 Connecting Slavery and
Environmental Destruction
KEVIN BALES
Professor of Contemporary Slavery at the Wilberforce Institute
for the Study of Slavery and Emancipation, University of Hull, UK.
Slavery never happens in isolation. For people to be
enslaved, several conditions must be in place. One of the
most powerful of these is when the rule of law fails. A
country may be poor, it may be struggling with climate
change or a damaged economy, but if the rule of law holds,
then even the most vulnerable are protected from slavery.
When armed conflict breaks out, the rule of law is one of
the first casualties. In the chaos of conflict and violence, a
perfect storm of lawlessness, slavery, and environmental
destruction can occur—driving the vulnerable into slave-
based work that feeds into global supply chains and the
things we buy and use in our daily lives.
In the past twenty years, this perfect storm has hit the
eastern provinces of the Democratic Republic of the
Congo. A war that erupted in the aftermath of the Rwandan
genocide spread across the region, bringing collapse to
the Congo’s ruling dictatorship, invasion by surrounding
nations, and a sharp rise in slavery and sexual violence. The
armed groups that grabbed parts of the eastern provinces
were not there for political or religious reasons, but to steal
and sell valuable minerals and other natural resources.
Lacking mining technology, but heavily armed, these
criminal groups enslaved thousands of local people.
These slaves were forced to cut protected virgin forests,
level mountains, spoil streams and rivers with great open-
strip mines, and massacre rare and endangered species
like gorillas. The minerals these slaves dug, processed
and then carried on their backs to smuggle them out of
the country flowed into our lives. For these slave-based,
environmentally-destructive minerals are essential to
making cell phones, computers, and the thousands of other
electronic devices that surround us every day.
The human cost of this conflict was extremely high[6]—one
in five adults were enslaved, nearly half of all women and a
quarter of all men were raped. In the aftermath of the war,
a quarter of the population reported actively thinking about
killing themselves, and one person in six had attempted
suicide; no-one knows how many others succeeded.
The impact on the natural world was also devastating. The
3000-square-mile Virunga National Park is the oldest in
Africa and home to one third of the world’s population of
rare mountain gorillas, as well as elephants, hippopotami,
buffalo, and antelope. The same armed gangs smashing
and grabbing the mineral resources see such protected
forest reserves as ripe for the taking and are willing to
expend any number of slaves to do so. Slaughter on an
industrial scale, using machine guns and grenades has
reduced the hippo population by 98 percent and enslaved
local people who are forced to carry the carcasses to meat
markets in the city. Gorillas are also killed to sell as meat,
or just to get out of the way as the soldiers clear-cut the
primeval forest to burn into charcoal—also for sale in the
city or across the border in Rwanda.
16 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
In this context of conflict, a vicious cycle begins: the rule
of law disappears and slavery, brutality, and environmental
destruction feed into each other. The weapons driving
this cycle might be paid for by the riches torn from the
forests, or purchased with profits from the products we all
buy. Refugees fleeing devastated environments that can
no longer support them are caught up and enslaved, then
forced to carry out even more destruction. It is the sheer
size of this cycle that makes large-scale research, such as
the Global Slavery Index, so important.
This deadly, triangular trade stretches far beyond the
Congo, across the world to other threatened villages and
forests, and all the way to the rich countries of Europe and
North America. It is a trade cycle based on armed conflict
that grinds up the natural world and crushes human beings
to churn out commodities like minerals for electronics,
shrimp and fish, gold, cotton and clothing, iron and steel.
When the focus and analysis of this slave-based trade cycle
becomes global surprising facts emerge[7]:
• R
 ecent environmental treaties and regulations
made vast forests around the equator off-limits to
commercial logging—but created a market vacuum
quickly filled by criminal slaveholders.
• A
 conservative estimate is that just under half
of all illegal deforestation in the world is
slave-based.
• I f that is the case, then criminal slaveholders are
responsible for 2.54 billion tons of CO2 entering the
atmosphere each year. Put another way, slaves are
being forced to produce more greenhouse gases than
any country in the world except China and the United
States (the two largest polluters).
Added to that is the widespread mercury poisoning from
slave-based gold mines on three continents, and the
carcinogenic air pollution from tens of thousands of slave-
using brick kilns.
Slavery is a global problem, which is inextricably tied to
other global problems like conflict and climate change,
as well as feeding the global supply chains that tie us all
together. But it is also true that understanding slavery at
a global level opens the door to solutions. For example,
expanding efforts to end slavery could slow or stop the
growth of greenhouse gases driving climate change. Going
further, employing freed slaves to re-plant forests they
been forced to destroy, work already underway on a small
scale, would sweep CO2 from the air and possibly reverse
climate change. While the right approach to climate change
is sometimes controversial, slavery is not. There can be no
special pleading for slave-based industries, growing from
conflict, and feeding our supply chains. Closing down
slave-based logging, brick-making, mining, or charcoal
production will not hurt our lifestyles or the global
economy. What it will do is get people out of slavery and
slow global warming and climate change—a classic win-
win situation. Making these global connections requires
a global focus.
 Commentary cont.

Child labour is not a new issue in Bangladesh, as children

remain one of the most vulnerable groups to trafficking,
hunger, illiteracy, displacement, exploitation, physical and
mental abuse. Many children engage in various hazardous and
exploitative occupations in mining and manufacturing factories.  
Photo Credit, GMB Akash

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 17

 Distress Migration
and Modern Slavery
FIONA DAVID
Executive Director of Global Research, Walk Free Foundation
The 2016 Global Slavery Index has been prepared in the
context of unprecedented mass movements of men, women
and children, fleeing the horrors of protracted conflicts in
Iraq, Afghanistan, Syria, Yemen and Libya.
The scale of the distress migration we have witnessed
is hard to comprehend. In 2015–2016, the number of
displaced people is expected to exceed 60 million. This is
the equivalent of the entire population of Italy gathering
what they can carry on their backs, and fleeing from their
homes under threat of death, or worse.
While the numbers are hard to comprehend, the horrors that
people are fleeing are not. In December 2015, Nadia Murat,
a 21 year-old Yazidi woman, recounted her experiences to
the UN Security Council of having been captured, raped
and tortured by IS fighters until she successfully escaped.
Ms Murat noted:
"The Islamic State didn't come to kill the women and girls,
but to use us as spoils of war, as objects to be sold with
little or to be gifted for free. Their cruelty was not merely
opportunistic. The IS soldiers came with a pre-established
policy to commit such crimes."
Far from being an isolated incidence, her treatment reflects
a deliberate strategy of war, as publications released by
IS[8] provide that—"it is permissible to buy, sell, or give
as a gift female captives and slaves, for they are merely
property, which can be disposed of…"
The effects of the conflict are felt heavily in neighbouring
countries who typically bear most of the burden of
providing shelter. Walk Free and IOM research conducted
in 2015 confirms that in Jordan and Lebanon, the massive
in-flux of refugees has had a trifold effect on the already
existing populations of migrant workers from Asia (see
Middle East North Africa regional study). First, there
is increased competition between refugees and existing
migrant workers for the lowest-paid, highest-risk jobs
in the informal sector, suggesting a rapid race to the
bottom. Second, there has been an increase in situations
of criminals taking advantage of vulnerability, through
forced begging, forced prostitution and forced marriage.
18 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
Third, this all takes place at a time when every existing
State resource is already stretched to breaking point, by
the scale of the emergency response.
While rarely at the forefront of planning responses to conflicts
and humanitarian emergencies, the reality is that modern
forms of slavery prosper in these environments of conflict,
corruption, displacement, discrimination and inequality.
Given this, it is critical that national and international
responses to humanitarian emergencies and mass migration
take account of the very real risks of modern slavery on
highly vulnerable migrant and refugee populations.
In the current context, this requires an immediate response,
developed in partnership with civil society organisations, to
address the vulnerability of the large numbers of refugees
and migrants on the move throughout the Middle East
and Europe. While politically appealing, simply shutting
borders will not solve the inter-related issues of the refugee
crisis and international human trafficking. As highlighted
by a recent IOM survey (see Europe regional study),
migrants on the move are being approached by strangers
with offers of work or marriage, and some have even been
offered cash for blood, organs and body parts.
Where civilians are being enslaved in conflict zones, this
issue must be part of military planning, and potentially
capacity building efforts. Civilians cannot go into Yemen
or Syria to assist those seeking to escape slavery. Military
personnel are training counterparts and providing capacity
building—why not make modern slavery part of the focus?
Beyond immediate realities, a strong focus on safe, well-
managed migration, whether in times of peace or conflict,
must become a cornerstone of integrated international and
national responses to modern slavery. Responses must take
into account the reality of the disproportionate effect of
conflict upon women and children—but should not ignore
the plight of men in these areas. Without this holistic
response, we not only risk perpetuating enslavement—we
risk compounding the horrors of war to those who most
need our shelter.
Time will show that our complicity in modern slavery will
be measured by our response to its perpetrators. We should
all strive to be on the right side of history.
 Commentary cont.

A Syrian family flees to Turkey when Islamic State attacked their home town Kobane in September 2014. Some 3,500 people,
mainly women and children, were being held in slavery in Iraq by Islamic State in January 2016.  
Photo Credit, Ismail Ferdous

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 19

GLOBAL
FINDINGS
Mewat, India - March 14, 2014: Rubina, a
Paro who was trafficked from Assam when she
was only 15. Bride trafficking is common in the
interior villages of Haryana. Trafficked brides
are locally known as Paro or Molki.
Photo credit, Subrata Biswas/ Hindustan Times
GLOBAL PREVALENCE SCALE
Modern slavery is in every country.

Estimated Prevalence of Modern Slavery

Those in grey were not included in the index

High Low
 PREVALENCE
In the third edition of the Index,
an estimated 45.8 million people
are subjected to some form of
modern slavery.
The Index ranks the 167 most populous countries; their combined
populations equalling 99 percent of the total world population.
This research incorporates data from standardised nationally
representative random sample surveys on modern slavery,
including forced marriage, for 25 countries which represent
about 44 percent of the world population.
The 2016 estimate is an increase on the estimate provided in
the previous edition of the Index. As efforts to measure this
hidden crime are relatively new, it is premature to assert that
modern slavery has increased in the intervening period. Indeed,
the results from our national surveys reveal a mixed picture, with
increases in some national estimates and decreases in others.
For example, the national survey in Bangladesh resulted in an
estimate of 1.5 million people in modern slavery, an increase
from the previous estimate of 680,900 people. Similarly, the
national survey in Myanmar led to an increase in the estimate-
from 231,600 in 2014 to 500,000 in this edition.
Conversely, estimates in some countries have decreased as a result
of surveys. In Mauritania, the national survey revealed that 1.06
percent of the population are in some form of modern slavery.
This is a substantial decrease from our previous estimate, but a
finding which we consider to be closer to the true figure due to the
higher level of rigor in random sample surveys This downward
revision of the estimate for Mauritania illustrates an important
point - the Index does not aim to dramatise the extent of slavery
or to inflate or sensationalise figures. While Mauritania has been
the focus of extensive interest and reporting in the past, it has
not had the benefit of a national survey until now. The extent of
slavery in Mauritania is still high, however more reliable methods
indicate that it is not as high as previously thought.
24 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
The 2016 Global Slavery Index presents a ranking of 167 countries
based on the proportion of the population that is estimated to be
in some form of modern slavery. A ranking of one in the Index
indicates the highest concentration of modern slavery within the
population; a ranking of 52 indicates the lowest concentration
of modern slavery. A description of the methodology used to
calculate prevalence can be found in Appendix 2 and a more
detailed paper is available for download from the Global Slavery
Index website (www.globalslaveryindex.org)
This year, the country with the
highest estimated percent of its
population in modern slavery
is North Korea.
Nearly one in 20 North Koreans are estimated to be in modern
slavery. Though information on North Korea is difficult to
verify, pervasive evidence exists that citizens are subjected
to state-imposed forced labour within the country, where the
government requires forced, uncompensated labour from
workers, school children, and university students; and operates
an extensive system of prison labour camps. There are reports
that individuals are forced to work long hours in agriculture and
the logging, construction, mining, and garment industries with
harsh punishments for not meeting quotas.[9] Outside the country,
the government has exported more than 100,000 nationals to
work predominantly in China and Russia on overseas contracts.
Although no accurate figures exist, case studies and journalistic
accounts point to a significant and regular trade of women into
forced marriage and commercial sexual exploitation in China
and other neighbouring states.
The information we have presented about North Korea is
conservative. This closed society denies free inquiry or
expression, and in doing so, prevents meaningful research.

However, it is important that lack of data does not prevent North
Korea from being held to account.
As was the case in 2014, Uzbekistan has the second highest
proportion of people in modern slavery, due to the high level of
state-imposed forced labour. Although the Uzbek Government
has taken steps to address forced labour in the cotton industry
with the introduction of a feedback mechanism and increased
monitoring, it continues to subject Uzbek citizens to forced
labour in the cotton harvest each year.
Cambodia entered the top ten in 2016. A national survey
revealed that 1.6 percent of Cambodians are in some form of
modern slavery. While existing research details the prevalence of
commercial sexual exploitation and forced begging in Cambodia,
the national survey confirmed the existence of modern slavery
in manufacturing, farming, construction and domestic work.
The country with the fourth highest proportion of modern slavery
is India. Reflecting data from 15 state-level surveys conducted
in 2016, an estimated 18.3 million people are in some form of
modern slavery in India. The national and state governments
are taking steps to address modern slavery by implementing
legislation through Anti Human Trafficking police Units, and
responding to vulnerability through the provision of safety nets
such as education, birth registration and labour inspections.
However, survey data suggests that domestic work, construction,
farming, fishing, other manual labour, and the sex industry
remain sectors of concern.
Qatar remains in the top five in the third edition of the Index. With
an estimated 1.4 percent of people in modern slavery, its ranking
reflects the high number of migrant workers enslaved in the nation.
Although steps have been taken to improve legislative protections
for migrant workers, domestic workers are excluded and remain
extremely vulnerable. With no new data available, and reports of
abuses continuing, this estimate remains conservative. The ten
countries with the largest estimated absolute numbers of people
in modern slavery include some of the world’s most populous
countries: India, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Uzbekistan,
North Korea, Russia, Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of the
Congo, and Indonesia. Collectively, these ten countries account
for 68 percent of people living in modern slavery.
Uzbekistan is the world’s sixth largest producer of cotton. During the annual cotton harvest, citizens are subjected to state-
sanctioned forced labour. Monitoring by international organisations has meant the government has begun to take steps to
improve the situation, however, reports from the 2015 harvest estimate that over one million people were forced to work.
Photo credit, Simon Buxton/Anti-Slavery International
Global Findings cont.
The situation in the Middle East, involving protracted, multiple
conflicts and the expansion of the so-called Islamic State (IS),
has rapidly increased the numbers of internally-displaced people
and refugees. In these countries, due to conflict and displacement,
our estimates are less reliable. At the same time, the dramatic
increase in vulnerability of refugee populations is already being
seen to generate enslavement.
One facet of this is the open and
specific use of enslavement by
IS militants as part of their war
effort. A United Nations report in
January 2016 stated that some
3,500 people, mainly women
and children, were being held in
slavery in Iraq by Islamic State,
and noted that other ethnic and
religious minority communities
were also being targeted.[10]
The destruction of the rule of law that comes with war, as well as
the ruin of infrastructure, schools, health care and whole cities in
this regional conflict, increasing levels of violence, and the very
large numbers of refugees fleeing Iraq, Syria and neighbouring
countries, suggest that this region will see an increase in slavery
in the future.
The lowest prevalence of modern slavery continues to be found
in countries in Western Europe, the United States and Canada,
and Australia and New Zealand. Estimates for these countries
have also increased with the introduction of a new statistical
technique[11],Multiple Systems Estimation (MSE), that allows
more precise measurement when random sample surveys are
not effective. The United Kingdom (UK) and the Netherlands
were the first countries to use this technique.
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 25
 TABLE 1 - ESTIMATED PROPORTION OF POPULATION IN MODERN SLAVERY BY COUNTRY

Estimated percent of Estimated number

Rank Country population in modern slavery in modern slavery Population

1 North Korea 4.373 1,100,000 25,155,000

2 Uzbekistan 3.973 1,236,600 31,125,000
3 Cambodia* 1.648 256,800 15,578,000
4 India* 1.403 18,354,700 1,311,051,000
5 Qatar 1.356 30,300 2,235,000
6 Pakistan* 1.130 2,134,900 188,925,000
Democratic Republic of the
6 1.130 873,100 77,267,000
Congo
6 Sudan 1.130 454,700 40,235,000
6 Iraq 1.130 403,800 35,730,000
6 Afghanistan 1.130 367,600 32,527,000
6 Yemen 1.130 303,200 26,832,000
6 Syria 1.130 257,300 22,769,000
6 South Sudan 1.130 139,400 12,340,000
6 Somalia 1.130 121,900 10,787,000
6 Libya 1.130 70,900 6,278,000
6 Central African Republic 1.130 55,400 4,900,000
7 Mauritania* 1.058 43,000 4,068,000
8 Haiti 0.995 106,600 10,711,000
8 Dominican Republic* 0.995 104,800 10,528,000
9 Myanmar* 0.956 515,100 53,897,000
10 Bangladesh* 0.951 1,531,300 160,996,000
11 Gambia 0.878 17,500 1,991,000
12 Guatemala* 0.845 138,100 16,343,000
13 Nepal* 0.823 234,600 28,514,000
14 Brunei 0.805 3,400 423,000
15 Tunisia* 0.766 85,000 11,102,000
16 Russia* 0.732 1,048,500 143,335,000
17 Madagascar 0.674 163,400 24,235,000
17 Malawi 0.674 116,100 17,215,000
17 Zambia 0.674 109,300 16,212,000
17 Sierra Leone 0.674 43,500 6,453,000
17 Eritrea 0.674 35,300 5,228,000
17 Namibia 0.674 16,600 2,459,000
17 Lesotho 0.674 14,400 2,135,000
17 Swaziland 0.674 8,700 1,287,000
18 Colombia 0.639 308,200 48,229,000
18 Morocco 0.639 219,700 34,378,000
18 Peru 0.639 200,500 31,377,000
18 Venezuela 0.639 198,800 31,108,000
18 Jordan 0.639 42,900 6,718,000
18 Macedonia 0.639 13,300 2,078,000
19 Tanzania 0.638 341,400 53,470,000
19 Angola 0.638 159,700 25,022,000
19 Ivory Coast 0.638 144,900 22,702,000
19 Niger 0.638 127,000 19,899,000

26 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Estimated percent of Estimated number
Rank Country population in modern slavery in modern slavery Population

19 Burkina Faso 0.638 115,600 18,106,000

19 Zimbabwe 0.638 99,600 15,603,000
19 Chad 0.638 89,600 14,037,000
19 Guinea 0.638 80,500 12,609,000
19 Rwanda 0.638 74,100 11,610,000
19 Burundi 0.638 71,400 11,179,000
19 Tajikistan 0.638 54,100 8,482,000
19 Togo 0.638 46,600 7,305,000
19 Republic of the Congo 0.638 29,500 4,620,000
19 Liberia 0.638 28,700 4,503,000
20 Egypt 0.626 572,900 91,508,000
20 Iran 0.626 495,300 79,109,000
20 Turkey 0.626 480,300 76,721,000
20 Thailand 0.626 425,500 67,959,000
20 Algeria 0.626 248,300 39,667,000
20 Uganda 0.626 244,400 39,032,000
20 Cameroon 0.626 146,100 23,344,000
20 Mali 0.626 110,200 17,600,000
20 Lebanon 0.626 28,700 4,591,000
21 Papua New Guinea 0.620 47,200 7,619,000
21 Guinea-Bissau 0.620 11,400 1,844,000
21 Guyana 0.620 4,800 767,000
22 Mozambique 0.520 145,600 27,978,000
22 Senegal 0.520 78,700 15,129,000
22 Botswana 0.520 11,800 2,262,000
22 Djibouti 0.520 4,600 888,000
23 Nigeria* 0.481 875,500 182,202,000
24 Poland* 0.476 181,100 38,025,000
25 Ukraine 0.467 210,400 45,064,000
25 Kazakhstan 0.467 81,600 17,488,000
25 Azerbaijan 0.467 45,000 9,635,000
25 Belarus 0.467 44,600 9,550,000
25 Kyrgyzstan 0.467 27,700 5,934,000
25 Georgia 0.467 20,900 4,487,000
25 Kuwait 0.467 18,200 3,892,000
25 Bosnia and Herzegovina 0.467 17,800 3,810,000
25 Armenia 0.467 14,100 3,018,000
25 Bahrain 0.467 6,400 1,377,000
26 Suriname 0.453 2,500 543,000
26 Cape Verde 0.453 2,400 521,000
27 South Africa* 0.453 248,700 54,954,000
27 Trinidad and Tobago 0.453 6,200 1,360,000
28 Bolivia* 0.437 46,900 10,725,000
29 Malaysia 0.425 128,800 30,331,000
30 Ethiopia* 0.414 411,600 99,391,000

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 27

 TABLE 1 - ESTIMATED PROPORTION OF POPULATION IN MODERN SLAVERY BY COUNTRY

Estimated percent of Estimated number

Rank Country population in modern slavery in modern slavery Population

31 Kenya 0.410 188,800 46,050,000

32 South Korea 0.404 204,900 50,672,000
32 Argentina 0.404 175,500 43,417,000
32 Romania 0.404 80,200 19,849,000
32 Ecuador 0.404 65,300 16,144,000
32 Greece 0.404 44,200 10,942,000
32 Czech Republic 0.404 42,600 10,549,000
32 United Arab Emirates 0.404 37,000 9,157,000
32 Hong Kong, SAR China 0.404 29,500 7,287,000
32 Bulgaria 0.404 29,000 7,176,000
32 Serbia 0.404 28,700 7,087,000
32 Paraguay 0.404 26,800 6,639,000
32 Nicaragua 0.404 24,600 6,082,000
32 Costa Rica 0.404 19,400 4,808,000
32 Croatia 0.404 17,100 4,225,000
32 Panama 0.404 15,900 3,929,000
32 Lithuania 0.404 11,800 2,920,000
32 Latvia 0.404 8,000 1,979,000
32 Estonia 0.404 5,300 1,310,000
32 Cyprus 0.404 4,700 1,165,000
32 Montenegro 0.404 2,500 622,000
33 Philippines* 0.398 401,000 100,699,000
34 Ghana* 0.377 103,300 27,410,000
35 Cuba 0.332 37,800 11,390,000
36 Mexico* 0.297 376,800 127,017,000
37 Benin 0.295 32,100 10,880,000
37 Honduras 0.295 23,800 8,075,000
37 Laos 0.295 20,000 6,802,000
37 El Salvador 0.295 18,100 6,127,000
37 Turkmenistan 0.295 15,800 5,374,000
37 Oman 0.295 13,200 4,491,000
37 Moldova 0.295 10,400 3,538,000
37 Mongolia 0.295 8,700 2,959,000
37 Albania 0.295 8,600 2,906,000
37 Kosovo 0.295 5,400 1,845,000
37 Gabon 0.295 5,100 1,725,000
37 Equatorial Guinea 0.295 2,500 845,000
38 Saudi Arabia 0.292 92,100 31,540,000
39 Indonesia* 0.286 736,100 257,564,000
39 Timor-Leste 0.286 3,500 1,235,000
40 China 0.247 3,388,400 1,371,738,000
41 Japan 0.228 290,200 127,046,000
41 Taiwan 0.228 53,600 23,476,640
41 Hungary* 0.228 22,500 9,836,000
41 Slovakia 0.228 12,400 5,426,000

28 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Estimated percent of Estimated number
Rank Country population in modern slavery in modern slavery Population

41 Uruguay 0.228 7,800 3,432,000

41 Slovenia 0.228 4,700 2,066,000
42 Sri Lanka* 0.221 45,900 20,781,000
43 Jamaica 0.212 5,800 2,734,000
43 Barbados 0.212 600 284,000
44 Italy 0.211 129,600 61,373,000
45 Singapore 0.165 9,200 5,563,000
45 Mauritius 0.165 2,100 1,265,000
46 Chile* 0.154 27,700 17,948,000
47 Vietnam* 0.152 139,300 91,519,000
48 Israel 0.140 11,600 8,343,000
49 Portugal 0.123 12,800 10,384,000
49 Finland 0.123 6,700 5,485,000
49 Iceland 0.123 400 331,000
50 Netherlands* 0.104 17,500 16,896,000
51 Brazil* 0.078 161,100 207,848,000
52 United States 0.018 57,700 320,821,000
52 Germany 0.018 14,500 80,738,000
52 France 0.018 12,000 66,389,000
52 United Kingdom* 0.018 11,700 64,856,000
52 Spain 0.018 8,400 46,513,000
52 Canada 0.018 6,500 35,871,000
52 Australia 0.018 4,300 23,772,000
52 Belgium 0.018 2,000 11,268,000
52 Sweden 0.018 1,800 9,754,000
52 Austria 0.018 1,500 8,566,000
52 Switzerland 0.018 1,500 8,267,000
52 Denmark 0.018 1,000 5,660,000
52 Norway 0.018 900 5,188,000
52 Ireland 0.018 800 4,659,000
52 New Zealand 0.018 800 4,552,000
52 Luxembourg 0.018 100 562,000

* Indicates nationally-representative Gallup survey data or data from multiple systems estimation was available for this country. For surveys, this includes
Brazil, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Russia, Chile, Dominican Republic, Ghana, Guatemala, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Philippines,
Poland, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tunisia, and Vietnam. For MSE, this included the Netherlands and United Kingdom.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 29

 TABLE 2 - ABSOLUTE NUMBER OF PEOPLE IN MODERN SLAVERY BY COUNTRY

Estimated percent Estimated Estimated percent Estimated

of population in number in of population in number in
Rank Country modern slavery modern slavery Rank Country modern slavery modern slavery

1 India* 1.403 18,354,700 45 Ivory Coast 0.638 144,900

2 China 0.247 3,388,400 46 South Sudan 1.130 139,400
3 Pakistan* 1.130 2,134,900 47 Vietnam* 0.152 139,300
4 Bangladesh* 0.951 1,531,300 48 Guatemala* 0.845 138,100
5 Uzbekistan 3.973 1,236,600 49 Italy 0.211 129,600
6 North Korea 4.373 1,100,000 50 Malaysia 0.425 128,800
7 Russia* 0.732 1,048,500 51 Niger 0.638 127,000
8 Nigeria* 0.481 875,500 52 Somalia 1.130 121,900
Democratic 53 Malawi 0.674 116,100
9 Republic of the 1.130 873,100
Congo 54 Burkina Faso 0.638 115,600

10 Indonesia* 0.286 736,100 55 Mali 0.626 110,200

11 Egypt 0.626 572,900 56 Zambia 0.674 109,300

12 Myanmar* 0.956 515,100 57 Haiti 0.995 106,600

13 Iran 0.626 495,300 Dominican

58 0.995 104,800
Republic*
14 Turkey 0.626 480,300
59 Ghana* 0.377 103,300
15 Sudan 1.130 454,700
60 Zimbabwe 0.638 99,600
16 Thailand 0.626 425,500
61 Saudi Arabia 0.292 92,100
17 Ethiopia* 0.414 411,600
62 Chad 0.638 89,600
18 Iraq 1.130 403,800
63 Tunisia* 0.766 85,000
19 Philippines* 0.398 401,000
64 Kazakhstan 0.467 81,600
20 Mexico* 0.297 376,800
65 Guinea 0.638 80,500
21 Afghanistan 1.130 367,600
66 Romania 0.404 80,200
22 Tanzania 0.638 341,400
67 Senegal 0.520 78,700
23 Colombia 0.639 308,200
68 Rwanda 0.638 74,100
24 Yemen 1.130 303,200
69 Burundi 0.638 71,400
25 Japan 0.228 290,200
70 Libya 1.130 70,900
26 Syria 1.130 257,300
71 Ecuador 0.404 65,300
27 Cambodia* 1.648 256,800
72 United States 0.018 57,700
28 South Africa* 0.453 248,700
Central African
73 1.130 55,400
29 Algeria 0.626 248,300 Republic
30 Uganda 0.626 244,400 74 Tajikistan 0.638 54,100
31 Nepal* 0.823 234,600 75 Taiwan 0.228 53,600
32 Morocco 0.639 219,700 Papua New
76 0.620 47,200
Guinea
33 Ukraine 0.467 210,400
77 Bolivia* 0.437 46,900
34 South Korea 0.404 204,900
78 Togo 0.638 46,600
35 Peru 0.639 200,500
79 Sri Lanka* 0.221 45,900
36 Venezuela 0.639 198,800
80 Azerbaijan 0.467 45,000
37 Kenya 0.410 188,800
81 Belarus 0.467 44,600
38 Poland* 0.476 181,100
82 Greece 0.404 44,200
39 Argentina 0.404 175,500
83 Sierra Leone 0.674 43,500
40 Madagascar 0.674 163,400
84 Mauritania* 1.058 43,000
41 Brazil* 0.078 161,100
85 Jordan 0.639 42,900
42 Angola 0.638 159,700
Czech
86 0.404 42,600
43 Cameroon 0.626 146,100 Republic
44 Mozambique 0.520 145,600 87 Cuba 0.332 37,800

30 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Estimated percent Estimated Estimated percent Estimated
of population in number in of population in number in
Rank Country modern slavery modern slavery Rank Country modern slavery modern slavery

United Arab 130 Singapore 0.165 9,200

88 0.404 37,000
Emirates
131 Mongolia 0.295 8,700
89 Eritrea 0.674 35,300
132 Swaziland 0.674 8,700
90 Benin 0.295 32,100
133 Albania 0.295 8,600
91 Qatar 1.356 30,300
134 Spain 0.018 8,400
Republic of the
92 0.638 29,500 135 Latvia 0.404 8,000
Congo

Hong Kong, 136 Uruguay 0.228 7,800

93 0.404 29,500
SAR China 137 Finland 0.123 6,700
94 Bulgaria 0.404 29,000 138 Canada 0.018 6,500
95 Liberia 0.638 28,700 139 Bahrain 0.467 6,400
96 Lebanon 0.626 28,700 Trinidad and
140 0.453 6,200
Serbia Tobago
97 0.404 28,700
98 Chile* 0.154 27,700 141 Jamaica 0.212 5,800

99 Kyrgyzstan 0.467 27,700 142 Kosovo 0.295 5,400

100 Israel 0.140 11,600 143 Estonia 0.404 5,300

101 Paraguay 0.404 26,800 144 Gabon 0.295 5,100

102 Nicaragua 0.404 24,600 145 Guyana 0.620 4,800

103 Honduras 0.295 23,800 146 Slovenia 0.228 4,700

104 Hungary* 0.228 22,500 147 Cyprus 0.404 4,700

105 Georgia 0.467 20,900 148 Djibouti 0.520 4,600

106 Laos 0.295 20,000 149 Australia 0.018 4,300

107 Costa Rica 0.404 19,400 150 Timor-Leste 0.286 3,500

108 Kuwait 0.467 18,200 151 Brunei 0.805 3,400

109 El Salvador 0.295 18,100 152 Montenegro 0.404 2,500

Bosnia and Equatorial

110 0.467 17,800 153 0.295 2,500
Herzegovina Guinea

111 Netherlands* 0.104 17,500 154 Suriname 0.453 2,500

112 Gambia 0.878 17,500 155 Cape Verde 0.453 2,400
113 Croatia 0.404 17,100 156 Mauritius 0.165 2,100
114 Namibia 0.674 16,600 157 Belgium 0.018 2,000
115 Panama 0.404 15,900 158 Sweden 0.018 1,800
116 Turkmenistan 0.295 15,800 159 Austria 0.018 1,500
117 Germany 0.018 14,500 160 Switzerland 0.018 1,500
118 Lesotho 0.674 14,400 161 Denmark 0.018 1,000
119 Armenia 0.467 14,100 162 Norway 0.018 900
120 Macedonia 0.639 13,300 163 Ireland 0.018 800
121 Oman 0.295 13,200 164 New Zealand 0.018 800
122 Portugal 0.123 12,800 165 Barbados 0.212 600
123 Slovakia 0.228 12,400 166 Iceland 0.123 400
124 France 0.018 12,000 167 Luxembourg 0.018 100
125 Lithuania 0.404 11,800
126 Botswana 0.520 11,800 * Indicates nationally-representative Gallup survey data or data from multiple
systems estimation was available for this country.
United
127 0.018 11,700
Kingdom*
128 Guinea-Bissau 0.620 11,400
129 Moldova 0.295 10,400

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 31

 VULNERABILITY

Vulnerability to modern slavery is affected by a complex
interaction of factors related to the presence or absence of
protection and respect for rights, physical safety and security,
access to the necessities of life such as food, water and health
care, and patterns of migration, displacement and conflict.
Statistical testing grouped 24 measures of vulnerability into four
dimensions covering: 1) civil and political protections, 2) social
health and economic rights, 3) personal security, and 4) refugee
populations and conflict. See Appendix 2 for further information
about our methodology, including data sources.

Dimensions and variables in vulnerability model

DIMENSION 1 DIMENSION 2 DIMENSION 3 DIMENSION 4

Civil and political protections Social health and Personal security Refugee populations
economic rights and conflict

Confidence in judicial system Financial inclusion: Financial inclusion: Impact of terrorism

Political instability
Weapons access
borrowed any money availability of emergency
funds
Financial inclusion: Violent crime Internal conflict
received wages
Cell phone subscriptions Women’s physical security Refugees resident

Discrimination: sexuality Social safety net GINI coefficient

Displaced persons Undernourishment Discrimination:

intellectual disability
The Index 2016 Government Tuberculosis Discrimination:
Response immigrants
Political rights measure Water improved access Discrimination:
minorities

32 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Global Findings cont.

United Arab Emirates (UAE), Dubai. Migrant labourers working on extending the Dubai beach, close to the Burj Al
Arab Hotel (right). The employers keep their employees' passports when they arrive and pay their workers around
US$167 a month.
Photo credit, Xavier Cervera

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 33

 TABLE 3 - MEASURES OF VULNERABILITY TO MODERN SLAVERY BY COUNTRY

Civil & political Social, health, & Refugees &

Country protections economic Rights Personal security conflict Mean

Afghanistan 83.00 47.39 53.31 84.55 67.06

Albania 52.88 29.58 42.36 18.25 35.77

Algeria 51.03 28.10 47.02 51.46 44.40

Angola 56.32 49.54 45.95 25.02 44.21

Argentina 35.63 18.50 34.04 25.36 28.38

Armenia 53.66 27.38 42.63 24.90 37.14

Australia 15.14 19.85 17.45 35.49 21.98

Austria 21.47 18.14 14.05 33.14 21.70

Azerbaijan 68.90 28.23 28.17 23.05 37.09

Bahrain 54.41 33.14 41.45 31.26 40.07

Bangladesh 46.78 46.04 33.63 50.02 44.12

Barbados 39.70 15.41 67.00 1.00 30.78

Belarus 58.41 20.48 35.88 23.80 34.64

Belgium 25.42 19.83 24.03 31.28 25.14

Benin 46.95 36.52 39.70 14.90 34.52

Bolivia 49.71 32.08 38.69 16.57 34.26

Bosnia and Herzegovina 58.88 25.21 32.99 26.43 35.88

Botswana 37.25 42.82 46.38 19.21 36.42

Brazil 37.98 20.46 45.88 30.74 33.77

Brunei* 60.78 30.99 99.99 63.93 63.93

Bulgaria 40.41 20.54 33.79 30.50 31.31

Burkina Faso 59.55 40.77 40.73 25.98 41.76

Burundi 64.08 52.22 51.40 37.17 51.22

Cambodia 53.68 42.96 57.40 12.00 41.51

Cameroon 61.31 43.37 47.95 52.51 51.29

Canada 17.59 23.64 15.48 36.11 23.21

Cape Verde* 33.33 20.30 55.40 36.34 36.34

Central African Republic 83.67 48.67 85.43 62.21 70.00

Chad 70.47 49.96 47.98 40.94 52.34

Chile 31.23 19.73 34.26 31.37 29.15

China 55.12 26.90 43.84 52.78 44.66

Colombia 51.72 26.54 46.78 43.49 42.13

Costa Rica 36.35 24.40 33.82 23.97 29.64

Croatia 36.51 25.29 36.88 16.54 28.80

Cuba 53.60 26.60 34.00 13.99 32.05

Cyprus 27.60 23.25 28.95 30.90 27.67

Czech Republic 27.22 19.38 31.55 27.78 26.48

Democratic Republic of the Congo 78.42 56.33 56.72 82.43 68.48

Denmark 15.68 18.53 11.06 23.92 17.30

Djibouti 49.13 43.61 55.25 32.42 45.10

Dominican Republic 47.97 33.84 46.38 24.33 38.13

Ecuador 43.69 29.23 37.74 29.98 35.16

Egypt 51.25 27.90 62.96 54.85 49.24

El Salvador 49.88 29.58 53.68 8.78 35.48

Equatorial Guinea 56.66 40.62 46.38 1.00 36.16

34 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Civil & political Social, health, & Refugees &
Country protections economic Rights Personal security conflict Mean

Eritrea 59.44 51.05 62.88 24.82 49.55

Estonia 35.94 16.87 39.31 11.14 25.81

Ethiopia 59.75 54.68 34.16 59.77 52.09

Finland 22.07 19.69 19.08 22.66 20.87

France 26.13 20.27 18.01 44.77 27.30

Gabon 51.58 31.51 42.38 16.97 35.61

Gambia 59.30 29.27 74.18 22.63 46.35

Georgia 51.00 28.43 35.95 24.42 34.95

Germany 23.61 19.97 20.81 40.76 26.29

Ghana 51.89 38.42 47.45 28.26 41.51

Greece 37.64 22.74 38.10 38.77 34.31

Guatemala 48.75 34.25 57.12 20.33 40.11

Guinea 66.89 41.58 52.68 28.67 47.45

Guinea-Bissau 62.08 40.50 70.25 22.47 48.82

Guyana 39.35 25.57 83.50 5.81 38.56

Haiti 57.68 56.20 58.13 2.60 43.65

Honduras 53.76 34.82 60.12 16.38 41.27

Hong Kong, SAR China 42.28 17.55 21.44 35.65 29.23

Hungary 23.66 20.69 35.56 23.30 25.80

Iceland 24.88 12.22 20.43 15.03 18.14

India 37.07 36.68 43.88 87.78 51.35

Indonesia 39.15 43.35 50.38 36.01 42.22

Iran 70.71 32.99 48.60 51.44 50.94

Iraq 71.22 44.91 58.04 81.13 63.83

Ireland 19.07 22.62 20.21 33.13 23.76

Israel 33.66 23.67 38.28 51.85 36.87

Italy 36.39 21.50 33.62 38.56 32.52

Ivory Coast 62.07 38.72 46.22 33.45 45.11

Jamaica 43.21 30.91 46.13 8.68 32.24

Japan 25.23 19.09 22.16 19.13 21.40

Jordan 48.39 27.97 54.16 37.73 42.06

Kazakhstan 59.05 22.08 28.19 22.12 32.86

Kenya 54.53 52.84 46.75 72.28 56.60

Kosovo 55.11 39.25 42.13 15.94 38.11

Kuwait 59.29 27.97 41.30 15.89 36.11

Kyrgyzstan 54.16 28.33 36.37 21.88 35.18

Laos 56.64 34.01 53.98 1.19 36.45

Latvia 41.95 20.25 33.22 12.95 27.09

Lebanon 55.39 29.32 50.98 58.00 48.42

Lesotho 40.33 52.26 68.23 9.58 42.60

Liberia 57.93 44.62 44.45 29.43 44.11

Libya 77.85 22.99 81.44 53.21 58.87

Lithuania 35.09 20.58 34.10 16.94 26.68

Luxembourg 22.99 18.64 9.76 49.43 25.20

Macedonia 49.81 24.38 44.06 24.11 35.59

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 35

 TABLE 3 - MEASURES OF VULNERABILITY TO MODERN SLAVERY BY COUNTRY

Civil & political Social, health, & Refugees &

Country protections economic Rights Personal security conflict Mean

Madagascar 50.37 50.87 52.86 15.99 42.52

Malawi 54.63 56.74 47.78 21.06 45.05

Malaysia 34.90 32.43 46.39 40.33 38.51

Mali 64.04 34.08 31.69 57.41 46.80

Mauritania 65.96 40.54 49.85 30.74 46.77

Mauritius 29.24 24.49 26.58 1.00 20.33

Mexico 43.03 30.36 52.84 61.85 47.02

Moldova 47.52 28.20 38.04 14.41 32.04

Mongolia 39.22 36.74 40.87 3.54 30.09

Montenegro 41.68 22.15 38.08 23.45 31.34

Morocco 55.83 18.58 56.08 22.18 38.17

Mozambique 39.91 48.46 54.40 35.86 44.65

Myanmar 57.81 50.11 50.53 66.99 56.36

Namibia 39.00 43.68 51.42 18.27 38.09

Nepal 42.30 43.22 34.74 41.21 40.37

Netherlands 17.60 17.86 21.64 28.58 21.42

New Zealand 13.31 22.24 16.09 21.51 18.29

Nicaragua 43.53 31.92 39.79 23.67 34.73

Niger 57.70 48.17 42.13 40.38 47.10

Nigeria 60.94 47.84 59.76 80.84 62.34

North Korea 71.20 48.27 62.88 1.00 45.84

Norway 17.88 19.90 14.85 34.90 21.88

Oman 57.65 21.03 62.88 12.60 38.54

Pakistan 58.40 41.98 52.70 96.79 62.47

Panama 37.46 29.14 46.18 23.55 34.08

Papua New Guinea 50.12 62.85 99.99 23.10 59.02

Paraguay 46.02 21.22 38.92 26.14 33.07

Peru 43.85 31.98 44.81 30.33 37.74

Philippines 44.76 39.62 52.34 53.95 47.67

Poland 34.76 19.50 29.07 23.33 26.66

Portugal 21.50 22.62 16.06 16.89 19.27

Qatar 48.79 15.26 50.50 12.30 31.71

Republic of the Congo 65.17 44.69 52.43 28.94 47.81

Romania 39.26 25.86 31.83 18.74 28.92

Russia 57.21 18.47 40.66 57.47 43.45

Rwanda 55.44 47.65 46.23 42.00 47.83

Saudi Arabia 64.94 30.92 37.20 28.84 40.47

Senegal 44.97 42.31 36.96 35.48 39.93

Serbia 47.80 21.75 30.24 27.05 31.71

Sierra Leone 50.57 53.29 41.72 17.70 40.82

Singapore 29.85 22.11 20.58 1.00 18.39

Slovakia 32.47 20.94 31.60 16.42 25.36

Slovenia 21.82 22.08 28.50 13.72 21.53

Somalia 73.03 64.82 55.97 74.46 67.07

South Africa 40.27 43.06 58.30 41.84 45.87

36 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Civil & political Social, health, & Refugees &
Country protections economic Rights Personal security conflict Mean

South Korea 38.20 34.64 28.98 17.32 29.78

South Sudan 74.73 50.70 60.80 76.15 65.59

Spain 25.14 23.19 18.65 29.67 24.16

Sri Lanka 47.01 35.12 31.82 31.08 36.26

Sudan 80.64 54.12 46.18 85.04 66.49

Suriname* 36.66 12.35 67.00 38.67 38.67

Swaziland 57.69 53.88 67.33 15.39 48.57

Sweden 21.39 19.70 10.84 38.60 22.63

Switzerland 16.93 16.60 13.69 30.98 19.55

Syria 95.67 35.93 60.97 72.98 66.39

Taiwan 34.91 33.38 22.34 1.76 23.10

Tajikistan 62.85 37.62 41.68 27.53 42.42

Tanzania 51.66 54.67 47.66 40.46 48.61

Thailand 49.23 28.62 48.97 63.33 47.54

Timor-Leste 38.88 48.07 68.55 1.00 39.13

Togo 64.78 39.82 47.78 24.09 44.12

Trinidad and Tobago 35.88 14.40 67.00 16.26 33.38

Tunisia 40.01 25.97 42.84 28.91 34.43

Turkey 45.47 29.38 44.11 57.55 44.13

Turkmenistan 68.14 28.65 43.34 9.22 37.34

Uganda 54.89 52.18 39.45 48.73 48.81

Ukraine 61.97 21.39 35.80 43.41 40.64

United Arab Emirates 41.71 22.64 30.75 18.36 28.37

United Kingdom 18.45 20.37 21.83 46.50 26.79

United States 20.42 23.51 20.96 45.10 27.50

Uruguay 26.65 20.69 28.36 13.89 22.40

Uzbekistan 74.62 28.35 32.09 12.14 36.80

Venezuela 58.82 27.75 55.42 35.94 44.48

Vietnam 51.19 29.94 35.22 1.00 29.34

Yemen 75.01 51.30 54.67 62.28 60.81

Zambia 45.10 58.76 50.03 24.46 44.59

Zimbabwe 60.28 52.25 48.92 26.78 47.06

*Note high presence of missing data for these countries. These results should be interpreted with caution. These countries have less than 50 percent of
data available on Dimensions 3 and 4.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 37

 GLOBAL GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
Modern slavery is in every country. Government responses are not.

Government Responses to Modern Slavery

Those in grey were not included in the index or have no data.

High Low
AAA AA A BBB BB B CCC CC C D

38 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 39
 GOVERNMENT RESPONSES
In 2016, 161 countries are included in our assessment of
government responses. Due to the ongoing conflict and extreme
disruption to government function, we have not included ratings
for Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Syria and Yemen.[12] Of
these 161 countries, 124 have criminalised human trafficking in
line with the UN Trafficking Protocol and 96 have developed
National Action Plans (NAPs) to coordinate the government’s
response. A total of 150 governments provide some form of
services for victims; however, this ranges from provision of
general services for all victims of violence to fully-specialised
services for men, women and children who have experienced
modern slavery.
The governments which are
taking the most action to respond
to modern slavery are: the
Netherlands, the United States
of America, the United Kingdom,
Sweden, Australia, Portugal,
Croatia, Spain, Belgium
and Norway.
These countries are characterised by strong political will,
sufficient resources, and a strong civil society that holds
governments to account.
Since the 2014 Index, the UK and USA have strengthened
legislation to respond to modern slavery. The UK Government
has enacted the Modern Slavery Act, which makes provisions
for slavery, servitude, forced or compulsory labour, and human
trafficking as well as providing protection for victims. Since
its enactment, an Independent Anti-Slavery Commissioner has
been established to monitor the UK Government response, and
arrests for holding individuals in ‘slavery or servitude’ have been
made in Leicestershire,[13] Greater Manchester[14] and Cumbria.[15]
This year, the UK has also joined the list of governments that
are implementing measures to hold businesses to account.
Commercial organisations in the UK are now required to
prepare a slavery and human trafficking statement each financial
year. Despite these positive steps, the number of governments
engaging with businesses and investigating public procurement
remains small with only four (the UK, Brazil, the USA, and to
a more limited extent, Australia) taking action.
More recently, in the USA, President Obama closed a loophole
in legislation which had previously made it impossible to enforce
laws against the importation of goods made with forced labour
or by children.[16] Previously, if these goods met ‘consumptive
demand’, they could still be imported. As a result of these
much-needed changes, in April 2016, US border agents seized
shipments they suspected were made with forced labour; the first
time this has occurred since 2001.[17]
It is not just governments at the top of the table that are taking
positive action to respond to modern slavery. As with the 2014
findings, when correlated against GDP(PPP), some countries
stand out as taking relatively strong action when compared with
those that have stronger economies.
40 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
Countries including Croatia, the
Philippines, Montenegro, Brazil,
Macedonia, Georgia, Moldova,
Albania, Jamaica and Serbia are
taking positive steps to respond to
this issue relative to their wealth.
In 2015, the Philippines was lead advocate for the ASEAN
Convention on Trafficking in Persons, a legally binding
instrument. The Philippines is expected to ratify this Convention
after elections in 2016.
Legislation has also been enacted and strengthened in Mauritania,
where amendments in 2015 to anti-slavery legislation have created
special tribunals in each region to address issues related to slavery,
clarified the role of judges, and allowed third party human rights
organisations to bring cases on behalf of victims. Anti-trafficking
legislation was also enacted in Singapore, which strengthened
provisions to be more in line with international standards.[18]
The implementation of existing legislation has been strengthened
in countries around the world. In Tanzania, for example, training
for police in relation to human trafficking was incorporated into
the police academy training curriculum, while in Haiti training was
held for labour inspectors to identify cases of child exploitation.
Protection for victims has also improved in some countries. In
Jordan, the government currently provides specialised services
for trafficking victims through a shelter for gender-based
violence victims and has completed construction of a dedicated
shelter for modern slavery victims. The Ministry for Women
and Vulnerable Populations in Peru also established a shelter for
child trafficking victims. In Armenia, the Law on Identification
and Assistance to Victims of Human Trafficking and Exploitation
was approved and came into force in June 2015. This established
standard procedures for the identification, support, protection
and reintegration of suspected and identified trafficking victims.
Despite these positive steps, very few countries take active steps
to learn from the experiences of survivors, either in relation to
their experience of receiving victim support or as participants in
the criminal justice system. The United States offers an exception
to this rule and provides a model for survivor leadership.
President Obama has formed an Advisory Council on Human
Trafficking made up entirely of survivors. There is also a national
network of over 200 survivors who meet regularly to work on
strategic advocacy at the local and national levels.
Those governments taking the least action to combat modern
slavery are: North Korea, Iran, Eritrea, Equatorial Guinea, Hong
Kong, Central African Republic, Papua New Guinea, Guinea, the
Democratic Republic of the Congo and South Sudan.
Some of these countries are characterised by government
complicity, as is the case in North Korea; low levels of political
will in countries like Iran; fewer resources, as with Papua New
Guinea; or high levels of conflict, as is the case in South Sudan
and Central African Republic. Hong Kong is one country in a
group of wealthier countries that has taken relatively limited
action due to low level of recognition that modern slavery occurs.

Despite countries taking fewer
actions due to limited resources
or high levels of conflict, there are
wealthier, more stable countries
which have taken little action to
address modern slavery. When
correlated against GDP(PPP),
Qatar, Singapore, Kuwait, Brunei,
Hong Kong, Saudi Arabia,
Bahrain, Oman, Japan and South
Korea stand out. Nonetheless,
Singapore’s early ratification of the
ASEAN Convention on Trafficking
in Persons is a positive sign.
Correlation between GDP(PPP) and government response score
Global Findings cont.
This year, we have also included a measure of state-sanctioned
forced labour in the ratings of government responses. State-
sanctioned forced labour is where the government forces
the population, or segments of it, to work under the threat of
penalty, and for which the person or population has not offered
himself voluntarily. Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan,
for example, continue to force their populations to work in the
annual cotton harvest. In Belarus, the government continues the
practice of Subbotniks, which requires government employees to
work weekends and donate their earnings to finance government
projects. State employers and authorities have intimidated and
fined those who refuse to participate. In China, while the re-
education through labour (RTL) programme was closed in April
2014, there is evidence that this has not been fully implemented,
at the municipal and provincial levels. Recent media reports
indicate that in some locations ‘custody and education’ centres
have replaced the programme where those arrested without due
process are forced to work against their will. In Eritrea, conscripts
are forced to work in civil service jobs for conscript pay or are
forced to labour in the government-run construction industry.
‘Maetot’ is a national service programme in which secondary
school children are assigned to work in public works projects,
including in the agricultural sector during the summer holidays.
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 41
 Rajshahi, Bangladesh, January 2013. Dipa is 13 years old and has been engaged in prostitution for five months. Global
SheFindings
used to cont.
go to school, but stopped in class three after her family could no longer afford to send her. Her two sisters are also engaged in
prostitution, but clients prefer to visit Dipa as she is the youngest of the three. She gets between four or five clients and earns
about 1,200 Taka (US$15) a day.
Photo credit, Pep Bonet/ NOOR

42 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

RATING DESCRIPTION

Rating Numerical Range Description

AAA 90 to 100 The government has implemented an effective and comprehensive response to all forms of modern
slavery, with effective emergency and long-term reintegration victim support services, a strong
criminal justice framework, high levels of coordination and collaboration, measures to address
all forms of vulnerability, and strong government procurement policies and legislation to ensure
that slavery is not present in business supply chains. There is no evidence of criminalisation or
deportation of victims.

AA 80 to 89.9 The government has implemented a comprehensive response to most forms of modern slavery, with
strong victim support services, a robust criminal justice framework, demonstrated coordination and
collaboration, measures to address vulnerability, and government procurement guidelines and/or
supply chain policies or legislation to ensure that slavery is not present in business supply chains.

A 70 to 79.9 The government has implemented key components of a holistic response to some forms of modern
slavery, with strong victim support services, a strong criminal justice framework, demonstrated
coordination and collaboration, measures to address vulnerability, and may have taken action to
ensure that government procurement policies do not encourage slavery.

BBB 60 to 69.9 The government has implemented key components of a holistic response to modern slavery,
with victim support services, a strong criminal justice response, evidence of coordination and
collaboration, and protections in place for vulnerable populations. Governments may be beginning
to address slavery in supply chains of government procurement, or of businesses operating within
their territory. There may be evidence that some government policies and practices may criminalise
and/or cause victims to be deported.

BB 50 to 59.9 The government has introduced a response to modern slavery, which includes short-term victim
support services, a criminal justice framework that criminalises some forms of modern slavery, a
body to coordinate the response, and protection for those vulnerable to modern slavery. There may
be evidence that some government policies and practices may criminalise and/or cause victims to
be deported and/or facilitate slavery.

B 40 to 49.9 The government has introduced a response to modern slavery, with limited victim support services,
a criminal justice framework that criminalises some forms of modern slavery (or has recently
amended inadequate legislation and policies), a body or mechanisms that coordinate the response,
and has policies that provide some protection for those vulnerable to modern slavery. There is
evidence that some government policies and practices may criminalise and/or deport victims and/
or facilitate slavery. Services may be provided by International Organisations (IOs)/NGOs with
international funding, sometimes with government monetary or in-kind support.

CCC 30 to 39.9 The government has a limited response to modern slavery, with limited victim support services,
a criminal justice framework that criminalises some forms of modern slavery, and has policies
that provide some protection for those vulnerable to modern slavery. There may be evidence of a
national action plan and/or national coordination body. There may be evidence that some government
policies and practices may criminalise and/or deport victims and/or facilitate slavery. Services may
be largely provided by IOs/NGOs with international funding, with limited government funding
or in-kind support.

CC 20 to 29.9 The government has a limited response to modern slavery, with largely basic victim support services,
a limited criminal justice framework, limited coordination or collaboration mechanism, and few
protections for those vulnerable to modern slavery. There may be evidence that some government
policies and practices facilitate slavery. Services are largely provided by IOs/NGOs with limited
government funding or in-kind support.

C 10 to 19.9 The government response to modern slavery is inadequate, with limited and/or few victim support
services, a weak criminal justice framework, weak coordination or collaboration, while little is
being done to address vulnerability. There are government practices and policies that facilitate
slavery. Services, where available, are largely provided by IOs/NGOs with little government
funding or in-kind support.

D <0 to 9.9 The government has a wholly inadequate response to modern slavery, and/or there is evidence of
government-sanctioned modern slavery. However, countries in this category may be experiencing
high levels of poverty and internal conflict that may prevent or hinder a response to modern slavery.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 43

 TABLE 4 - RANK OF COUNTRIES BY GOVERNMENT RESPONSE

Survivors Criminal Coordination & Addressing Government &

Credit rating Country supported justice accountability risk business Total score

A Netherlands 74.63 79.07 87.50 99.99 0.00 78.43

BBB* United States 96.30 79.63 68.75 78.57 75.00 82.84

BBB United Kingdom 74.63 79.07 43.75 69.05 37.50 67.12

BBB Sweden 72.22 62.96 75.00 73.81 0.00 65.87

BBB Australia 64.44 81.85 56.25 69.05 25.00 65.34

BBB Portugal 58.52 73.52 68.75 83.33 0.00 65.22

BBB Croatia 69.63 70.19 56.25 76.19 0.00 64.50

BBB Spain 77.04 64.07 50.00 73.81 0.00 64.09

BBB Belgium 71.30 50.74 75.00 71.43 0.00 62.36

BBB Norway 65.93 82.41 37.50 69.05 0.00 61.47

BBB Austria 57.96 59.07 68.75 76.19 0.00 60.16

BB Argentina 49.26 59.81 87.50 78.57 0.00 59.79

BB Germany 61.67 64.81 43.75 78.57 0.00 59.60

BB Denmark 59.81 68.52 50.00 69.05 0.00 58.31

BB Montenegro 69.63 60.56 56.25 59.52 0.00 58.27

BB Canada 57.41 68.52 62.50 64.29 0.00 58.13

BB Georgia 67.59 58.70 56.25 59.52 0.00 57.22

BB Hungary 59.81 41.85 68.75 76.19 0.00 57.06

BB Brazil 45.56 34.44 87.50 78.57 37.50 56.85

BB France 52.59 76.85 43.75 69.05 0.00 55.88

BB New Zealand 53.70 47.96 43.75 88.10 0.00 55.81

BB Ireland 69.63 71.30 18.75 61.90 0.00 55.81

BB Switzerland 60.19 64.81 25.00 73.81 0.00 55.26

BB Macedonia 70.37 60.19 62.50 42.86 0.00 55.16

BB Finland 52.78 62.04 56.25 66.67 0.00 54.96

BB Slovenia 52.04 51.30 56.25 76.19 0.00 54.80

BB Serbia 61.67 76.67 31.25 54.76 0.00 54.40

BB Albania 73.70 46.30 43.75 61.90 0.00 54.34

BB Philippines 46.48 62.78 50.00 78.57 0.00 54.18

BB Poland 46.11 47.96 68.75 76.19 0.00 53.96

BB Latvia 58.89 50.19 43.75 71.43 0.00 53.79

BB Czech Republic 54.81 50.74 56.25 66.67 0.00 53.19

BB Jamaica 47.78 61.85 81.25 54.76 0.00 52.91

BB Mexico 45.00 63.15 50.00 73.81 0.00 52.59

BB Dominican Republic 49.26 59.07 62.50 64.29 0.00 52.49

BB Moldova 55.56 57.59 50.00 64.29 0.00 52.41

BB Lithuania 59.26 54.81 25.00 73.81 0.00 51.82

BB Costa Rica 56.48 45.56 37.50 71.43 0.00 51.13

BB Cyprus 54.26 74.44 18.75 61.90 0.00 50.55

B United Arab Emirates 63.89 36.67 56.25 57.14 0.00 49.71

B Nicaragua 44.07 66.11 56.25 52.38 0.00 49.46

B Italy 42.59 65.93 37.50 69.05 0.00 49.44

B Bangladesh 39.44 60.37 68.75 59.52 0.00 49.32

B Chile 44.63 52.59 50.00 69.05 0.00 49.02

B Israel 49.81 47.96 50.00 61.90 0.00 48.91

Bosnia and
B 57.41 43.70 31.25 69.05 0.00 48.54
Herzegovina

44 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Survivors Criminal Coordination & Addressing Government &
Credit rating Country supported justice accountability risk business Total score

B Uruguay 40.56 43.70 43.75 78.57 0.00 48.29

B Colombia 44.07 41.85 43.75 73.81 0.00 47.84

B Kosovo 48.15 59.92 43.75 47.62 0.00 47.72

B Slovakia 57.96 42.41 31.25 61.90 0.00 47.66

B Nigeria 50.74 59.63 50.00 45.24 0.00 47.54

B Uganda 50.93 50.19 37.50 59.52 0.00 47.36

B Guatemala 37.59 51.48 56.25 64.29 0.00 47.22

B Nepal 42.78 38.15 75.00 61.90 0.00 47.12

B Turkey 57.41 47.41 37.50 52.38 0.00 47.06

B Paraguay 35.93 55.56 37.50 76.19 0.00 46.86

B Ukraine 62.04 47.78 12.50 61.90 0.00 46.44

B Armenia 48.33 49.81 56.25 50.00 0.00 45.75

B Ecuador 37.22 62.22 25.00 71.43 0.00 45.73

B Vietnam 45.19 34.07 62.50 66.67 0.00 45.42

B Bulgaria 43.15 38.52 43.75 71.43 0.00 45.23

B Peru 47.78 28.33 62.50 61.90 0.00 44.83

B South Africa 38.89 55.74 31.25 64.29 0.00 43.98

B Sierra Leone 44.44 45.56 43.75 54.76 0.00 42.99

B Iceland 45.37 52.22 37.50 45.24 0.00 42.44

B Jordan 45.00 42.22 56.25 42.86 0.00 42.26

B Sri Lanka 25.93 38.52 37.50 83.33 0.00 41.78

B Thailand 35.19 35.93 56.25 61.90 0.00 41.52

B Mozambique 53.89 50.56 12.50 47.62 0.00 40.85

B Indonesia 37.59 40.56 50.00 54.76 0.00 40.61

B Benin 38.70 20.56 56.25 66.67 0.00 40.55

B Romania 37.59 36.85 56.25 50.00 0.00 40.52

B India 44.07 45.00 43.75 45.24 0.00 40.37

B Senegal 49.63 32.59 25.00 54.76 0.00 40.20

CCC Trinidad and Tobago 31.11 44.63 31.25 66.67 0.00 39.69

CCC Taiwan 50.56 23.62 43.75 42.86 0.00 39.51

CCC Estonia 30.19 23.33 31.25 80.95 0.00 39.40

CCC Pakistan 28.52 37.04 25.00 76.19 0.00 38.72

CCC Egypt 35.74 32.04 50.00 52.38 0.00 38.59

CCC Panama 11.85 73.15 37.50 57.14 0.00 38.13

CCC Azerbaijan 28.33 60.37 18.75 57.14 0.00 38.01

CCC Burkina Faso 47.41 30.56 37.50 42.86 0.00 37.86

CCC Qatar 52.41 44.26 25.00 35.71 0.00 37.83

CCC Greece 53.89 36.85 18.75 38.10 0.00 37.42

CCC El Salvador 32.96 28.89 50.00 57.14 0.00 37.21

CCC Rwanda 30.93 45.19 31.25 54.76 0.00 36.78

CCC Lesotho 31.48 25.74 50.00 59.52 0.00 36.66

CCC Tajikistan 41.99 34.44 25.00 54.76 0.00 36.14

CCC Cambodia 25.19 33.33 37.50 64.29 0.00 35.67

CCC Malaysia 36.48 51.48 31.25 35.71 0.00 35.15

CCC Ethiopia 21.30 33.33 62.50 52.38 0.00 35.01

CCC Bolivia 17.59 36.67 50.00 57.14 0.00 34.94

CCC Guyana 25.74 50.74 25.00 52.38 0.00 34.81

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 45

 TABLE 4 - RANK OF COUNTRIES BY GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
Survivors Criminal Coordination & Addressing Government &
Credit rating Country supported justice accountability risk business Total score

CCC Barbados 39.44 29.26 50.00 38.10 0.00 34.62

CCC Tunisia 36.11 22.22 18.75 61.90 0.00 34.52

CCC Djibouti 25.00 28.89 37.50 59.52 0.00 34.46

CCC Belarus 35.37 26.11 43.75 52.38 0.00 34.31

CCC Cameroon 30.37 33.89 37.50 47.62 0.00 34.29

CCC Lebanon 37.59 32.04 37.50 42.86 0.00 34.02

CCC Honduras 24.63 31.67 37.50 59.52 0.00 33.94

CCC Luxembourg 33.15 31.67 68.75 26.19 0.00 33.81

CCC Myanmar 41.11 8.89 50.00 50.00 0.00 33.76

CCC Ivory Coast 37.96 30.19 50.00 30.95 0.00 33.55

CCC Kyrgyzstan 27.96 35.74 37.50 50.00 0.00 33.50

CCC Zambia 33.89 29.81 43.75 38.10 0.00 33.06

CCC Kazakhstan 38.33 44.07 18.75 35.71 0.00 32.37

CCC China 35.56 23.70 31.25 52.38 0.00 32.07

CCC Haiti 33.52 37.22 50.00 28.57 0.00 32.04

CCC Gambia 22.59 35.19 37.50 45.24 0.00 31.47

CCC Namibia 28.15 22.04 31.25 52.38 0.00 31.33

CCC Bahrain 36.67 36.67 25.00 35.71 0.00 31.14

CCC Mongolia 27.78 31.67 31.25 47.62 0.00 31.08

CCC Mauritius 34.44 27.41 18.75 45.24 0.00 30.93

CCC Laos 28.70 26.48 31.25 50.00 0.00 30.87

CCC Japan 42.59 19.44 18.75 45.24 0.00 30.85

CCC Liberia 27.22 27.41 31.25 50.00 0.00 30.59

CCC Oman 36.11 29.26 12.50 47.62 0.00 30.57

CCC Swaziland 36.30 22.04 37.50 42.86 0.00 30.46

CC Gabon 30.00 24.26 25.00 45.24 0.00 29.72

CC Tanzania 27.04 26.48 25.00 47.62 0.00 28.84

CC Chad 26.85 12.04 31.25 52.38 0.00 28.77

CC Venezuela 25.00 40.93 12.50 40.48 0.00 28.71

CC Saudi Arabia 28.70 34.44 25.00 38.10 0.00 28.70

CC South Korea 35.93 31.85 12.50 33.33 0.00 28.49

CC Ghana 22.04 30.19 25.00 45.24 0.00 28.43

CC Russia 21.48 28.33 12.50 61.90 0.00 28.24

CC Algeria 28.52 24.07 25.00 42.86 0.00 27.61

CC Madagascar 31.30 14.44 31.25 42.86 0.00 27.33

CC Singapore 36.11 22.41 0.00 42.86 0.00 27.12

CC Uzbekistan 24.26 23.70 18.75 52.38 0.00 26.65

CC Botswana 24.81 14.81 37.50 42.86 0.00 26.22

CC Turkmenistan 14.81 35.74 12.50 54.76 0.00 25.90

CC Mauritania 25.00 32.41 12.50 40.48 0.00 25.88

CC Kuwait 14.81 33.33 25.00 45.24 0.00 25.79

CC Suriname 20.56 19.44 31.25 40.48 0.00 25.36

CC Malawi 32.22 21.11 12.50 38.10 0.00 25.19

CC Burundi 29.63 14.81 18.75 38.10 0.00 23.90

CC Kenya 21.85 27.41 6.25 42.86 0.00 23.50

CC Morocco 6.48 24.63 18.75 52.38 0.00 23.13

CC Timor-Leste 25.93 25.93 0.00 40.48 0.00 23.01

46 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Survivors Criminal Coordination & Addressing Government &
Credit rating Country supported justice accountability risk business Total score

CC Niger 12.41 29.26 25.00 40.48 0.00 22.95

CC Republic of the Congo 22.22 8.89 37.50 35.71 0.00 22.33

CC Cuba 25.00 17.78 12.50 38.10 0.00 22.15

CC Mali 15.19 12.04 43.75 33.33 0.00 22.04

CC Sudan 24.07 27.41 6.25 33.33 0.00 21.84

CC Angola 20.37 20.37 31.25 28.57 0.00 21.52

CC Zimbabwe 15.37 20.56 12.50 42.86 0.00 20.85

CC Guinea-Bissau 14.81 32.04 25.00 21.43 0.00 20.56

C Brunei 7.41 35.74 12.50 30.95 0.00 19.56

C Cape Verde 15.19 15.37 25.00 30.95 0.00 19.48

C Togo 26.48 4.63 31.25 19.05 0.00 18.73

C South Sudan 20.37 1.48 18.75 28.57 0.00 15.69

Democratic Republic
C 7.78 11.67 31.25 26.19 0.00 15.01
of the Congo

C Guinea 2.78 12.96 31.25 28.57 0.00 14.28

C Papua New Guinea 6.48 23.70 25.00 14.29 0.00 13.31

Central African
C 14.81 17.22 12.50 7.14 0.00 11.02
Republic

C Hong Kong, SAR China 5.93 5.19 0.00 30.95 0.00 10.75

D Equatorial Guinea 0.00 18.52 0.00 23.81 0.00 8.92

D Eritrea 0.00 2.96 0.00 26.19 0.00 5.18

D Iran 0.00 7.41 0.00 16.67 0.00 4.75

D North Korea 0.00 –13.89 0.00 –7.14 0.00 –5.76

No Rank Afghanistan
No Rank Iraq
No Rank Libya
No Rank Somalia
No Rank Syria
No Rank Yemen

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 47

REGIONAL
ANALYSIS
Mohini, a trafficked bride in Haryana
shows burn marks inflicted on her by
her husband. "All of my family members
died in 2001 earthquake in Bhuj in
Gujrat. Later a man brought her to
Hisar at the age of 13 and sold her to a
truck driver for Rs 10,000 (~US$150).
Photo by Subrata Biswas/ Hindustan Times
 ASIA PACIFIC

NEPAL BANGLADESH NORTH KOREA SOUTH KOREA JAPAN

AFGHANISTAN PAKISTAN MONGOLIA

HONG KONG,
SAR CHINA

CHINA
TAIWAN

LAO PDR

INDIA VIETNAM

CAMBODIA

MYANMAR PHILIPPINES

THAILAND BRUNEI

SRI LANKA MALAYSIA SINGAPORE

INDONESIA
PAPUA
NEW GUINEA
TIMOR-LESTE
AUSTRALIA

NEW ZEALAND

Estimated Number Enslaved Regional Proportion of Global Number

30,435,300 66.4%
Average Government Response Rating Average Vulnerability Score

34.8/100 40.2/100
50 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
 Asia Pacific cont.

PREVALENCE
Estimated percent of Estimated number
Rank Country population in modern slavery in modern slavery Population

1 North Korea 4.373 1,100,000 25,155,000

2 Cambodia 1.648 256,800 15,578,000

3 India 1.403 18,354,700 1,311,051,000

4 Pakistan 1.130 2,134,900 188,925,000

4 Afghanistan 1.130 367,600 32,527,000

5 Myanmar 0.956 515,100 53,897,000

6 Bangladesh 0.951 1,531,300 160,996,000

7 Nepal 0.823 234,600 28,514,000

8 Brunei 0.805 3,400 423,000

9 Thailand 0.626 425,500 67,959,000

10 Papua New Guinea 0.620 47,200 7,619,000

11 Malaysia 0.425 128,800 30,331,000

12 South Korea 0.404 204,900 50,672,000

12 Hong Kong, SAR China 0.404 29,500 7,287,000

13 Philippines 0.398 401,000 100,699,000

14 Laos 0.295 20,000 6,802,000

14 Mongolia 0.295 8,700 2,959,000

15 Indonesia 0.286 736,100 257,564,000

15 Timor-Leste 0.286 3,500 1,235,000

16 China 0.247 3,388,400 1,371,738,000

17 Japan 0.228 290,200 127,046,000

17 Taiwan 0.228 53,600 23,476,640

18 Sri Lanka 0.221 45,900 20,781,000

19 Singapore 0.165 9,200 5,563,000

20 Vietnam 0.152 139,300 91,519,000

21 Australia 0.018 4,300 23,772,000

21 New Zealand 0.018 800 4,552,000

The Asia-Pacific is the most populous region of the world. It were also noted in countries with low levels of prevalence, such
spans Afghanistan in the west, to New Zealand in the south-east, as Australia.[8]
to Mongolia in the north. Two thirds of the estimated 45.8 million
people in modern slavery were identified in the Asia-Pacific. All
forms of modern slavery were identified including forced labour The high prevalence of modern
in brick kilns, agriculture and the garment sector,[1] child soldiers
in Afghanistan,[2] India[3] and Thailand,[4] forced begging, and
slavery in the region reflects the
commercial sexual exploitation. Men and women experienced reality that many countries in Asia
forced labour in manufacturing, agriculture, food production and provide low-skilled labour for the
construction. Women were also vulnerable to sexual exploitation,
forced marriage and domestic servitude. production stage of global supply
Large numbers of women and girls continued to migrate chains for various industries
internally and internationally for jobs as domestic workers. including food production,
While this offers an important economic opportunity, reports of
abuse, exploitation and servitude persist, particularly in wealthy
garments and technology.
countries within the region where there was high demand for
Within low-skilled and loosely-regulated industries, there is a
live-in help—Hong Kong, Japan, Malaysia, Singapore and
risk of modern slavery, such as human trafficking, forced labour
Taiwan. Inhumane treatment of domestic workers including
and debt bondage. In 2015–2016, there were cases of forced
starvation[5] and sexual abuse[6] was reported in 2015, as well as
labour within the Malaysian electronics industry,[9] exploitation
indicators of forced labour including extortionate recruitment
on Malaysian palm oil plantations,[10] and debt bondage in
fees, confinement to the place of employment, excessive unpaid
the apparel industries of Bangladesh[11] and Vietnam.[12] The
overtime, withholding of wages and confiscation of identity
reputational risk of slavery in supply chains compelled action
documents.[7] In 2016, cases of domestic worker exploitation

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 51

 from global brands, including companies renowned for social
responsibility. In 2015, whilst undertaking worker assessments,
Patagonia identified workers in their Taiwanese supplier factories
would take up to two years of a three-year employment contract
to pay off recruitment-related debt.[13] Patagonia have taken
strong steps to combat the issue by prohibiting suppliers and
their brokers to charge or collect any recruitment related-fees
or expenses, and if the workers have paid fees, suppliers must
reimburse them.[14]
The abuse of workers on Thai fishing vessels operating in South
East Asian waters has become increasingly well documented.[15]
Researchers and investigative journalists have documented the
abuse of migrant workers on fishing vessels, often young men
and boys, who have endured brutal treatment including physical
abuse, excessive and inhumane working hours, sleep and food
deprivation, and forced use of methamphetamines.[16] Some long-
haul trawlers and their fishermen remained at sea for years at a
time. Between April and September 2015, more than 2,000 men
were rescued from Thai fishing vessels, many of which were
operating in Indonesian waters.[17] Ongoing reports of worker
exploitation in seafood pre-processing facilities were also evident,
with workers from Myanmar, Cambodia and Laos working
excessive hours in oppressive and abusive conditions.[18] Much
of the seafood processed was distributed to the global market.
Forced and child marriage persists in countries throughout the
region, particularly in India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan and
Indonesia.[19] The UN estimates more than 130 million girls in
South Asia will be married between 2010 and 2030.[20] In China,
the legacy of the former one-child policy has led to a shortage
of women of marriageable age.[21] To meet this demand, some
Cambodian,[22] Vietnamese[23] and North Korean[24] women and
girls are trafficked to China to be sold as brides. A similar sex
imbalance, resulting in an absence of available brides in India,
has fuelled the trafficking of women for forced marriage. The
sex imbalance is exacerbated in rural communities in India
where many girls of marriageable age have migrated to cities
for employment. In some instances, girls are forced into marriage
and then used as unpaid labourers—local day labourers cost
US$140 for a season but a bride can cost only US$100 as a
once-off payment.[25]
Criminal justice and victim support statistics, including the
International Organisation for Migration (IOM) statistics noted
below, confirm that forced prostitution and the commercial sexual
exploitation of women and girls continues to be a reality in the
Asian region. Rising internet usage rates, the availability of
mobile phones, and poverty in many parts of Asia has facilitated
online forms of child sexual abuse for profit.[26] The phenomenon
of adults paying for direct live-streaming video footage of
children performing sexual acts in front of a webcam was evident
in the Philippines.[27]
In North Korea the issue is not
private exploitation but rather
exploitation by the government.
North Korea is among the most repressive in the world, with the
UN Human Rights Council documenting "widespread and gross
human rights violations".[28] Economic and social rights in North
Korea are frequently violated by the government who criminalise
market activities, limiting already meagre opportunities by
which North Koreans can obtain income.[29] An estimated 50,000
North Korean citizens have been sent abroad to work in mining,
logging, and the textile and construction industries.[30] Though
many North Koreans were employed in neighbouring China and
Russia, there was also evidence of workers in Angola, Cambodia,
Ethiopia, Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar and Qatar. [31] While
reports suggest that this workforce generates roughly US$2.3
billion per year for the North Korean Government,[32] civil society
groups say workers earn only US$120–$150 per month, and may
be forced to work up to 20 hours per day with limited rest days.[33]

Indonesian Government acts against forced labour in fishing

In 2015, Indonesian authorities, with
the assistance of the International
Organisation for Migration (IOM), rescued
over 2,000 trafficked foreign fisherman
from isolated areas of the country.[34]
Rescue efforts began when the Associated
Press revealed the inhumane conditions
facing fisheries workers in Benjina, a
remote outpost in Maluku province.
Following an initial government inspection,
the site was raided and over 370 fishermen
were transported to safety in Tual, [35] where
the IOM conducted victim identifications
and provided essential services including
food, shelter, medical and psycho-social
assistance.[36] This number grew to over
656 fishermen,[37] including children and for four business groups, 18 companies
the elderly. Further raids resulted in the and 388 vessels by the Indonesian
rescue of 472 new victims [38] from the port Government.[41] The company which
of Ambon, from 77 of the estimated 230 operated the facilities on Benjina
vessels in the Ambon harbour.[39] collapsed following these events, [42]
and eight people, five foreign nationals
The aftermath of these events had highly
and three Indonesians were jailed for
positive impacts. All victims were either
terms of up to three years.[43]
successfully repatriated or were in the
process of being repatriated with the
assistance of the IOM, their embassies
and/or fishing companies.[40] IOM also
identified and assisted foreign victims
of trafficking detained in immigration
detention centres and other locations
around the country. Investigations
resulted in the revocation of licenses

52 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Asia Pacific cont.

IOM VICTIM SUPPORTED DATA 2015

The International Organisation for Migration (IOM) is the
largest provider of services to victims of human trafficking
across the globe. In 2015, an estimated 7,000 victims
of trafficking were assisted by the Organisation in 117
countries of destination. The Organisation also collected
in-depth information for 4,858 newly-identified victims of
trafficking from 65 countries of nationality, in 59 countries
of destination/identification. This detailed data is recorded
in IOM’s web-based case management system (MiMOSA).
This is the source of information presented below.
The graphics below present data from victims of trafficking
registered in IOM’s case management system in 2015
in Asia-Pacific.
*The numbers in 'sector of exploitation' and 'types of exploitation' are
based on a breakdown of total cases for which data exists. Information
about type and sector of exploitation is not collected in every case.

Victims Supported by IOM in Asia-Pacific in 2015 Age of Victims at Time of Assistance

Average age of victims

30.7yrs
Approximately 50% of all victims were
ages between 25 and 35

Sex Breakdown
17.1% Female [281]

Number of victims Percent of IOM Global Total

1,644 33.8% 82.9% Male [1,363]

Sector of Exploitation* (These categories are not mutually exclusive)

53 Fishing
23 Small Street Commerce
13 Prostitution
8 Domestic Work
7 Other
4 Factory Work
4 Hospitality
2 Agriculture

Types of Exploitation* (number) Mode of Entry into Trafficking* (number)

4 Other 3 Kidnapping
33 Sexual Exploitation 5 Low Level Criminal Activities
32 Not Known 2 Friend Visit

# #
2 Sold by
Non-Family

1,582 Labour Exploitation 1,590 Offer of Employment or Labour

Migration Opportunities

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 53

 VULNERABILITY
Civil & political Social, health, & Refugees &
Country protections economic rights Personal security conflict Mean

Afghanistan 83.00 47.39 53.31 84.55 67.06

Australia 15.14 19.85 17.45 35.49 21.98

Bangladesh 46.78 46.04 33.63 50.02 44.12

Brunei 60.78 30.99 99.99 63.93 63.93

Cambodia 53.68 42.96 57.40 12.00 41.51

China 55.12 26.90 43.84 52.78 44.66

Hong Kong, SAR China 42.28 17.55 21.44 35.65 29.23

India 37.07 36.68 43.88 87.78 51.35

Indonesia 39.15 43.35 50.38 36.01 42.22

Japan 25.23 19.09 22.16 19.13 21.40

Laos 56.64 34.01 53.98 1.19 36.45

Malaysia 34.90 32.43 46.39 40.33 38.51

Mongolia 39.22 36.74 40.87 3.54 30.09

Myanmar 57.81 50.11 50.53 66.99 56.36

Nepal 42.30 43.22 34.74 41.21 40.37

New Zealand 13.31 22.24 16.09 21.51 18.29

North Korea 71.20 48.27 62.88 1.00 45.84

Pakistan 58.40 41.98 52.70 96.79 62.47

Papua New Guinea 50.12 62.85 99.99 23.10 59.02

Philippines 44.76 39.62 52.34 53.95 47.67

Singapore 29.85 22.11 20.58 1.00 18.39

South Korea 38.20 34.64 28.98 17.32 29.78

Sri Lanka 47.01 35.12 31.82 31.08 36.26

Taiwan 34.91 33.38 22.34 1.76 23.10

Thailand 49.23 28.62 48.97 63.33 47.54

Timor-Leste 38.88 48.07 68.55 1.00 39.13

Vietnam 51.19 29.94 35.22 1.00 29.34

All countries within the Asia-Pacific exhibit some pre-conditions
to modern slavery. Some countries, such as Afghanistan and
Pakistan have high levels of conflict, terrorism and displacement.
In other countries, such as Thailand and Myanmar, there is
significant discrimination against minorities. Some countries
in the region continue to exhibit weak rule of law, corruption
and poverty, all of which increase individuals risk to modern
slavery. Though countries like Australia and New Zealand exhibit
high levels of development, stability and strong policies, some
minority groups, including regular and irregular migrants, remain
at risk of exploitation.
As a result of economic growth,
poverty rates across the region
have fallen, notably in India
and China.[44]
Nonetheless, extreme poverty and unequal income distribution
within countries, particularly between the rural and urban
populations, persist as serious social and economic challenges.[45]
Unemployment and underemployment are chronic problems in the
region which push men, women and children into risky migration
practices and debt bondage. In 2015, the unemployment rate in
Afghanistan soared to 40 percent.[46] Myanmar also experienced
a high youth unemployment rate of 9.5 percent,[47] which
assisted the Tatmadaw (Myanmar Armed Forces) to recruit and
use underage children in conflict. According to Child Soldiers
International, unaccompanied children searching for work were
recruited at railway stations, bus terminals, markets and outside
temples, and deceptively offered roles as drivers.[48]
High levels of labour migration, some of which is regular but
can involve payment of illegal fees or other irregular aspects,
are reflected in patterns of exploitation. The Philippines has
one of the largest migratory populations with their national
economy largely depending on Overseas Filipino Worker's
(OFW) remittances.[49] The OFWs have been deemed the 'new
heroes' of the Philippines' economy.[50] However, some OFWs are
subjected to exploitation throughout the Asia-Pacific, Europe,
North America and the Middle East.[51] In November 2015, ten
Filipina trafficking victims in Iraqi Kurdistan were rescued and
repatriated by the Philippine Embassy after being subjected to
debt bondage.[52]

54 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Asia Pacific cont.

Natural disasters and the effects
of climate change have increased
vulnerability to modern slavery.
Human traffickers preyed upon
post-disaster populations[53]
who are vulnerable to accepting
promises of jobs and security.
This was evidenced following Typhoon Haiyan where human
traffickers were intercepted trafficking young women on false
job offers,[54] and seen again in 2015, after earthquakes in Nepal
displaced more than two million people.[55] Since then, Indian
officials uncovered trafficking networks with an estimated
12,000 Nepalese children trafficked to India.[56] Evolving
climatic conditions also exacerbate vulnerability,[57] increasing
the potential for internal displacement, migration and willingness
to search for improved livelihood opportunities through informal
channels.[58] Throughout 2015–16, cyclones in Myanmar,[59]
flooding in India, and drought in Vietnam[60] have increased
insecurity for thousands of people.
Systematic discrimination against some ethnic minorities and
stateless populations across the region has resulted in patterns
of high-risk migration. The Rohingya people, a Muslim ethnic
group living in Myanmar, continue to face systemic persecution
and denial of rights. In April 2015, the Myanmar Government
stripped Rohingya of their voting rights by rescinding their
temporary ID cards, the last official identification available to
them.[61] Many lost their homes, farms, and the ability to work,
creating a dire choice between residing in shanty towns on the
outskirts of Rakhine or paying smugglers to transport them
abroad. In 2015, thousands were left stranded at sea.[62]

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
Credit Survivors Criminal Coordination & Government &
rating Country supported justice accountability Addressing risk business Total score

BBB Australia 64.44 81.85 56.25 69.05 25.00 65.34

BB New Zealand 53.70 47.96 43.75 88.10 0.00 55.81

BB Philippines 46.48 62.78 50.00 78.57 0.00 54.18

B Bangladesh 39.44 60.37 68.75 59.52 0.00 49.32

B Nepal 42.78 38.15 75.00 61.90 0.00 47.12

B Vietnam 45.19 34.07 62.50 66.67 0.00 45.42

B Sri Lanka 25.93 38.52 37.50 83.33 0.00 41.78

B Thailand 35.19 35.93 56.25 61.90 0.00 41.52

B Indonesia 37.59 40.56 50.00 54.76 0.00 40.61

B India 44.07 45.00 43.75 45.24 0.00 40.37

CCC Taiwan 50.56 23.62 43.75 42.86 0.00 39.51

CCC Pakistan 28.52 37.04 25.00 76.19 0.00 38.72

CCC Cambodia 25.19 33.33 37.50 64.29 0.00 35.67

CCC Malaysia 36.48 51.48 31.25 35.71 0.00 35.15

CCC Myanmar 41.11 8.89 50.00 50.00 0.00 33.76

CCC China 35.56 23.70 31.25 52.38 0.00 32.07

CCC Mongolia 27.78 31.67 31.25 47.62 0.00 31.08

CCC Laos 28.70 26.48 31.25 50.00 0.00 30.87

CCC Japan 42.59 19.44 18.75 45.24 0.00 30.85

CC South Korea 35.93 31.85 12.50 33.33 0.00 28.49

CC Singapore 36.11 22.41 0.00 42.86 0.00 27.12

CC Timor-Leste 25.93 25.93 0.00 40.48 0.00 23.01

C Brunei 7.41 35.74 12.50 30.95 0.00 19.56

C Papua New Guinea 6.48 23.70 25.00 14.29 0.00 13.31

C Hong Kong, SAR China 5.93 5.19 0.00 30.95 0.00 10.75

D North Korea 0.00 –13.89 0.00 –7.14 0.00 –5.76

No Rank Afghanistan

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 55


In 2015, of the 25 countries within the Asia-Pacific, 24 have laws
that criminalise some forms of modern slavery. North Korea
remains the only nation in Asia—and the world—that has not
explicitly criminalised any form of modern slavery. Australia,
New Zealand and the Philippines have the strongest responses to
modern slavery. These countries have reasonably strong victim
support services, specialised law enforcement units, effective
and measurable NAPs, and laws, policies and programmes that
address cycles of vulnerability.
Victim-centred assistance programmes which empower
victims are essential to break the cycle of modern slavery. In
the Philippines, the government has supported NGO victim
recovery and reintegration programmes providing victims
with shelter, psychological, medical, legal and vocational
support.[63] Innovative programmes, such as DataMotivate,
allows survivors to develop vocational skills in research and
data cleaning. In Australia, the Salvation Army offers unique
support services for victims, including a survivor advocates
programme for rehabilitated people to engage government, media
and the general public on modern slavery.[64] However, the lack
of victim identification and victim support continues to hinder
regional progress. For example, in Papua New Guinea (PNG),
the government has made no effort to identify, report or provide
victim support services to human trafficking victims.[65]
In March 2016, there was regional acknowledgement of the
need to engage constructively with the private sector to combat
exploitative labour practices.[66]
Australia and Indonesia co-chaired
the Sixth Ministerial Conference
of the Bali Process resulting in a
Ministerial Declaration pledging a
comprehensive regional approach
to managing mixed migration
flows and ensuring humane
labour practices within global
supply chains.[67]
In March 2016, members of parliament from 13 Asia-Pacific
nations, including Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Papua
New Guinea, endorsed the Kathmandu Declaration[68] to end
child marriage in South Asia.[69] While an important statement
of intention, significant policy and legislative steps remain
to be taken by countries with high prevalence of forced and
child marriage. India is yet to finalise the National Strategy
on Prevention of Child Marriage,[70] Bangladesh is currently
developing the National Plan to End Child Marriage,[71] Nepal
is awaiting full government endorsement for the establishment
of the National Strategy to End Child Marriage,[72] and Pakistan
has yet to raise the minimum age of marriage at the provincial
level.[73] In 2015, the Bangladeshi Government considered
reducing the minimum age of marriage for girls from 18 to 16
years old[74] but refrained from doing so after strong opposition
from civil society and international groups.[75]
As in all regions of the world, corruption and official complicity
continue to undermine responses in parts of Asia.[76] For
example, in India, there are allegations that some corrupt law
enforcement officials have connections to human trafficking
rings, receiving bribes to ensure the protection of traffickers.[77]
56 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
Asia Pacific cont.
Official complicity and widespread corruption have also enabled
forced labour and debt bondage to occur within the PNG
commercial mining and logging industry.[78] In Cambodia, corrupt
officials have stalled progress in case investigations where the
perpetrators are believed to have political, criminal or economic
ties to government officials.[79] In May 2015, the discovery of
abandoned people smuggling camps on the Thai/Malaysia border
presented concerning evidence of official complicity in the trade
and exploitation of Rohingya people. One of the mass grave
sites was located in an open field behind the police station in
Padang Besar, some 500 metres from the official border crossing
manned by officials from Thailand and Malaysia. Several arrests
of allegedly complicit officials have been made, including the
arrest of army Lt. Gen. Manas Kongpan together with 52 local
politicians, community leaders, businessmen, and gangsters for
smuggling and trafficking.[80]
In response to mounting international condemnation of domestic
worker exploitation, some governments in the Asia region have
sought to improve protections for this vulnerable cohort. The
Philippines Government was the first in the region to sign the
ILO Convention on Domestic Workers and remains the only
country in the region to have done so. With rising evidence of
widespread exploitation of migrant domestic workers in Hong
Kong, it is significant that the government of Hong Kong has
made some effort to increase the frequency of employment
agency inspections from 1,300 to 1,800 per year.[81] Some efforts
have also been made by Hong Kong and Singapore to prosecute
agencies and employers—in January 2016, two employment
agencies in Hong Kong were convicted for collecting excessive
placement fees from foreign domestic workers. [82] In March
2016, a Singaporean couple was convicted for starving their
Filipina maid for more than 15 months.[83] The following month
a Singaporean couple went on trial for abusing their Indonesian
domestic helper, after subjecting her to physical, mental and
verbal abuse.[84] Other governments have taken steps to address
the exploitation of their nationals in the Middle East. Following
the execution of two Indonesian maids in Saudi Arabia, in April
2015, Indonesia announced a domestic workers ban applying to
several countries within the Middle East and Gulf.[85] While travel
bans are intended to be a protective measure, there is a risk this
will increase the potential for exploitation as Indonesians seek
unregistered work and travel through informal channels.[86] For
example, in March 2016, Indonesian National Police investigators
uncovered a human trafficking syndicate that allegedly sent up to
600 Indonesian domestic workers abroad illegally flying them to
several of the banned Middle East and Gulf states.[87]
Australia had the leading government response to modern slavery
in the Asia Pacific in 2016. This past year saw the inclusion of
survivors of trafficking and slavery included in the meetings of
the government's National Roundtable on People Trafficking and
Slavery. Throughout the year, strategic outreach and awareness-
raising about the issue of forced marriage resulted in significant
numbers of referrals to law enforcement and NGOs of young people
at-risk and people wanting to avoid or leave forced marriages.
However, even its response has limitations. In 2015, critical gaps
were identified in Australia's labour laws regarding domestic
workers in private homes.[88]
 Asia Pacific cont.

Beggar Woman with Shadow, Kabul, Afghanistan, 2002.

"At one time, one would never have seen a woman -
or child - begging in Kabul, McCurry notes. The wars
have cast long shadows."
Photo credit, Steve McCurry

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 57

 EUROPE

NORWAY

ESTONIA
ICELAND

SWEDEN LATVIA

FINLAND LITHUANIA

CZECH
REPUBLIC SLOVAKIA HUNGARY

UNITED KINGDOM
DENMARK

IRELAND SERBIA

NETHERLANDS POLAND ROMANIA

GERMANY
BELGIUM BULGARIA

LUXEMBOURG KOSOVO
FRANCE

TURKEY

SPAIN

PORTUGAL CYPRUS

SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA ITALY MACEDONIA

BOSNIA &
SLOVENIA CROATIA HERZEGOVINA ALBANIA MONTENEGRO

GREECE

Estimated Number Enslaved Regional Proportion of Global Number

1,243,400 2.7%
Average Government Response Rating Average Vulnerability Score

54.2/100 27.1/100
58 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
 Europe cont.

PREVALENCE
Estimated percent of Estimated number
Rank Country population in modern slavery in modern slavery Population

1 Macedonia 0.639 13,300 2,078,000

2 Turkey 0.626 480,300 76,721,000

3 Poland 0.476 181,100 38,025,000

4 Bosnia and Herzegovina 0.467 17,800 3,810,000

5 Romania 0.404 80,200 19,849,000

5 Greece 0.404 44,200 10,942,000

5 Czech Republic 0.404 42,600 10,549,000

5 Bulgaria 0.404 29,000 7,176,000

5 Serbia 0.404 28,700 7,087,000

5 Croatia 0.404 17,100 4,225,000

5 Lithuania 0.404 11,800 2,920,000

5 Latvia 0.404 8,000 1,979,000

5 Estonia 0.404 5,300 1,310,000

5 Cyprus 0.404 4,700 1,165,000

5 Montenegro 0.404 2,500 622,000

6 Albania 0.295 8,600 2,906,000

6 Kosovo 0.295 5,400 1,845,000

7 Hungary 0.228 22,500 9,836,000

7 Slovakia 0.228 12,400 5,426,000

7 Slovenia 0.228 4,700 2,066,000

8 Italy 0.211 129,600 61,373,000

9 Portugal 0.123 12,800 10,384,000

9 Finland 0.123 6,700 5,485,000

9 Iceland 0.123 400 331,000

10 Netherlands 0.104 17,500 16,896,000

11 Germany 0.018 14,500 80,738,000

11 France 0.018 12,000 66,389,000

11 United Kingdom 0.018 11,700 64,856,000

11 Spain 0.018 8,400 46,513,000

11 Belgium 0.018 2,000 11,268,000

11 Sweden 0.018 1,800 9,754,000

11 Austria 0.018 1,500 8,566,000

11 Switzerland 0.018 1,500 8,267,000

11 Denmark 0.018 1,000 5,660,000

11 Norway 0.018 900 5,188,000

11 Ireland 0.018 800 4,659,000

11 Luxembourg 0.018 100 562,000

Despite having the lowest regional prevalence of modern slavery
in the world, Europe remains a destination, and to a lesser
extent, a source region for the exploitation of men, women and
children in forced labour and commercial sexual exploitation.
According to the most recent Eurostat findings, European Union
(EU) citizens account for 65 percent of identified trafficked
victims within Europe.[1] These individuals mostly originate
from Eastern Europe, including Romania, Bulgaria, Lithuania
and Slovakia.[2] Non-EU trafficked victims are predominantly
from Nigeria, China and Brazil.[3] Forced labour and commercial
sexual exploitation remain the most commonly reported forms
of modern slavery in Europe;[4] nonetheless, instances of other
forms of modern slavery, such as forced child marriage, have
been identified in Turkey.[5]
It is likely that the profile of identified victims may change in
time as a result of the massive influx of migrants and refugees
in 2015 and 2016. An IOM survey of migrants on the move
throughout parts of Europe clearly indicates that people moving
out of conflict zones and through Europe are both at high risk
of exploitation, and are already being targeted (see page 62).

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 59

 The recent influx of refugees has strained European protection
measures, creating loopholes easily exploited by European
criminal networks.
It is estimated that as many as
10,000 children registered as
refugees are now unaccounted
for, with 5,000 missing in Italy
and 1,000 in Sweden.[6]
While not all of these children have been trafficked, Europol warns
that gangs are now targeting these children for sexual exploitation,
slavery, and forced labour in farming and factory work.[7]
Within the cases that have been formally identified by EU
authorities, the largest proportion of registered human trafficking
victims were female, approximately 80 percent of all victims.
Romanian nationals, particularly women, accounted for most
of the trafficked victims,[8] with many subject to commercial
sexual exploitation within Europe.[9] Romanian women and girls
are reportedly recruited by acquaintances, friends or relatives,
sometimes with violence.[10]
Women and girls from Sub-Saharan Africa are also trafficked into
modern slavery in Europe, particularly domestic servitude and
commercial sexual exploitation. Nigeria is a source for persons
trafficked to Europe, particularly women who are exploited in
Italy, Belgium, France, Spain, Sweden and the Netherlands.[11]
According to the UK National Referral Mechanism, Nigeria
remains one of the most commonly recorded origin countries
for victims in their human trafficking registration system.[12]
Nigerian trafficking victims reach Europe through an array of
complex trafficking networks by land, sea or air with a reliance on
'connection houses' which accommodate people along the transit
routes of neighbouring countries.[13] In 2015, anti-trafficking units
arrested leaders of a Nigerian-based international sex-trafficking
ring operating in Barcelona, Spain.[14]
Cases of forced labour have been reported across Europe in
agriculture, forestry, fishery, construction, catering, the textile
industry, domestic work and other sectors.[15] In the UK, of 3,266
adult and child victims identified in 2015, 1,183 experienced
some form of labour exploitation.[16] More recently, Lithuanian
gangmasters in the UK were arrested on modern slavery charges
for the alleged exploitation of Lithuanian men in a meat supplier
factory.[17] In Poland, Vietnamese workers have reported cases
of exploitation by their Polish employer, who withheld their
passports, confiscated their mobile phones and forced individuals
to work 12–13 hour days, six days a week.[18]
The Roma communities are among the most marginalised
populations within Europe.[19] Due to poverty and lack of access
to public services, some Roma families resort to trafficking their
own children, forced marriages or involving them in commercial
sexual exploitation as a survival strategy.[20] Roma children are
potentially vulnerable to being sold or rented to other individuals
for forced begging in countries such as Bulgaria.[21] Within some
Bulgarian Roma communities, 'bride kidnapping' continues,
where the marriage is legitimised through consummation.[22]
In recent years, forced marriage has become an emerging concern
within Europe. Within European discourse, the issue of forced
marriage has been increasingly tied to issues of immigration and
multiculturalism.[23] To a certain extent, the discourse has raised
forced marriage as an imported cultural problem, resulting in
policy initiatives focused on repression and tighter immigration
controls.[24] Cases of forced marriages have been reported
throughout Europe, in countries including Slovakia, Bulgaria,
Spain, Germany and the UK.[25] In June 2015, the UK prosecuted
their first forced marriage case since enacting forced marriage
laws in 2014.[26] The Forced Marriage Unit (FMU) reportedly
assisted 329 victims under the age of 18 and 427 victims aged
between 18 and 25 throughout 2015.[27]

IOM survey on trafficking and exploitation of migrants

In 2016, the IOM began a survey of
migrants and refugees in Croatia,
Greece, the former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia, Hungary, Serbia and Slovenia
travelling along the eastern Mediterranean
migration route. The 21-question survey
is directed at both understanding their
origins and the route taken but also their
experiences along the route.
As of March 2016, of the almost 2400
respondents, 7.2 percent reported
having experienced indicators of human
trafficking themselves during the journey;
be it working without being renumerated
to the expected amount, being forced
to work against their will, being offered
employment from a stranger, being
approached to arrange a marriage, and
being held against their will by non-
government persons. A further 1.4 percent
of respondents understood that a family those travelling alone. Thirdly, persons of
member had experienced an indicator Afghan, Syrian and Pakistani nationality
of trafficking and 0.9 percent identified were more likely to experience exploitation
that they knew of people travelling along than persons from other backgrounds.
the route who had been approached to Finally, men were more likely to be
sell organs, body parts or blood for cash. exploited along the journey than women,
though this may be attributable to other
Though it is not possible to comprehensively
factors such as more men travelling, and
extrapolate these findings to the entire
travelling alone.
migrant or refugee cohort, it does highlight
the reality faced by these vulnerable
populations and the likelihood of
significant abuse and exploitation along
the route. There are several trends among
those who answered in the affirmative
to an indicator of trafficking. Firstly, on
average, persons who experienced these
indicators were at least two years younger
than those who had not. Secondly, persons
travelling in groups were less likely to have
experienced an indicator of trafficking than

60 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Asia Europe
Pacific cont.

IOM VICTIM SUPPORTED DATA 2015

The International Organisation for Migration (IOM) is the
largest provider of services to victims of human trafficking
across the globe. In 2015, an estimated 7,000 victims
of trafficking were assisted by the Organisation in 117
countries of destination. The Organisation also collected
in-depth information for 4,858 newly-identified victims of
trafficking from 65 countries of nationality, in 59 countries
of destination/identification. This detailed data is recorded
in IOM’s web-based case management system (MiMOSA).
This is the source of information presented below.
The graphics below present data from victims of trafficking
registered in IOM’s case management system in 2015
in Europe.
*The numbers in 'sector of exploitation' and 'types of exploitation' are
based on a breakdown of total cases for which data exists. Information
about type and sector of exploitation is not collected in every case.

Victims Supported by IOM in Europe in 2015 Age of Victims at Time of Assistance

Average age of victims

31.8yrs
Approximately 50% of all victims were
ages between 23 and 42

Sex Breakdown
42.5% Female [91]

Number of victims Percent of IOM Global Total

214 4.4% 57.5% Male [123]

Sector of Exploitation* (These categories are not mutually exclusive)

16 Prostitution
3 Domestic Work
3 Transport
2 Factory Work
2 Hospitality
1 Begging
1 Childcare
1 Low-level Criminal Activity
1 Not Known
1 Small Street Commerce
1 Trade

Types of Exploitation* (number) Mode of Entry into Trafficking* (number)

3 Not Applicable 15 Other
6 Forced Marriage 3 Labour Exploitation 3 Sold by Non-Family
3 Family Visit
4 Education

# #
5 Sold by Family
6 Not Known
12 Friend Visit
2 Tourism

127 Offer of Employment or

69 Labour Exploitation 77 Sexual Exploitation Labour Migration Opportunities

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 61

 VULNERABILITY
Civil & political Social, health, & Refugees &
Country protections economic rights Personal security conflict Mean

Albania 52.88 29.58 42.36 18.25 35.77

Austria 21.47 18.14 14.05 33.14 21.70

Belgium 25.42 19.83 24.03 31.28 25.14

Bosnia and Herzegovina 58.88 25.21 32.99 26.43 35.88

Bulgaria 40.41 20.54 33.79 30.50 31.31

Croatia 36.51 25.29 36.88 16.54 28.80

Cyprus 27.60 23.25 28.95 30.90 27.67

Czech Republic 27.22 19.38 31.55 27.78 26.48

Denmark 15.68 18.53 11.06 23.92 17.30

Estonia 35.94 16.87 39.31 11.14 25.81

Finland 22.07 19.69 19.08 22.66 20.87

France 26.13 20.27 18.01 44.77 27.30

Germany 23.61 19.97 20.81 40.76 26.29

Greece 37.64 22.74 38.10 38.77 34.31

Hungary 23.66 20.69 35.56 23.30 25.80

Iceland 24.88 12.22 20.43 15.03 18.14

Ireland 19.07 22.62 20.21 33.13 23.76

Italy 36.39 21.50 33.62 38.56 32.52

Kosovo 55.11 39.25 42.13 15.94 38.11

Latvia 41.95 20.25 33.22 12.95 27.09

Lithuania 35.09 20.58 34.10 16.94 26.68

Luxembourg 22.99 18.64 9.76 49.43 25.20

Macedonia 49.81 24.38 44.06 24.11 35.59

Montenegro 41.68 22.15 38.08 23.45 31.34

Netherlands 17.60 17.86 21.64 28.58 21.42

Norway 17.88 19.90 14.85 34.90 21.88

Poland 34.76 19.50 29.07 23.33 26.66

Portugal 21.50 22.62 16.06 16.89 19.27

Romania 39.26 25.86 31.83 18.74 28.92

Serbia 47.80 21.75 30.24 27.05 31.71

Slovakia 32.47 20.94 31.60 16.42 25.36

Slovenia 21.82 22.08 28.50 13.72 21.53

Spain 25.14 23.19 18.65 29.67 24.16

Sweden 21.39 19.70 10.84 38.60 22.63

Switzerland 16.93 16.60 13.69 30.98 19.55

Turkey 45.47 29.38 44.11 57.55 44.13

United Kingdom 18.45 20.37 21.83 46.50 26.79

Many European countries rank high on indices of peace,
democracy, anti-corruption, human rights and access to social
services, all of which provide important protection from
vulnerability to exploitation. This is not consistent across Europe,
with some countries, notably Kosovo, Turkey, Albania, Bosnia
and Herzegovina, and Greece having a higher risk profile,
reflecting high political instability, low confidence in the judicial
system and high levels of crime, corruption and discrimination.
For example, in Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina, the
European Parliament has identified corruption and the judicial
system as reform challenges towards accession talks within the
EU.[28] In Greece, the turbulent economic situation has increased
vulnerability for populations seeking employment and livelihood
opportunities. In Greece, unemployment reached 24.4 percent in
January 2016 with a youth unemployment rate of 51.9 percent.[29]

62 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016


In 2015–2016, the European migrant crisis has politically,
economically and socially strained the EU with the arrival of
more than one million migrants and refugees by land and sea.[30]
In the first quarter of 2016, the IOM registered the arrival of
179,614 refugees and migrants with approximately 1,232 people
missing or dead.[31]
Irregular migration flows have stemmed from the Middle East
and Sub-Saharan Africa. Many migrants and asylum seekers
have made the dangerous journey to Europe by crossing the
Aegean, Mediterranean or Alboran Seas using rubber dinghies
and wooden boats, or by land through Turkey and the Western
Balkans.[32] According to UNHCR data, most of the arrivals are
Syrian, Afghan, Pakistani, Eritrean and Somali nationals fleeing
internal conflict and political unrest.[33]
Desperate to reach Europe, these asylum seekers and migrants
have turned to people smugglers to facilitate their passage.[34]
GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
Western European countries typically have well-developed
government responses to modern slavery. This reflects a
combination of resources but also political will that has resulted
in countries in the region agreeing to clear standard setting
and independent monitoring efforts. For example, the Council
of Europe’s Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking
in Human Beings (GRETA) is a monitoring and reporting
mechanism that holds governments in the region accountable for
their commitments under the Council of Europe Convention on
Action against Trafficking in Human Beings. Within the region,
45 countries are signatories to the Convention indicating strong
regional cooperation and commitment towards combating crimes
of modern slavery.[38]
All countries in Europe criminalise modern slavery, either in
their criminal codes or in specific human trafficking legislation.
The Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Portugal and
Croatia have the strongest responses to modern slavery in Europe.
Generally, these countries have high scores in measurements on
criminal justice, victim support and addressing vulnerability to
break the cycle of modern slavery.
These countries have government-funded victim support services,
affordable public health care and primary school education
systems, specialised anti-trafficking police units, reporting
Europe cont.
Migrants and asylum seekers with limited resources are at high
risk of being exploited by brokers, recruiters and criminals along
the route. Unaccompanied minors and women are particularly
vulnerable to exploitation. According to UNHCR victim
testimonies, asylum seekers and migrants who have run out
of money or have been robbed on the way are more likely to
engage in 'survival sex' in order to pay smugglers to continue
their journey.[35] In addition, cases of exploited unaccompanied
Pakistani boys have been reported, where naked photographs are
posted online with demands that their families send money.[36]
In 2015, approximately 70 percent of arrivals to Europe were men,
and so far in 2016, this has significantly shifted to approximately
60 percent of women and children.[37] This demographic shift
poses significant challenges for European governments, with
responsibility to provide protection for these vulnerable groups
through provision of gender appropriate services, livelihood
opportunities for women, and education for children.
mechanisms, general anti-trafficking police training and all are
currently implementing NAPs committed to combating modern
slavery, except Sweden. In the UK, the implementation of
the also marks progress towards strengthening legislation in
combating modern slavery.
Some of the countries in Europe are more affected by corruption
and complicity than others. For example, law enforcement
complicity, lenient judicial rulings and a lack of victim
protection in Romania continue to contribute to the exploitation
of vulnerable populations. In 2015, Lithuanian police launched
an investigation into the director of a state-run orphanage,
allegedly operating a child sex-trafficking ring. In Bosnia and
Herzegovina, local police have reportedly accepted bribes and
sexual services in exchange for notifying brothel and nightclub
owners in advance of police raids.
In October 2015, the UK enacted the landmark Modern Slavery
Act 2015. This requires companies with an annual turnover of
£36 million or more report on steps they have taken to safeguard
their global supply chains from modern slavery. [43] This will affect
approximately 17,000 UK businesses which will impact global supply
chains around the world.[44] This initiative has not yet been matched
by developments in the legislation of other European countries.
Viola Tudor, a convicted human trafficker, served his sentence
at the Timisoara prison in western Romania. Sitting in a
visiting room, Tudor wasn’t shy about explaining his role in
trafficking, claiming that he helped the girls he sold—and
boasting of the monetary temptations of a product that can
be sold and resold, over and over, with high profits.
Photo credit, Andrea Bruce/ NOOR
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 63
 Government response in Europe
Credit Survivors Criminal Coordination & Government &
rating Country supported justice accountability Addressing risk business Total score

A Netherlands 74.63 79.07 87.50 99.99 0.00 78.43

BBB United Kingdom 74.63 79.07 43.75 69.05 37.50 67.12

BBB Sweden 72.22 62.96 75.00 73.81 0.00 65.87

BBB Portugal 58.52 73.52 68.75 83.33 0.00 65.22

BBB Croatia 69.63 70.19 56.25 76.19 0.00 64.50

BBB Spain 77.04 64.07 50.00 73.81 0.00 64.09

BBB Belgium 71.30 50.74 75.00 71.43 0.00 62.36

BBB Norway 65.93 82.41 37.50 69.05 0.00 61.47

BBB Austria 57.96 59.07 68.75 76.19 0.00 60.16

BB Germany 61.67 64.81 43.75 78.57 0.00 59.60

BB Denmark 59.81 68.52 50.00 69.05 0.00 58.31

BB Montenegro 69.63 60.56 56.25 59.52 0.00 58.27

BB Hungary 59.81 41.85 68.75 76.19 0.00 57.06

BB France 52.59 76.85 43.75 69.05 0.00 55.88

BB Ireland 69.63 71.30 18.75 61.90 0.00 55.81

BB Switzerland 60.19 64.81 25.00 73.81 0.00 55.26

BB Macedonia 70.37 60.19 62.50 42.86 0.00 55.16

BB Finland 52.78 62.04 56.25 66.67 0.00 54.96

BB Slovenia 52.04 51.30 56.25 76.19 0.00 54.80

BB Serbia 61.67 76.67 31.25 54.76 0.00 54.40

BB Albania 73.70 46.30 43.75 61.90 0.00 54.34

BB Poland 46.11 47.96 68.75 76.19 0.00 53.96

BB Latvia 58.89 50.19 43.75 71.43 0.00 53.79

BB Czech Republic 54.81 50.74 56.25 66.67 0.00 53.19

BB Lithuania 59.26 54.81 25.00 73.81 0.00 51.82

BB Cyprus 54.26 74.44 18.75 61.90 0.00 50.55

B Italy 42.59 65.93 37.50 69.05 0.00 49.44

B Bosnia and Herzegovina 57.41 43.70 31.25 69.05 0.00 48.54

B Kosovo 48.15 59.92 43.75 47.62 0.00 47.72

B Slovakia 57.96 42.41 31.25 61.90 0.00 47.66

B Turkey 57.41 47.41 37.50 52.38 0.00 47.06

B Bulgaria 43.15 38.52 43.75 71.43 0.00 45.23

B Iceland 45.37 52.22 37.50 45.24 0.00 42.44
B Romania 37.59 36.85 56.25 50.00 0.00 40.52
CCC Estonia 30.19 23.33 31.25 80.95 0.00 39.40
CCC Greece 53.89 36.85 18.75 38.10 0.00 37.42
CCC Luxembourg 33.15 31.67 68.75 26.19 0.00 33.81

64 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016


The Netherlands’ leading response
The Government of the Netherlands’
approach to addressing modern slavery
is the most comprehensive in Europe and
the world. The Government shows strong
commitment to combating modern slavery
crimes through comprehensive legislation,
an independent National Rapporteur on
Trafficking in Human Beings and Sexual
Violence Against Children, a National
Referral Mechanism and a Task Force
on Human Trafficking. The mandate of
the Task Force has been extended until
2017 to broaden the fight against human
trafficking focusing on labour exploitation,
sexual exploitation and abuse in the
prostitution sector.[45]
The Dutch Government is proactive in
wide-ranging efforts to prevent and
identify modern slavery victims. In June
2015, the National Referral Mechanism,
comprising of the Ministry of Security
Company reporting requirements under UK Modern Slavery Act 2015
In 2015, the UK Parliament passed the
Modern Slavery Act. One of the innovations
of this legislation is a requirement that
British companies with a turnover of £36
million or more are required to publish a
statement detailing what steps—if any—
are taken to eradicate slavery within their
business and supply chains.
It is currently impossible to tell categorically
how many companies have complied
because there is no central register of
these reports. The Business & Human
Rights Resource Centre has maintained
an informal register; as of 1 March 2016,
83 companies have provided statements.
[53]
While Ergon found 100 companies had
reported as of 15 March 2016.[54]
The companies that have made statements
are diverse and include famous national
fashion brands such as Jigsaw, tea
suppliers, construction organisations and
manufacturers, recruitment agencies, and
and Justice, the Ministry of Public Health,
Wellbeing and Sports and the Ministry
of Social Affairs and Employment,
established a central website to inform
assistance workers, victims and members
of the public.[46] The aim of the website
is to educate the community, and link
victims and assistance workers to
relevant organisations, like shelter and
care institutions or the Criminal Injuries
Compensation Fund.[47]
The Netherlands currently faces the
challenge of dealing with an influx of
Syrian refugees, some of whom may
have been subjected to forced labour
or forced marriage. Between September
2015 and January 2016 around 60 Syrian
child brides entered the country.[48] In
2015, the Netherlands Marechaussee
arrested approximately 330 suspects, an
increase of 60 compared to 2014. Around
even the Birmingham Airport. There are
even statements from three companies
who were not required to report.
However, merely issuing a statement
does not fulfil the requirements under
s54 by default. To comply with the Act, this
statement must be signed by a company
director or equivalent, and have a URL link
from the company’s website.
Notably, only 22 of the 83 statements
that appear on the BHHR site meet
both the legal requirements under the
Act— therefore, less than 27 percent of
the published statements comply with
the Act’s basic requirements. Further,
only nine statements met both these
requirements and provided further
information on six suggested criteria
under s54(5) of the Act. Interestingly, the
statement released by the Birmingham
Airport was not signed by a director or
equivalent as required under s54(6);
Asia Europe
Pacific cont.
200 suspects were arrested during Mobile
Security Monitoring Checks (MTVs), 25
percent of whom had Dutch nationality, 15
percent of whom had Syrian nationality.
[49]
In 2015, the government also reported
they would increase the available prison
sentence for human trafficking from four
to six years.[50]
The Netherlands recognises the centrality
of cooperating with source and transit
countries. The government has made
agreements with Hungary, Bulgaria
and Romania to combat the structure
of trafficking and the investigation
of specific cases.[51] In 2016, Project
TeamWork!, a joint project between the
Netherlands, Luxembourg, Slovakia and
Malta, launched a manual for experts on
cooperation against trafficking in human
beings for labour exploitation.[52]
however, it did contain a link per s54(7).
The statement from Jigsaw did not fulfil
either legal requirement, nor did it report
on the criteria suggested.
These initial findings point to a clear step
that can be taken by the government to
improve the reporting requirement. The
difficulty uncovering which companies
have reported suggests the need for a
central register which members of the
public can access. If the Act relies on
consumer pressure to drive corporate
action, then consumers must have access
to the information.
For more information on the requirements
of the Modern Slavery Act 2015, please see
www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2015/30/
contents/enacted
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 65
 RUSSIA AND EURASIA

BELARUS

RUSSIA

KAZAKHSTAN

KYRGYZSTAN

TAJIKSTAN

UKRAINE MOLDOVA GEORGIA

ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN

TURKMENISTAN UZBEKISTAN

Estimated Number Enslaved Regional Proportion of Global Number

2,809,700 6.1%
Average Government Response Rating Average Vulnerability Score

38.1/100 37.0/100
66 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
 Russia and Eurasia cont.

PREVALENCE
Estimated percent of Estimated number
Rank Country population in modern slavery in modern slavery Population

1 Uzbekistan 3.973 1,236,600 31,125,000

2 Russia 0.732 1,048,500 143,335,000

3 Tajikistan 0.638 54,100 8,482,000

4 Ukraine 0.467 210,400 45,064,000

4 Kazakhstan 0.467 81,600 17,488,000

4 Azerbaijan 0.467 45,000 9,635,000

4 Belarus 0.467 44,600 9,550,000

4 Kyrgyzstan 0.467 27,700 5,934,000

4 Georgia 0.467 20,900 4,487,000

4 Armenia 0.467 14,100 3,018,000

5 Turkmenistan 0.295 15,800 5,374,000

5 Moldova 0.295 10,400 3,538,000

Cases of state-sponsored forced labour have been documented
in several countries in the Eurasia region. According to some
reports, there are up to 20,000 North Korean workers in Russia,
working in the construction industry, oil refineries, lumber, roads
and waterways.[1] While these positions are said to be highly
sought after in North Korea (with some people reportedly paying
bribes to get these roles), workers in these positions are tightly
controlled and are required to pay at least 90 percent of any
wages to the North Korean state. In some cases, workers are
not paid wages at all; instead, they are paid in kind through the
provision of daily meals.[2] Testimony from workers suggests that
citizens are not able to take these positions unless they have at
least two children in North Korea,[3] indicating an implicit threat
of retribution against family members.
The governments of both
Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan
reportedly subject their citizens
to forced labour during annual
agricultural harvests. While it
is impossible to verify with any
precision the scale of these
practices, it is reported that in
Turkmenistan, tens of thousands
were forced to work in the cotton
sector.[4]
Similarly in Uzbekistan, it is estimated that more than one
million[5] people worked in the cotton sector, and there are
conflicting reports about the levels of forced labour. According
to NGO reports, regional production quotas are enforced by
local authorities who achieve compliance through appeals to the
national good but also through threats related to the termination of
employment,[6] heavy fines,[7] debt bondage,[8] asset confiscation[9]
and police intimidation.[10] This stands in contrast to findings by
the International Labour Organization which, in response to a
request for monitoring by the World Bank of specific projects,
found no conclusive evidence of forced labour practices in
World Bank beneficiary projects but did note that, "worrying
reports were received from other sources which have reported
forced labour practices, and of harassment and threats to people
conducting their own monitoring."[11] The International Labour
Organization has developed a Decent Work Country Programme
with the government of Uzbekistan, being implemented from
2014–2016. This includes a survey of working conditions in the
cotton harvest, a review of national legislation and practice, and
capacity building for law enforcement and labour inspectors.[12]
Reports suggest instances of forced labour and recruitment of
children for armed conflict in the Ukraine. Citizens of occupied
territories (such as Donetsk) have been detained for minor
public order offences and forced to participate in 'punishment
brigades'.[13] These have involved war-related duties such as
filling sandbags and digging trenches in direct exposure to the
ongoing conflict.[14] Concerns have also been raised about the
use of child soldiers in the region. Images released by Russian
media have shown a 15-year-old squad leader posing in front
of a captured tank,[15] and Ukrainian media has documented the
wounding of a 17-year-old combatant.[16] The boy told media,
"it's not a person's age that matters here, but how prepared they
are to fight for their country".[17]
Cases of forced labour have been identified within the large
populations of migrant workers existing with the region. In
Kazakhstan, sectors implicated include the construction, [18]
hospitality[19] and domestic sectors.[20] Other documented cases
involve the use of wage-related deception to keep migrants in
exploitative conditions,[21] where they were coerced through
the use of physical[22] and psychological abuse.[23] In Armenia,
forced labour cases have been identified in the agricultural,[24]
construction[25] and trade sectors.[26] A 2015 study of forced labour
in Armenia did not document evidence of explicit threats, but it
did document deception and the confiscation of documents.[27]
In some countries within the region, the issue of forced marriage,
including through traditional practices of bride kidnapping, has
reportedly made a resurgence. It is estimated that 11,800 women
are subjected to bride kidnapping each year in Kyrgyzstan.[28]
Nationals from countries in the Eurasia region fall within the top
10 group of countries of origin for victims of trafficking identified
by national authorities in the EU.[29] Russia is the fifth largest
country in this category and Ukraine is seventh.[30]

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 67

 VULNERABILITY
Civil & political Social, health, & Refugees &
Country protections economic rights Personal security conflict Mean

Armenia 53.66 27.38 42.63 24.90 37.14

Azerbaijan 68.90 28.23 28.17 23.05 37.09

Belarus 58.41 20.48 35.88 23.80 34.64

Georgia 51.00 28.43 35.95 24.42 34.95

Kazakhstan 59.05 22.08 28.19 22.12 32.86

Kyrgyzstan 54.16 28.33 36.37 21.88 35.18

Moldova 47.52 28.20 38.04 14.41 32.04

Russia 57.21 18.47 40.66 57.47 43.45

Tajikistan 62.85 37.62 41.68 27.53 42.42

Turkmenistan 68.14 28.65 43.34 9.22 37.34

Ukraine 61.97 21.39 35.80 43.41 40.64

Uzbekistan 74.62 28.35 32.09 12.14 36.80

Given the ongoing conflict in Ukraine, forced migration
remains a significant trend. The Ukrainian civil conflict led
to the displacement of at least one million people.[31] Most
were women and children fleeing from Crimea, Donetsk and
other eastern regions.[32] Upon arrival in the West, they lacked
employment prospects, financial resources and social services.[33]
Indeed, many health services were closed due to the war effort
and no department has taken clear responsibility for protecting
the displaced.[34] The men who stayed behind to defend their
property were also vulnerable to forced military service[35] and
forced labour to support the war efforts of pro-Russian rebels.[36]
There are also extensive labour migration movements both from
and within this region. Kazakhstan is a popular destination for
labour migrants particularly from Uzbekistan, as it offers higher
wages than neighbouring countries, visa-free entry and has a
similar language.[37]
It is reported that labour migrants
experience routinely poor
living and working conditions in
Kazakhstan, with an estimated 20
percent of workplaces having no
amenities such as drinking water,
toilets or a place to eat.
Accommodation provided or found by employers or recruiters is
overcrowded, averaging 5.6 people per room but sometimes up
to 40 people per room.[38] Russia is the second largest destination
country for migrants in the world, hosting more than 11 million
migrants.[39] Many migrants continue onto Russia as it offers
higher wages than Kazakhstan.
With high levels of unskilled labour migration to the Russian
Federation comes accompanying vulnerability to exploitation.[40]
High population growth and limited job opportunities [41] in
former Soviet states such as Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and the
Kyrgyz Republic[42] encouraged migrants to emigrate.[43] Such
migrants are known to work in the shadow economy,[44] which is
concerning yet unsurprising given tighter immigration restrictions
in the Russian Federation.[45] Approximately 40 percent of the
migrants lived in overcrowded, poorly maintained residences
such as trailers and abandoned factories,[46] exacerbating pre-
existing ethnic conflicts.[47]
There have been widespread reports of public and institutional
xenophobia from within the Russian Federation.[48] These attitudes
have manifested in the form of illegal (yet administratively
endorsed) 'volunteer squads' to track down illegal migrants,[49]
anti-foreigner riots[50] and allegations of beatings orchestrated
by police and extremist members of the public.[51] Such abuses
were alleged to be met with impunity by the legal system,
owing to both a fear of reprisal[52] and an absence of effective
prosecution.[53]
Despite their desire to create a better life for their families,
currency instability led to economic uncertainty in Central Asian
countries of origin. Remittances sent to families were typically
transferred in small denominations of rubles.[54] Since the ruble
exchange rate was less stable than other currencies during the
reporting period,[55] the remittance system adversely affected
the economic outlook of some countries, such as the Kyrgyz
Republic and Tajikistan.[56]

68 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Russia and
AsiaEurasia
Pacific cont.

IOM VICTIM SUPPORTED DATA 2015

The International Organisation for Migration (IOM) is the
largest provider of services to victims of human trafficking
across the globe. In 2015, an estimated 7,000 victims
of trafficking were assisted by the Organisation in 117
countries of destination. The Organisation also collected
in-depth information for 4,858 newly-identified victims of
trafficking from 65 countries of nationality, in 59 countries
of destination/identification. This detailed data is recorded
in IOM’s web-based case management system (MiMOSA).
This is the source of information presented below.
The graphics below present data from victims of trafficking
registered in IOM’s case management system in 2015 in
Russia and Eurasia.
*The numbers in 'sector of exploitation' and 'types of exploitation' are
based on a breakdown of total cases for which data exists. Information
about type and sector of exploitation is not collected in every case.

Victims Supported by IOM in Russia & Eurasia in 2015 Age of Victims at Time of Assistance

Average age of victims

29.5yrs
Approximately 50% of all victims were
ages between 20 and 37

Sex Breakdown
56.1% Female [1,482]

Number of victims Percent of IOM Global Total

2,643 54.4% 43.8% Male [1,159]

Sector of Exploitation* (These categories are not mutually exclusive)

87 Construction
26 Factory Work
16 Agriculture
9 Transport
6 Prostitution
5 Other
4 Small Street Commerce
1 Begging
1 Childcare

Types of Exploitation* (number) Mode of Entry into Trafficking* (number)

1 Not Known 1 Family Visit
201 Sexual Exploitation 3 Kidnapping 1 Tourism
4 Offer of Education
Opportunities

# #
34 Not Applicable 14 Other

502 Offer of Employment or

530 Labour Exploitation Labour Migration Opportunities

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 69

 GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
Credit Survivors Criminal Coordination & Government &
rating Country supported justice accountability Addressing risk business Total score

BB Georgia 67.59 58.70 56.25 59.52 0.00 57.22

BB Moldova 55.56 57.59 50.00 64.29 0.00 52.41

B Ukraine 62.04 47.78 12.50 61.90 0.00 46.44

B Armenia 48.33 49.81 56.25 50.00 0.00 45.75

CCC Azerbaijan 28.33 60.37 18.75 57.14 0.00 38.01

CCC Tajikistan 41.99 34.44 25.00 54.76 0.00 36.14

CCC Belarus 35.37 26.11 43.75 52.38 0.00 34.31

CCC Kyrgyzstan 27.96 35.74 37.50 50.00 0.00 33.50

CCC Kazakhstan 38.33 44.07 18.75 35.71 0.00 32.37

CC Russia 21.48 28.33 12.50 61.90 0.00 28.24

CC Uzbekistan 24.26 23.70 18.75 52.38 0.00 26.65
CC Turkmenistan 14.81 35.74 12.50 54.76 0.00 25.90

With the exception of Georgia and Moldova, responses to modern
slavery within this region are still in their infancy. Georgia and
Moldova were the only countries to score above 50 percent for
a government response, with Georgia ranking number 18 in the
world on its government responses to modern slavery (a BB
rating) and Moldova at number 36 (also a BB rating).
One of the many innovations
in Moldova is its Centre for
Combating Trafficking in Persons,
established in 2006 under the
Ministry of Interior. The Centre
has the status of a directorate,
which, by law, has the mission to
investigate and prosecute human
trafficking crimes and other
related crimes.[57]
Half of the countries in this region have conducted modern
slavery awareness-raising activities since 2010. These campaigns
were only conducted systematically in two countries. In Georgia,
awareness-raising media was broadcast between 2012 and
2014.[58] In Armenia, an anti-trafficking hotline has regularly
been promoted since 2007.[59] All countries except Turkmenistan
operated some form of public reporting mechanism. All countries
except Azerbaijan and Uzbekistan have carried out anti-
trafficking training for front-line police officers.
Victim support services of some kind were available in each
country in the Eurasia region, with most governments contributing
financially to their running costs (the exceptions being Russia
and Turkmenistan). However, services typically concentrate on
women's needs only and half of the countries in this region do
not have services for men. Victim referral mechanisms existed
in only four countries and actual evidence of referral was only
found in Georgia. This scheme was set up by the government
of Georgia's Council on Trafficking in Human Beings[60] and
includes free translation services,[61] legal counsel[62] and access
to social programmes.[63]
Legislative efforts to criminalise modern slavery in Eurasia are
further behind than other regions. While nine of the 12 countries
had criminalised human trafficking, only four have laws that
criminalise forced labour and forced marriage, and three countries
have specifically criminalised slavery and the use of children
in armed conflict. Russia was the only country in the region
to adequately criminalise child prostitution. Where laws exist,
punishments vary: for example, trafficking can be punished by a
temporary disqualification from positions of authority in Georgia,
and child prostitution can be punished by community service in
Kazakhstan.[64] While all countries except Russia and Belarus
allowed victims to participate in the legal process, only Azerbaijan,
Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan
recognised in legislation that survivors of slavery are not criminals
for crimes committed under the control of perpetrators.
Only four countries in this region—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia
and Moldova - had an NAP to coordinate efforts on modern
slavery issues and no country provided adequate funding for
these plans. While all countries are part of a regional body which
takes action on trafficking issues, once again, only four countries
signed bilateral agreements with countries of origin or destination.
It was, therefore, unsurprising to see evidence of modern slavery
victims being deported in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Russia,
Ukraine and Uzbekistan. Official complicity in modern slavery
cases was found in all countries except Georgia. For instance, in
Moldova, the head of a human rights organisation was arrested
for subjecting children to forced begging.[65] Similarly, there are
allegations that Kyrgyzstan's police have extorted and sexually-
abused victims of child sex trafficking.[66] No investigations have
occurred in relation to these incidents.[67]
Though labour protection theoretically extends to all workers
in 11 of the 12 countries, in reality, this was not the case for
Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.
Indeed, state-sanctioned forced labour continued to exist in
Belarus, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.

70 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Russia and Eurasia cont.

Child carrying cotton in Dashoguz region, Turkmenistan, October 2015. Government-led forced labour of parents to
fulfill harvest quotas resulted in children picking cotton in at least one area, the Boldumasaz district of Dashoguz region.
Photo Credit, Ruslan Matiyev of Alternative Turkmenistan News (ATN)

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 71

 SUB SAHARAN AFRICA

CENTRAL AFRICAN
REPUBLIC

SENEGAL BURKINA FASO CAMEROON

GAMBIA

ERITREA

CAPE VERDE MAURITANIA DJIBOUTI

MALI NIGER
CHAD SUDAN
SOMALIA

GUINEA-BISSAU
NIGERIA
SOUTH ETHIOPIA
SUDAN
GUINEA UGANDA

KENYA
SIERRA TOGO BENIN RWANDA
LEONE DEMOCRATIC
REPUBLIC
OF THE CONGO
LIBERIA CÔTE GHANA EQUATORIAL BURUNDI
D'IVOIRE GUINEA TANZANIA

MALAWI
GABON
ANGOLA
ZAMBIA
REPUBLIC
OF THE CONGO MAURITIUS

NAMIBIA
BOTSWANA
MADAGASCAR

SOUTH AFRICA MOZAMBIQUE

LESOTHO ZIMBABWE SWAZILAND

Estimated Number Enslaved Regional Proportion of Global Number

6,245,800 13.6%
Average Government Response Rating Average Vulnerability Score

28.2/100 47.3/100
72 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
 Sub Saharan Africa cont.

PREVALENCE
Estimated percent of Estimated number
Rank Country population in modern slavery in modern slavery Population

1 Democratic Republic of the Congo 1.130 873,100 77,267,000

1 Sudan 1.130 454,700 40,235,000

1 South Sudan 1.130 139,400 12,340,000

1 Somalia 1.130 121,900 10,787,000

1 Central African Republic 1.130 55,400 4,900,000

2 Mauritania 1.058 43,000 4,068,000

3 Gambia 0.878 17,500 1,991,000

4 Madagascar 0.674 163,400 24,235,000

4 Malawi 0.674 116,100 17,215,000

4 Zambia 0.674 109,300 16,212,000

4 Sierra Leone 0.674 43,500 6,453,000

4 Eritrea 0.674 35,300 5,228,000

4 Namibia 0.674 16,600 2,459,000

4 Lesotho 0.674 14,400 2,135,000

4 Swaziland 0.674 8,700 1,287,000

5 Tanzania 0.638 341,400 53,470,000

5 Angola 0.638 159,700 25,022,000

5 Ivory Coast 0.638 144,900 22,702,000

5 Niger 0.638 127,000 19,899,000

5 Burkina Faso 0.638 115,600 18,106,000

5 Zimbabwe 0.638 99,600 15,603,000

5 Chad 0.638 89,600 14,037,000

5 Guinea 0.638 80,500 12,609,000

5 Rwanda 0.638 74,100 11,610,000

5 Burundi 0.638 71,400 11,179,000

5 Togo 0.638 46,600 7,305,000

5 Republic of the Congo 0.638 29,500 4,620,000

5 Liberia 0.638 28,700 4,503,000

6 Uganda 0.626 244,400 39,032,000

6 Cameroon 0.626 146,100 23,344,000

6 Mali 0.626 110,200 17,600,000

7 Guinea-Bissau 0.620 11,400 1,844,000

8 Mozambique 0.520 145,600 27,978,000

8 Senegal 0.520 78,700 15,129,000

8 Botswana 0.520 11,800 2,262,000

8 Djibouti 0.520 4,600 888,000

9 Nigeria 0.481 875,500 182,202,000

10 South Africa 0.453 248,700 54,954,000

10 Cape Verde 0.453 2,400 521,000

11 Ethiopia 0.414 411,600 99,391,000

12 Kenya 0.410 188,800 46,050,000

13 Ghana 0.377 103,300 27,410,000

14 Benin 0.295 32,100 10,880,000

14 Gabon 0.295 5,100 1,725,000

14 Equatorial Guinea 0.295 2,500 845,000

15 Mauritius 0.165 2,100 1,265,000

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 73

 In 2016, the estimates of modern slavery in Sub-Saharan Africa
accounted for approximately 13.6 percent of the world's total
enslaved population. Within the region, Central African Republic,
Democratic Republic of the Congo, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan
and Mauritania have the highest rates of modern slavery. As
evident from surveys conducted in Ghana, Nigeria, South Africa
and Ethiopia by Walk Free Foundation, slavery in Sub-Saharan
Africa takes the form of forced labour and forced marriage. In
Ghana, survey results suggest that there are an estimated 103,300
people enslaved in that country, of which 85 percent are in forced
labour, and 15 percent are in formed marriage. For forced labour,
the main industries of concern are farming and fishing, retail sales
and then manual labour and factory work. In Nigeria, survey
results suggest that forced labour is predominantly within the
domestic sector, although it was impossible to survey in three
regions due to high conflict. In South Africa, the industries most
reported in the survey include the commercial sex industry,
manual labour industries such as construction, manufacturing
and factory work, and drug trafficking.
There is evidence that the governments of Eritrea and Swaziland
actively sanctioned the use of forced labour. In Swaziland, a practice
of 'royal tribute labour' exists whereby royal chiefs are alleged to
enforce forced labour projects such as cattle herding.[1] Indeed, the
government attempted to backtrack on its intentions when its use of
unpaid child labour was reported by international media.[2]
Eritrea, on the other hand, operates a national service programme
which amounted to forced labour.[3] Officially, this is only
intended to last for one year, but there are reports detailing
that, in some cases, service is effectively indefinite.[4] These
conditions are so prevalent that the UNHCR has recommended
that Eritrean draught evaders be considered refugees.[5] While
the United Kingdom previously recommended that all Eritrean
draught evaders who fled illegally should be granted asylum,[6]
this policy was changed in 2015 to reflect greater leniency shown
towards returnees.[7]
The prevalence of commercial sexual exploitation is witnessed
across the region; however, it is particularly prevalent where
internal violence and political instability coexist. This is the
case in South Sudan, where safe zones for refugees have become
'rape camps'[8] where soldiers are reported to be remunerated for
fighting by raping women and girls.[9] News media outlets also
suggest that government forces in South Sudan kidnap women
and girls[10]—from April to September 2015, charities working
on the ground estimated 1,300 women and girls were raped while
1,600 were abducted in three counties.[11] Women and children
from Ethiopia and Eritrea are also subject to commercial sexual
exploitation abroad, with cases reported in the Middle East.[12]
The exploitation of children is prevalent in the region. In Ghana,
it is estimated that 21,000 child slaves currently work in the
Ghanaian fishing industry along Lake Volta and its surrounds.[13]
The UNODC found that in 2014, human trafficking in the Sub-
Sahara typically targeted women and children;[14] however, men
were also at risk albeit to a lesser extent.[15] This study also
found that Sub-Saharan Africa has the largest share of child
trafficking in the world.[16] In Togo, for instance, poverty[17] and
a lack of education[18] pushed parents to entrust their children
74 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
to trafficking intermediaries;[19] typically a friend or relative of
the victim.[20] Once in their care, the children were transferred
to sites of exploitation.[21] For girls, this typically involved
forced domestic work and sexual exploitation. For boys, this
typically involved forced labour in the agriculture industry.[22]
In Burundi, similar factors enabled the sex trafficking of young
girls.[23] In Guinea-Bissau and the region surrounding Senegal,
families send their children to become talibés [24]—students of
a religious teacher, known as a marabout.[25] There is evidence
that traffickers exploit this tradition as a means of trafficking
children and subjecting them to forced begging. [26] Recent
findings suggesting that Senegal has over 30,000 exploited talibés
in the Dakar region alone.[27]
While there have been positive developments on reducing the
use of children in armed conflict within Sub-Saharan Africa, the
issue of child soldiers remains a problem across the region. In
the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), children continue
to be recruited by armed groups. In 2015, the United Nations
documented evidence that 241 child soldiers were recruited,[28] 80
were killed[29] and 92 were maimed in DRC.[30] The recruitment of
children into armed conflict reflects wider social and economic
issues, as children often enlisted voluntarily for protection and
financial stability.[31]
In the Central African Republic, it is estimated that 6,000–10,000
children remain involved with military forces.[32] Despite the
release of 300 children following pledges to cease the use of
child soldiers,[33] there are fears that this development may be
short-lived due to ongoing aggression in the region.[34] Similarly,
while Chad officially ceased using children in its armed forces in
2014,[35] there is evidence that it has failed to implement its own
protocols on the handover of previously recruited children.[36]
Madagascar, Malawi, Zambia, Guinea, Sierra Leone and Eritrea
are within the top 20 countries for child marriage worldwide.[37]
Early marriage remained a
significant problem in the region,
with UNICEF predicting that half
of the world's child brides in 2050
will be African.[38]
Despite progress in the North African region,[39] the Sub-Sahara
failed to achieve similar results.[40] In fact, a doubled rate of
reduction of child marriage would not be enough for absolute
numbers to decrease in the Sub-Sahara.[41] The interplay of conflict
and marriage is significant with the Central African Republic
experiencing a significant number of internally-displaced people[42]
and the second highest rate of child marriage in the region.[43]
Broader economic conditions have varied, but with ultimately
disappointing effects on child marriage. While unemployment
and reduced wealth led men to marry later, this effect was not
observed in women.[44] Similarly, the decreased availability of
'economically desirable' men did not appear to discourage child
marriage.[45] Rather, poverty and education remained the most
significant predictors of progress in this area.[46]
 Sub Saharan
Asia Pacific
Africa cont.

IOM VICTIM SUPPORTED DATA 2015

The International Organisation for Migration (IOM) is the
largest provider of services to victims of human trafficking
across the globe. In 2015, an estimated 7,000 victims
of trafficking were assisted by the Organisation in 117
countries of destination. The Organisation also collected
in-depth information for 4,858 newly-identified victims of
trafficking from 65 countries of nationality, in 59 countries
of destination/identification. This detailed data is recorded
in IOM’s web-based case management system (MiMOSA).
This is the source of information presented below.
The graphics below present data from victims of trafficking
registered in IOM’s case management system in 2015 in
Sub-Saharan Africa.
*The numbers in 'sector of exploitation' and 'types of exploitation' are
based on a breakdown of total cases for which data exists. Information
about type and sector of exploitation is not collected in every case.

Victims Supported by IOM in Sub-Saharan Africa Age of Victims at Time of Assistance

in 2015
Average age of victims

23yrs
Approximately 50% of all victims were
ages between 17 and 27

Sex Breakdown
89.9% Female [79]

Number of victims Percent of IOM Global Total

88 1.8% 10.1% Male [9]

Sector of Exploitation* (These categories are not mutually exclusive)

9 Domestic Work
2 Hospitality

Types of Exploitation* (number) Mode of Entry into Trafficking* (number)

2 Friend Visit 1 Not Applicable
17 Sexual Exploitation
2 Offer of Education
Opportunities

5 Sold by Family

# #
53 Labour Exploitation 16 Other 31 Offer of Employment or Labour
Migration Opportunities

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 75

 VULNERABILITY
Civil & political Social, health, & Refugees &
Country protections economic rights Personal security conflict Mean

Angola 56.32 49.54 45.95 25.02 44.21

Benin 46.95 36.52 39.70 14.90 34.52

Botswana 37.25 42.82 46.38 19.21 36.42

Burkina Faso 59.55 40.77 40.73 25.98 41.76

Burundi 64.08 52.22 51.40 37.17 51.22

Cameroon 61.31 43.37 47.95 52.51 51.29

Cape Verde 33.33 20.30 55.40 36.34 36.34

Central African Republic 83.67 48.67 85.43 62.21 70.00

Chad 70.47 49.96 47.98 40.94 52.34

Democratic Republic of the Congo 78.42 56.33 56.72 82.43 68.48

Djibouti 49.13 43.61 55.25 32.42 45.10

Equatorial Guinea 56.66 40.62 46.38 1.00 36.16

Eritrea 59.44 51.05 62.88 24.82 49.55

Ethiopia 59.75 54.68 34.16 59.77 52.09

Gabon 51.58 31.51 42.38 16.97 35.61

Gambia 59.30 29.27 74.18 22.63 46.35

Ghana 51.89 38.42 47.45 28.26 41.51

Guinea 66.89 41.58 52.68 28.67 47.45

Guinea-Bissau 62.08 40.50 70.25 22.47 48.82

Ivory Coast 62.07 38.72 46.22 33.45 45.11

Kenya 54.53 52.84 46.75 72.28 56.60

Lesotho 40.33 52.26 68.23 9.58 42.60

Liberia 57.93 44.62 44.45 29.43 44.11

Madagascar 50.37 50.87 52.86 15.99 42.52

Malawi 54.63 56.74 47.78 21.06 45.05

Mali 64.04 34.08 31.69 57.41 46.80

Mauritania 65.96 40.54 49.85 30.74 46.77

Mauritius 29.24 24.49 26.58 1.00 20.33

Mozambique 39.91 48.46 54.40 35.86 44.65

Namibia 39.00 43.68 51.42 18.27 38.09

Niger 57.70 48.17 42.13 40.38 47.10

Nigeria 60.94 47.84 59.76 80.84 62.34

Republic of the Congo 65.17 44.69 52.43 28.94 47.81

Rwanda 55.44 47.65 46.23 42.00 47.83

Senegal 44.97 42.31 36.96 35.48 39.93

Sierra Leone 50.57 53.29 41.72 17.70 40.82

Somalia 73.03 64.82 55.97 74.46 67.07

South Africa 40.27 43.06 58.30 41.84 45.87

South Sudan 74.73 50.70 60.80 76.15 65.59

Sudan 80.64 54.12 46.18 85.04 66.49

Swaziland 57.69 53.88 67.33 15.39 48.57

Tanzania 51.66 54.67 47.66 40.46 48.61

Togo 64.78 39.82 47.78 24.09 44.12

Uganda 54.89 52.18 39.45 48.73 48.81

Zambia 45.10 58.76 50.03 24.46 44.59

Zimbabwe 60.28 52.25 48.92 26.78 47.06

76 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016


Modern slavery in the Sub-Sahara was enabled by economic
conditions, violent conflict and territorial displacement, in
addition to widespread humanitarian and environmental crises.[47]
The escalation of violence in
Nigeria following the Boko Haram
conflict[48] has had widespread
effects on Nigeria and across
the region, particularly in
Cameroon where refugees
fleeing conflict have sparked
a humanitarian crisis.[49]
As of February 2016, 2.5 million people were displaced as a
result of the conflict and 20,000 people have been killed.[50]
Conflict is also prevalent in Chad and Cameroon, where Boko
Haram is also active in creating violent conflicts, and in recruiting
young entrepreneurs through predatory loans.[51]
Displacement increases the risk of internal trafficking. In
Burundi, politically-motivated violence associated with President
Pierre Nkurunziza's third term has led to the displacement of
at least 145,000 people.[52] The ongoing conflict in Somalia[53]
and Rwanda[54] similarly continued to create vulnerability
through displacement. Due to the ongoing civil war in the CAR,
approximately one-quarter of the country's population have
been internally displaced and approximately 450,000 remain
displaced.[55] Displaced children, in particular, are at risk of
domestic servitude, forced labour in agricultural industries and
commercial sexual exploitation in the cities.[56] Continuing unrest
in the DRC has left 2.8 million people displaced[57] and at risk of
exploitation by armed groups in forced labour and compulsory
military service.[58] Homeless children in the state-controlled
capital of Kinshasa in the DRC were also at risk of domestic
servitude, forced begging and commercial sexual exploitation.[59]
Slowed economic growth[60] and a failure to invest in domestic
employment[61] pushed citizens from central and western states
of Sub-Saharan Africa to seek work in Europe and the Middle
East.[62] These factors created the perfect conditions for internal
and transnational exploitation, as individuals migrating from
poverty-stricken rural areas to cities in search of employment
were left vulnerable to exploitative labour conditions [63] and
persons abandoning their home countries often took dangerous
migratory paths which also increased the risk of exploitation.
GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
Government responses to modern slavery in Sub-Saharan
Africa were characterised by inadequate victim protection
and a lack of coordination between government agencies and
NGO bodies. Somalia,[78] the Democratic Republic of Congo,[79]
Sudan[80] and Chad[81] faced severe political instability and
internal violence, including losing control of areas within their
borders, consequently reducing their capacity to combat modern
slavery. In Somalia, the government only controlled the capital
of Mogadishu and a small number of surrounding areas.[82]
Consequently, reliable data on the steps taken by the government
to combat modern slavery was unavailable.
Sub Saharan Africa cont.
The critical migratory paths through and from Sub-Saharan Africa
are affected by violence and lawlessness; Migrants travelling
to Saudi Arabia through Yemen were misinformed about the
extent of the conflict.[64] Internal conflict and terrorist attacks left
many stranded in the country[65] and vulnerable to exploitation.
Abduction and trafficking were also common along the Red
Sea coast leading there, especially in lawless regions of eastern
Sudan[66] and along the Ethiopian/Eritrean border.[67] Trafficking
from, through and to Somalia has also been widely reported.[68]
While some of these victims are destined for the Middle East
and Europe,[69] there are reports that children fleeing the Yemeni
conflict have been transported to Kenya for the purpose of sexual
exploitation.[70]
While migrants had previously attempted to reach Europe
through Egypt and Israel, both countries have tightened border
security.[71] Consequently, Mediterranean routes to Italy and the
Baltic states through Libya became more popular.[72] This region
is still experiencing significant instability after the ousting of
Muammar Gaddafi in 2011.[73] Since the Islamic State occupied
the southern city of Sirte, it and the transitional government have
been fighting for control over the country.[74]
Within Libya, virtual lawlessness,
large populations of vulnerable
migrant workers wanting to
travel on to Europe willing to
work to earn their passage, and
xenophobia towards Sub-Saharan
migrants[75] allowed trafficking
networks to operate without fear
of prosecution.
A pervading culture of family-orientated collectivism, in which
gender roles are rigid and seniority is highly revered[76] persists
in many countries across the region. Interactions between these
values, geopolitical conditions and economic factors contribute
to the relative stability of forced and child marriage. Renewed
conflict and internal displacement created a need for physical
and economic security—conditions frequently cited to justify
child marriage.[77]
Despite 33 of the 45 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa running
campaigns against known modern slavery risks since 2010, few
have raised awareness on methods to identify victims. The only
country to make this an annual practice was Burundi, whose
Children and Ethics Brigade ran anti-trafficking awareness
programmes from at least 2011 to 2014.[83] While 28 countries
provided a mechanism to report modern slavery, less than
half covered all demographics and even fewer had evidence
of translation services. Comprehensive reporting mechanisms
were only provided in South Africa and Lesotho.
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 77
 Credit Survivors Criminal Coordination & Addressing Government & Total
rating Country supported justice accountability risk business score

B Nigeria 50.74 59.63 50.00 45.24 0.00 47.54

B Uganda 50.93 50.19 37.50 59.52 0.00 47.36

B South Africa 38.89 55.74 31.25 64.29 0.00 43.98

B Sierra Leone 44.44 45.56 43.75 54.76 0.00 42.99

B Mozambique 53.89 50.56 12.50 47.62 0.00 40.85

B Benin 38.70 20.56 56.25 66.67 0.00 40.55

B Senegal 49.63 32.59 25.00 54.76 0.00 40.20

CCC Burkina Faso 47.41 30.56 37.50 42.86 0.00 37.86

CCC Rwanda 30.93 45.19 31.25 54.76 0.00 36.78

CCC Lesotho 31.48 25.74 50.00 59.52 0.00 36.66

CCC Ethiopia 21.30 33.33 62.50 52.38 0.00 35.01

CCC Djibouti 25.00 28.89 37.50 59.52 0.00 34.46

CCC Cameroon 30.37 33.89 37.50 47.62 0.00 34.29

CCC Ivory Coast 37.96 30.19 50.00 30.95 0.00 33.55

CCC Zambia 33.89 29.81 43.75 38.10 0.00 33.06

CCC Gambia 22.59 35.19 37.50 45.24 0.00 31.47

CCC Namibia 28.15 22.04 31.25 52.38 0.00 31.33

CCC Mauritius 34.44 27.41 18.75 45.24 0.00 30.93

CCC Liberia 27.22 27.41 31.25 50.00 0.00 30.59

CCC Swaziland 36.30 22.04 37.50 42.86 0.00 30.46

CC Gabon 30.00 24.26 25.00 45.24 0.00 29.72

CC Tanzania 27.04 26.48 25.00 47.62 0.00 28.84

CC Chad 26.85 12.04 31.25 52.38 0.00 28.77

CC Ghana 22.04 30.19 25.00 45.24 0.00 28.43

CC Madagascar 31.30 14.44 31.25 42.86 0.00 27.33

CC Botswana 24.81 14.81 37.50 42.86 0.00 26.22

CC Mauritania 25.00 32.41 12.50 40.48 0.00 25.88

CC Malawi 32.22 21.11 12.50 38.10 0.00 25.19

CC Burundi 29.63 14.81 18.75 38.10 0.00 23.90

CC Kenya 21.85 27.41 6.25 42.86 0.00 23.50

CC Niger 12.41 29.26 25.00 40.48 0.00 22.95

CC Republic of the Congo 22.22 8.89 37.50 35.71 0.00 22.33

CC Mali 15.19 12.04 43.75 33.33 0.00 22.04

CC Sudan 24.07 27.41 6.25 33.33 0.00 21.84

CC Angola 20.37 20.37 31.25 28.57 0.00 21.52

CC Zimbabwe 15.37 20.56 12.50 42.86 0.00 20.85

CC Guinea-Bissau 14.81 32.04 25.00 21.43 0.00 20.56

C Cape Verde 15.19 15.37 25.00 30.95 0.00 19.48

C Togo 26.48 4.63 31.25 19.05 0.00 18.73

C South Sudan 20.37 1.48 18.75 28.57 0.00 15.69

Democratic Republic of the
C 7.78 11.67 31.25 26.19 0.00 15.01
Congo
C Guinea 2.78 12.96 31.25 28.57 0.00 14.28
C Central African Republic 14.81 17.22 12.50 7.14 0.00 11.02
D Equatorial Guinea 0.00 18.52 0.00 23.81 0.00 8.92
D Eritrea 0.00 2.96 0.00 26.19 0.00 5.18
No Rank Somalia

78 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016


Almost 40 countries provided some
form of victim assistance; of these, 30
governments actively contributed to
victim support services. Unfortunately,
less than half of these governments
provided services for long-term
reintegration and, moreover, there is
a significant gap across Sub-Saharan
Africa of victim support services for
adults and men.
Yet, even where services are available, the quality of support
remains an important issue; for example, in Malawi, the sole
government-run shelter which only protects children has been
criticised as "so dire that children exploited in child prostitution
returned to the brothels from which they had been removed".[84]
Although almost 20 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa had
produced an NAP addressing modern slavery issues, none
provides adequate funding for plans to be implemented. Few
governments in the region took steps to investigate domestic
labour conditions in the informal sector, and there were several
countries where labour regulations do not cover the informal
sector, such as Rwanda.[85] In terms of investigation, 27 countries
had a law enforcement unit dedicated to modern slavery issues.
However, most lacked sufficient resources in terms of funding
A talibe (boy studying in a Qur'anic school) begs on a bridge in Diamaguene, Senegal, May 18, 2015. Children are forced to beg
for an average of 8 hours a day, many of them spend their days almost without eating and end up sleeping on the streets due
to fatigue.
Photo Credit, Mario Cruz
Sub Saharan Africa cont.
or staff to function properly. Additionally, evidence of standard
operating procedures was only found in Ghana. Only Gambia,
Nigeria and Senegal provided victim and witness protection
mechanisms inside the court and only Gambia, Malawi, Namibia,
Niger, Nigeria, and Swaziland provided protection outside the
court. Moreover, despite the prevalence of children exploited in
the region, only 13 countries[86] provided special measures for
children in criminal proceedings.
While 26 countries have criminalised the trafficking of men,
women and children and 25 have criminalised forced labour,
fewer have adequately criminalised other forms of modern
slavery. Only 14 countries criminalised both buyers and
facilitators of commercial sexual exploitation of children and
only six criminalised forced marriage. Only Burkina Faso has
criminalised all forms of modern slavery, including the use
of children in armed conflict. However, the introduction of
legislation does not necessarily result in adequate sentences.[87]
In 11 countries, sentences were found to be disproportionate
to crimes committed. For instance, child traffickers in Benin
were released on suspended sentences. Similarly, in Tanzania,
a labour trafficker was punished with monetary compensation
and an administrative fine.[88]
Every country within Sub-Saharan Africa is involved in regional
bodies acting against modern slavery or human trafficking;
moreover, 19 have signed bilateral agreements to cooperate
on modern slavery issues. These bilateral agreements included
preventing the deportation of victims, as between DRC
and Angola. However, information on the effectiveness of
implementation of these agreements is not available.
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 79
 THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA

JORDAN LEBANON SYRIA IRAQ KUWAIT

TUNISIA

MOROCCO ISRAEL

IRAN

ALGERIA LIBYA EGYPT

SAUDI ARABIA
QATAR

UNITED ARAB
EMIRATES

OMAN

YEMEN BAHRAIN

Estimated Number Enslaved Regional Proportion of Global Number

2,936,800 6.4%
Average Government Response Rating Average Vulnerability Score

32.7/100 45.0/100
80 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
 MENA cont.

PREVALENCE
Estimated percent of Estimated number
Rank Country population in modern slavery in modern slavery Population

1 Qatar 1.356 30,300 2,235,000

2 Iraq 1.130 403,800 35,730,000

2 Yemen 1.130 303,200 26,832,000

2 Syria 1.130 257,300 22,769,000

2 Libya 1.130 70,900 6,278,000

3 Tunisia 0.766 85,000 11,102,000

4 Morocco 0.639 219,700 34,378,000

4 Jordan 0.639 42,900 6,718,000

5 Egypt 0.626 572,900 91,508,000

5 Iran 0.626 495,300 79,109,000

5 Algeria 0.626 248,300 39,667,000

5 Lebanon 0.626 28,700 4,591,000

6 Kuwait 0.467 18,200 3,892,000

6 Bahrain 0.467 6,400 1,377,000

7 United Arab Emirates 0.404 37,000 9,157,000

8 Oman 0.295 13,200 4,491,000

9 Saudi Arabia 0.292 92,100 31,540,000

10 Israel 0.140 11,600 8,343,000

As violent conflict escalates and political, economic, social and
security spillovers destabilise many countries in the Middle East
and North Africa (MENA), the profile of victims vulnerable to
modern slavery has shifted. Though MENA continues to act as
a destination for men and women from Asia and Sub-Saharan
Africa who are attracted to the region with promises of well-
paying jobs, increasingly Middle Easterners themselves faced
exploitation and slavery in 2016. Victims were identified as
forced recruits in state and non-state armed groups, as victims of
forced marriage and victims of commercial sexual exploitation.
Foreign and local citizens were subject to forced labour and debt
bondage in service sectors such as domestic work, cleaning, and
as drivers and restaurant workers, as well as in construction,
agriculture and mechanics.
Children in Syria, Iraq, Palestine and Yemen were recruited, trained
and deployed in violent conflict. There were increasingly grave
reports of children being used as suicide bombers, informants,
bomb makers and human shields. There are reports of families
selling disabled children to Islamic State (IS) in Iraq[1] and online
videos showing very young children carrying out assassinations
through beheading and shooting.[2] UNICEF estimates a five-
fold increase in the recruitment of children in Yemen's civil war,
meaning that a third of combatants are children.[3]
There are verified reports of women and children being captured,
sold into slavery and held in barbarous conditions by IS. In
2014, IS captured 3,000 women and children, mostly from the
Kurdish-speaking Yazidi minority group—the largest single
capture of women this century. IS propaganda claimed that
the captured Yazidi women and girls were 'spoils of war' to be
divided among fighters.[4] Publications released by IS[5] provide
an extreme interpretation of Shari'a describing the legality and
illegalities of dealing with slaves—"it is permissible to buy, sell,
or give as a gift female captives and slaves, for they are merely
property, which can be disposed of..." This alarming resurgence of
slavery is evident in Raqqa, the self-proclaimed IS capital, and
surrounding IS-occupied territory where women can be bought
and sold at the market. There are reports of IS offering to sell
women back to their families for as much as US$40,000.[6]
Forced marriage of children and women continues to be an issue.
The phenomenon of 'temporary' or 'tourist' marriages whereby
men, often from the Gulf States, travel abroad and temporarily
take a wife for the duration of their vacation has been identified
in Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, Morocco and India.[7] In some cases,
child brides are forcibly married by their parents for economic
gain. Children as young as 11 have been sold into temporary
marriages in Egypt. These temporary religious marriages bind
the girl to her husband for an agreed time frame—often days or
weeks at a time, sometimes only hours—but do not afford the
child or woman any legal rights. This leaves them vulnerable to
domestic servitude and prostitution and, in many cases, denies
citizenship to any subsequent offspring.[8] In Morocco, the 2014
census revealed more than 100,000 child brides,[9] some of whom
may have been married without free and informed consent.
Refugee children from Syria and Iraq have been forcibly married
by desperate parents trying to ensure their economic security and
protect them from the threat of sexual violence.[10]
Migrant workers from Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa continue
to flock to MENA for work. In 2015 there were reports that
Thai nationals were exploited on Israeli farms; [11] Filipina,
Nepali, Bangladeshi, Sri Lankan, Indonesian, Ugandan, Kenyan,
Ethiopian and Mauritanian women were abused in private
homes;[12] and Indian, Nepali, Pakistani and Bangladeshi men
were exploited in the construction of resorts, museums, stadiums
and infrastructure in UAE and Qatar.[13] Migrant workers are
subject to practices that may amount to forced labour including
extortionate recruitment fees, illegal confiscation of identity
documents, withholding and non-payment of salaries, hazardous
working conditions, unhygienic living conditions, unlawful
overtime performed under the threat of deportation, and physical
and sexual abuse.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 81


In 2015, in an IOM and Walk Free
study of 162 exploited migrant
workers from Iraq, Jordan,
Lebanon, Egypt and Saudi Arabia,
100 percent of workers had their
identity documents withheld, 87
percent were confined to their
workplace and 76 percent had
their wages withheld.
Though not representative of all cases, this data points to worryingly
widespread abuse and the ineffectiveness of law enforcement to
quash these illegal but culturally-accepted practices.[14]
Before the violence escalated, migrant workers in Iraq, Syria,
Libya and Yemen were already vulnerable to forced labour and
debt bondage commensurate with regional trends. However,
the current crisis has magnified these issues and introduced
new risks and threats. In mid-2014, hundreds of South Asian
migrant workers in Iraq were caught in the crossfire between the
Iraqi military and IS. Those wanting to leave the country faced
a difficult situation as employers retained worker passports.
Reports of IS holding migrant workers in situations of debt
bondage in Iraq have emerged since their rise to prominence in
2014, as well as their use for forced labour, sexual exploitation
and as human shields in conflict.[15] Though many labour-sending
countries repatriated workers from Iraq, Syria, Libya and Yemen,
concerning reports of South Asian workers accepting jobs in
the Gulf but then being deceptively sent to countries in conflict
by brokers continue to emerge in 2016.[16] Refugees fleeing
conflict, including children, were subject to forced labour in
the agricultural sectors of neighbouring countries, particularly
Lebanon, while Egyptian men continue to be exploited on
Jordanian farms.

VULNERABILITY
Civil & political Social, health, & Refugees &
Country protections economic rights Personal security conflict Mean

Algeria 51.03 28.10 47.02 51.46 44.40

Bahrain 54.41 33.14 41.45 31.26 40.07

Egypt 51.25 27.90 62.96 54.85 49.24

Iran 70.71 32.99 48.60 51.44 50.94

Iraq 71.22 44.91 58.04 81.13 63.83

Israel 33.66 23.67 38.28 51.85 36.87

Jordan 48.39 27.97 54.16 37.73 42.06

Kuwait 59.29 27.97 41.30 15.89 36.11

Lebanon 55.39 29.32 50.98 58.00 48.42

Libya 77.85 22.99 81.44 53.21 58.87

Morocco 55.83 18.58 56.08 22.18 38.17

Oman 57.65 21.03 62.88 12.60 38.54

Qatar 48.79 15.26 50.50 12.30 31.71

Saudi Arabia 64.94 30.92 37.20 28.84 40.47

Syria 95.67 35.93 60.97 72.98 66.39

Tunisia 40.01 25.97 42.84 28.91 34.43

United Arab Emirates 41.71 22.64 30.75 18.36 28.37

Yemen 75.01 51.30 54.67 62.28 60.81

In 2016, conflict in Syria, Iraq, Libya, Palestine and Yemen,
coupled with terrorist attacks in Algeria, Lebanon, Tunisia, Israel
and Egypt, has created a catastrophic humanitarian situation.
There is a strong statistical link between high levels of instability
within a country and an increase in that population's vulnerability
to modern slavery.[17] In cases of armed conflict, there is often
a corresponding weakening of the rule of law, providing fertile
ground for traffickers to profit with impunity.[18] The demand for
the State to respond to other humanitarian emergencies, coupled
with few specific human-trafficking services or organisations in
these countries, means that protection of vulnerable migrants
and support for victims of human trafficking in times of crisis
is limited.[19] In 2015, the IOM and Walk Free found that the
unprecedented displacement of Syrian and Iraqi populations
has had a trifold effect on neighbouring host countries [20]:
(a) increased competition for low-paying jobs and employment
in the informal economy; (b) increased incidence of all forms
of modern slavery, such as child labour, forced begging and
forced early marriage; and (c) reduced capacity of State actors
to respond to trafficking cases because already scarce resources
are outlaid on the emergency provision of services to refugees
instead of supporting migrant workers.[21]
Though the number of refugees seeking international protection
in Europe and further afield is increasing in 2016, Syria and Iraq's
neighbouring countries continue to host almost 90 percent of the
displaced population.[22] More than 142,000 Syrian children born
in exile are vulnerable to statelessness and more than 750,000
children are not in school[23]—worrying indicators of future risk

82 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Asia Pacific
MENA cont.

IOM VICTIM SUPPORTED DATA 2015

The International Organisation for Migration (IOM) is the
largest provider of services to victims of human trafficking
across the globe. In 2015, an estimated 7,000 victims
of trafficking were assisted by the Organisation in 117
countries of destination. The Organisation also collected
in-depth information for 4,858 newly-identified victims of
trafficking from 65 countries of nationality, in 59 countries
of destination/identification. This detailed data is recorded
in IOM’s web-based case management system (MiMOSA).
This is the source of information presented below.
The graphics below present data from victims of trafficking
registered in IOM’s case management system in 2015 in
Middle East and Northern Africa (MENA).
*The numbers in 'sector of exploitation' and 'types of exploitation' are
based on a breakdown of total cases for which data exists. Information
about type and sector of exploitation is not collected in every case.

Victims Supported by IOM in MENA in 2015 Age of Victims at Time of Assistance

Average age of victims

29.8yrs
Approximately 50% of all victims were
ages between 25 and 35

Sex Breakdown
79.2% Female [210]

Number of victims Percent of IOM Global Total

265 5.5% 20.8% Male [55]

Sector of Exploitation* (These categories are not mutually exclusive)

22 Domestic Work
6 Prostitution
3 Agriculture
3 Mining
2 Other
1 Not Known
1 Hospitality

Types of Exploitation* (number) Mode of Entry into Trafficking* (number)

1 Friend Visit 1 Sold by Family
37 Sexual Exploitation 6 Exploitation for Organ 1 Sold by
Removal 10 Offer of Non-Family
Educational
Opportunities

# #
21 K
 idnapping

163 Labour Exploitation 54 Other 141 Offer of Employment or

Labour Migration Opportunities

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 83

 to early marriage and human trafficking. In a 2016 IOM study
of migrating Iraqis, 80 percent of respondents indicated 'no hope
in the future' as the main reason for fleeing.[24] This reveals the
desperation to resettle in secure environments, and may go some
way to understanding the mindset of parents' decisions to marry
daughters off in the hope of securing a better future for their child.
While not directly responsible for the prevalence of modern
slavery, the kafala sponsorship system, which effectively ties
a migrant worker's legal status to the employer, increases
vulnerability to exploitation. Under the system, the migrant's
right to work and live in the host country is dependent on the
sponsor. In most GCC states, Iraq, Jordan and Lebanon where
the kafala system exists, workers are unable to enter or leave the
country, or seek alternative employment, without their sponsor's
written consent. An attempt to leave an exploitative situation
may result in the worker being criminalised for 'absconding',
including possible detention and deportation.
Xenophobic attitudes towards foreign workers from Asia and Sub-
Saharan Africa persist in MENA. There is subtle stigmatisation
that certain low- and un-skilled jobs, particularly manual work
and roles considered dirty or dangerous, are only appropriate for
non-locals.[25] Language barriers fuel the notion among the local
population that workers are uneducated and therefore inferior.[26]
Women in MENA continue to face discrimination in both law and
practice, particularly regarding personal status and nationality
rights. The unequal status of women is felt most keenly in Saudi
Arabia where women are considered legal minors and remain
subordinate to men, requiring permission from male guardians to
work, study, travel and receive health care.[27] Domestic violence
is widespread, with most countries in the region lacking adequate
protection for victims of abuse within the home, and marital rape
is not explicitly criminalised.
Migrant domestic workers face the double discrimination threat
of being both female and a migrant. Many domestic workers
continue to report serious physical and psychological abuse
including threats of and actual beatings, burning with hot
irons, food deprivation, sexual harassment and rape.[28] Migrant
victims of sexual assault risk stigma and, in some countries,
prosecution for illegal extramarital sexual relations.[29] In a
number of countries, a woman's testimony in court is worth
half a man's,[30] police discount women's statements when refuted
by male employers, and judges routinely sentence women for
immorality and adultery stemming from associated sexual abuse
claims. Being a woman not only increases vulnerability to being
exploited but perpetuates victimisation once trapped.

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
Credit Survivors Criminal Coordination & Addressing Government & Total
rating Country supported justice accountability risk business score

B United Arab Emirates 63.89 36.67 56.25 57.14 0.00 49.71

B Israel 49.81 47.96 50.00 61.90 0.00 48.91
B Jordan 45.00 42.22 56.25 42.86 0.00 42.26
CCC Egypt 35.74 32.04 50.00 52.38 0.00 38.59
CCC Qatar 52.41 44.26 25.00 35.71 0.00 37.83
CCC Tunisia 36.11 22.22 18.75 61.90 0.00 34.52
CCC Lebanon 37.59 32.04 37.50 42.86 0.00 34.02
CCC Bahrain 36.67 36.67 25.00 35.71 0.00 31.14
CCC Oman 36.11 29.26 12.50 47.62 0.00 30.57
CC Saudi Arabia 28.70 34.44 25.00 38.10 0.00 28.70
CC Algeria 28.52 24.07 25.00 42.86 0.00 27.61
CC Kuwait 14.81 33.33 25.00 45.24 0.00 25.79
CC Morocco 6.48 24.63 18.75 52.38 0.00 23.13
D Iran 0.00 7.41 0.00 16.67 0.00 4.75
No Rank Iraq
No Rank Libya
No Rank Syria
No Rank Yemen

In 2015, governments in MENA faced challenges responding
to modern slavery but continued to take steps to increase public
awareness, build and enhance shelter services, and improve
national laws. In some countries, such as Lebanon and Jordan,
scores reflected the infancy of policies and laws, with further
action required from a range of stakeholders to improve effective
national responses. Low scores in other countries, such as Oman
and Saudi Arabia, reflected limited political will to recognise the
existence of all forms of modern slavery.
Most countries had undertaken a basic human trafficking
awareness campaign once in the past five years to educate the
general public. This ranged from radio and television campaigns
in Lebanon and the UAE to awareness campaigns in Kuwait's
largest mall.[31] With the support of international organisations,
often the IOM, law enforcement officers and the judiciary were
trained on human trafficking, victim identification and national
legislation in most of the countries in the region.

84 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016


While effective public awareness campaigns and training of
stakeholders are essential to combating modern slavery, efforts
so far have not translated to broad attitudinal shifts in the
community. This is particularly so for employers of domestic
workers who, despite the illegality of the practice, continue to
withhold worker's passports. Research conducted by the IOM
and Walk Free in 2015 found that this was standard practice.[32]
Governments performed well in creating basic national legal
frameworks to criminalise modern slavery of workers. Thirteen of
the 14 states[33] had ratified or acceded to the Protocol to Prevent,
Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and
Children (Palermo Protocol) which obligates states to criminalise
human trafficking. Indeed, most countries in the region have
legislation criminalising some forms of trafficking, with countries
like Egypt and Jordan going beyond the Palermo Protocol
definition by adding the offence of forced begging.[34] Human
trafficking continues to be a 'legally invisible' issue in Morocco
with the absence of legislation specifically criminalising it. In
2015, a draft law was prepared and currently awaits adoption.[35]
Despite the existence of legislation, prosecution for trafficking
crimes remains low across the region. An inability and, at times,
an unwillingness to identify differences between poor labour
practices and situations of forced labour, coupled with a tendency
to favour employer rights, means worker's rights are routinely
overlooked.[36] Many domestic and agricultural workers continue
to be excluded from labour law protections.
In 2015, Kuwait adopted a new
law granting domestic workers
enforceable labour rights, a key
milestone considering migrant
domestic workers constitute
nearly a third of the country's
entire workforce.[37]
Governments across the region should similarly adopt legislation
guaranteeing labour rights for domestic workers.
As global scrutiny of labour practices in the UAE and Qatar
increases prior to large-scale international events—the World
Expo 2020 and FIFA World Cup 2022, respectively—both
governments made legislative amendments to address migrant
worker exploitation. In September 2015, the UAE issued
Ministerial Decree's mandating employers to use and register
standard contracts signed by employees to eliminate contract
substitution. A further Decree allowed for termination of contracts
by employees without employer consent in certain cases.[38]
MENA cont.
In October 2015, the Emir of Qatar
announced reforms to the kafala
system, eliminating an employee's
obligation to obtain their
sponsor's permission to change
jobs or travel abroad, instead
requiring the Ministry of Interior
to approve these movements.
The Ministry must still obtain the employer's consent for
employee movement, but workers will have a right to appeal if
permission is denied.[39]
Disappointingly, the legislative improvements do not apply to
domestic workers in either the UAE or Qatar, further entrenching
the marginalised status of this cohort. The pressure on Qatar
to successfully implement these legislative changes mounted
in March 2016 when the United Nations' International Labour
Organization issued Qatar a warning to end migrant worker
slavery or face a UN investigation.[40]
Within the region, governments did little to stop sourcing goods
and services that use modern slavery, mirroring global findings
of insufficient action addressing the link between modern slavery
and poor business practices. Dubai, 'the city of gold', trades in
approximately 40 percent of the gold flowing into international
markets. Despite extensive evidence of the use of child and
forced labour in the mining of gold, particularly in Burkina
Faso, Colombia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Guinea
and Ghana,[41] only a voluntary standard on responsible sourcing
exists which does not address child labour.[42]
Within countries across the region, there remained a concerning
lack of coordination and accountability, and a mounting need
to address risk factors. Combating modern slavery competed
with key national and regional priorities such as combating
terrorism, dealing with internal and regional displacement,
ensuring economic stability and finding solutions to regional
security.[43] Despite this, some governments in the region have the
political security and financial ability to reform current practices
and implement effective policies. Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman,
Bahrain and Qatar, in particular, can and should do more to
improve their troublingly low response scores.
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 85
 Asia Pacific
MENA cont.

Islamic leaders commit to end modern slavery

For the first time in history, on 2 December
2014—the International Day for the
Abolition of Slavery—leaders of the world’s
largest faiths came together to declare
their common humanitarian commitment
to eradicate modern slavery. The Islamic
faith was represented by Mohamed
Ahmed El-Tayeb, Grand Imam of Al-
Azhar (Muslim Sunni), Grand Ayatollah
Mohammad Taqi al-Modarresi (Muslim
Shia) and Grand Ayatollah Sheikh Basheer
Hussain al-Najafi (Muslim Shia).[44]
The three Islamic leaders asserted that
all forms of slavery were reprehensible
in Islamic law. The Grand Imam of Al-
Azhar rejected assertions that the Quran’s
instructions to treat slaves with kindness
and care legitimised slavery. Instead, he
said, Islam took a sympathetic approach
to the treatment of slaves as a temporary
solution to historical slavery, which in no
way sanctions modern-day exploitation
of people.[45]
Further displays of commitment were
made in 2015 by Islamic leaders in
the region to extend Islamic values
of hospitality and care to vulnerable
migrants, remedy their ill-treatment in
employment, and address their inequality
at law. In September 2015, Sheikh Ali Al
Quradaghi, Secretary-General of the
International Union of Muslim Scholars,
called for equal pay for individuals
doing the same work regardless of their
nationality, compensating employees fairly
by considering the cost of living in the host
country, and giving domestic workers the
same rights as other migrants by including
them under labour laws.[46]
The MENA region has the highest
concentration of Muslims in the
world—an estimated 93 percent of its
approximately 341 million inhabitants
are Muslim.[47] A key way to combat
these crimes is for religious leaders to
encourage their followers to support the
abolition of exploitative practices.

Bekaa Valley, Lebanon, 2015. Houda (14 years old) pictured with
her teddy bear. She left Syria (Raqqa) four years ago and she
got married about one year ago. She lives in the Bekaa Valley
with her family while her husband works and lives in Beirut. Her
husband stays with her only on the weekend. Approximately 1.3
million refugees are officially registered in Lebanon. Marriages
in refugee camps often involve girls of 11 to 13 years, but can
include more extreme cases of girls as young as nine years old.
Photo credit, Laura Aggio Caldon

86 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Asia Pacific cont.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 87

 THE AMERICAS

CANADA

UNITED STATES

DOMINICAN
CUBA JAMAICA HAITI REPUBLIC BARBADOS

MEXICO TRINIDAD
AND TOBAGO

GUATEMALA GUYANA

EL SALVADOR SURINAME

VENEZUELA
HONDURAS
COLOMBIA

NICARAGUA COSTA RICA

PANAMA
PERU
BRAZIL
ECUADOR

BOLIVIA

PARAGUAY

CHILE ARGENTINA URUGUAY

Estimated Number Enslaved Regional Proportion of Global Number

2,168,600 4.7%
Average Government Response Rating Average Vulnerability Score

44.7/100 34.9/100
88 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
 The Americas cont.

PREVALENCE
Estimated percent of Estimated number
Rank Country population in modern slavery in modern slavery Population

1 Haiti 0.995 106,600 10,711,000

1 Dominican Republic 0.995 104,800 10,528,000

2 Guatemala 0.845 138,100 16,343,000

3 Colombia 0.639 308,200 48,229,000

3 Peru 0.639 200,500 31,377,000

3 Venezuela 0.639 198,800 31,108,000

4 Guyana 0.620 4,800 767,000

5 Trinidad and Tobago 0.453 6,200 1,360,000

5 Suriname 0.453 2,500 543,000

6 Bolivia 0.437 46,900 10,725,000

7 Argentina 0.404 175,500 43,417,000

7 Ecuador 0.404 65,300 16,144,000

7 Paraguay 0.404 26,800 6,639,000

7 Nicaragua 0.404 24,600 6,082,000

7 Costa Rica 0.404 19,400 4,808,000

7 Panama 0.404 15,900 3,929,000

8 Cuba 0.332 37,800 11,390,000

9 Mexico 0.297 376,800 127,017,000

10 Honduras 0.295 23,800 8,075,000

10 El Salvador 0.295 18,100 6,127,000

11 Uruguay 0.228 7,800 3,432,000

12 Jamaica 0.212 5,800 2,734,000

12 Barbados 0.212 600 284,000

13 Chile 0.154 27,700 17,948,000

14 Brazil 0.078 161,100 207,848,000

15 United States 0.018 57,700 320,821,000

15 Canada 0.018 6,500 35,871,000

Modern slavery in the Americas affects men, women and
children, and has manifested as forced labour, commercial sexual
exploitation and, to a lesser degree, forced begging. Forced
labour primarily affects men and women in the agricultural,
mining, construction and domestic industries, predominantly in
North and Central America and the Caribbean. Forced labour
is a prevalent issue among indigenous groups in Peru, Bolivia
and Colombia.[1] These incarnations of modern slavery are
prevalent in labour-intensive, unskilled industries, including
agriculture,[2] clothing manufacture,[3] construction and mining.[4]
Young men are particularly vulnerable to forced labour.[5] The
inverse is true of commercial sexual exploitation, where women
and children are more likely to report cases in South America.[6]
Sexual exploitation is particularly prevalent among vulnerable
communities including lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender
(LGBT) groups from Central and South America,[7] and children
in welfare systems in the United States.[8]
Concentrated in rural areas, exploitation occurs in the Cerrado
region of Brazil and along the Amazon, [9] with reports of
forced labour in the mahogany, brick-making, and gold mining
industries in the Amazonian regions of Peru and Ecuador.[10] In
2015, 936 workers were rescued from slave-like conditions in
Brazil alone. These individuals were mainly young males aged
15–39 with low levels of education who had migrated internally
to seek job opportunities.[11] Other reports from 2015 indicate
that approximately 500 Brazilian workers were transported to
Angola, where they worked in circumstances akin to modern-
day slavery.[12] In the Caribbean, limited job opportunities in
Haiti leads many nationals to illegally cross the border with
the Dominican Republic, where they live, work and sometimes
perish in the sugarcane field bateyes. Conditions reported
include indebtedness to recruiters and employers, physical
confinement in the work location, no rest days, lack of potable
water, deception about terms of work, withholding of wages and
unlawful overtime performed under the threat of deportation.[13]
Through surveys conducted by Walk Free Foundation, the
prevalence of modern slavery can be more precisely identified in
several countries within the Americas including Brazil, Guatemala,
Mexico, Chile, Dominican Republic and Bolivia. The survey results
suggest that across these countries forced labour accounts for most
instances of modern slavery, which is particularly prevalent in
manual labour sectors such as construction, manufacturing and
factory work, and domestic work.[14]

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 89

 Poverty is a considerable motivating factor which prompts
vulnerable, low-skilled populations to migrate where often, upon
arrival, they are vulnerable to abuse and exploitation. These
practices are evident all across the Americas, and wealthier
countries such as the United States and Canada are not immune
to such exploitation, particularly in the agricultural sector.
Others sectors have also been identified as high risk including
construction, hospitality and domestic service. However,
detecting this exploitation is made more difficult as a large
percent of victims of labour exploitation enter the United States
with valid visas, for which many victims paid a steep cost of on
average US$6,150 in recruitment fees.[15]
Reported instances of forced prostitution and commercial sexual
exploitation of children across the region reflect a complex
pattern of both internal and external migration.
Young women and children
migrate from rural areas to cities,
or to wealthier nations, or in
some instances mining sites, with
the promise of employment, but
upon arrival they are subjected
to forced labour, debt bondage
and sexual exploitation by their
recruiter.[16]
Gold mine sites in Colombia and Peru, as compared to other
nations within the Americas, had the highest prevalence of sexual
trafficking; an issue magnified by the presence of organised
criminal syndicates in the mining industry.[17] An NGO on the
ground in Peru estimated that, in 2010, in a single gold mine
zone there were approximately 2,000 sex workers, of which 60
percent were children;[18] in 2011, it was estimated that 1,200
girls aged between 12 and 17 were trafficked annually into sexual
exploitation linked to the mining industry.[19]
Commercial sexual exploitation of girls and women is highly
prevalent in Mexico, particularly in the town of Tenancingo,
where the interplay of influential organised crime syndicates,
the grooming of young boys to become pimps by teaching
them to 'honey trap' victims, and coercion through violent
threats combine to trap women and girls in a cycle of sexual
exploitation.[20] Tenancingo acts as an epicentre of commercial
sexual exploitation with many networks rooted in this area.
Recruitment is also increasing in other states, including in rural
communities and even in Central America. Women and girls from
Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Mexico and other nations
within the Americas are trafficked by family members to the
United States.[21] There are reports that Mexican drug cartels
90 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
facilitate the movement of girls too however more research is
needed to know the extent of their involvement.[22] Following
arrival, the migration pattern of Latino trafficking victims
follows a similar path to the trafficking of drugs and weapons
into the United States, due to the involvement of organised
criminal groups.[23] Anecdotal evidence suggests some of these
women and girls are exploited in industries characterised by
the predominance of male workers; particularly within the
agricultural sector, where farm workers in the United States—
who are vulnerable to exploitative labour practices themselves
—have a high demand for cheap sexual services.[24] Many farm
workers are migrants from Latin America and a combination of
isolation, absence of family, and other factors contribute to a
demand for cheap sexual services.
There is a significant gap in research and information on the issue
of forced begging in the Americas; however, anecdotal evidence
suggests that there is a high prevalence of street children across
much of the Americas, and these children are particularly vulnerable
to sexual exploitation, forced labour and forced begging.[25]
In Mexico, in 2014, police rescued 450 children in an abusive
children's home in Michoacán whom were subject to sexual abuse
and forced begging.[26] In the wake of the civil war in Colombia,
indigenous children are also subject to forced begging.[27]
Data on the prevalence of forced marriage is incomplete.
Information was sought about forced marriage in the Walk
Free Foundation surveys conducted in the Americas. Surveys
in Mexico and Bolivia did not identify any cases of forced
marriage but cases were identified in Guatemala, Brazil, Chile
and Dominican Republic.[28] There is little other supporting data
directly on this phenomenon. However, there is data on early
and child marriage.
According to UNICEF in 2014,
Latin America and the Caribbean
were the only zones where the
incidence of child marriage had
not decreased and remained level
with previous years.[29]
In Brazil, 877,000 women reported in the 2010 Census that they
had been married by the age of 15.[30] In 2014, the prevalence rate
of child marriage in Brazil was at 34 percent.[31] Other countries
within the region reported similarly high rates of child marriage:
41 percent in the Dominican Republic, 23 percent in Mexico,
41 percent in Nicaragua, 34 percent in Honduras and 30 percent
in Guatemala.[32]
 The Americas cont.

IOM VICTIM SUPPORTED DATA 2015

The International Organisation for Migration (IOM) is the
largest provider of services to victims of human trafficking
across the globe. In 2015, an estimated 7,000 victims
of trafficking were assisted by the Organisation in 117
countries of destination. The Organisation also collected
in-depth information for 4,858 newly-identified victims of
trafficking from 65 countries of nationality, in 59 countries
of destination/identification. This detailed data is recorded
in IOM’s web-based case management system (MiMOSA).
This is the source of information presented below.
The graphics below present data from victims of trafficking
registered in IOM’s case management system in 2015 in
the Americas. The small number of cases reflects the
differences in IOM programming and the use of MiMOSA
in this region and does not reflect the prevalence of
exploitation and human trafficking.
*The numbers in 'sector of exploitation' and 'types of exploitation' are
based on a breakdown of total cases for which data exists. Information
about type and sector of exploitation is not collected in every case.

Victims Supported by IOM in The Americas in 2015 Age of Victims at Time of Assistance

Average age of victims

17.5yrs
This average is greatly influenced by the age
of a victim who was only 1 at the time she/he
was registered by IOM

Sex Breakdown
25% Female [1]

Number of victims Percent of IOM Global Total

4 0.1% 75% Male [3]

Sector of Exploitation* (These categories are not mutually exclusive)

There is no information available on this issue for the four people assisted in the
Americas, which are recorded in the IOM case management system.

Types of Exploitation* (number) Mode of Entry into Trafficking* (number)

1 Sexual Exploitation 1 Kidnapping 1 Other

# #
1 Labour Exploitation 1 Offer of Educational
Opportunities

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 91

 VULNERABILITY
Civil & political Social, health, & Refugees &
Country protections economic rights Personal security conflict Mean

Argentina 35.63 18.50 34.04 25.36 28.38

Barbados 39.70 15.41 67.00 1.00 30.78

Bolivia 49.71 32.08 38.69 16.57 34.26

Brazil 37.98 20.46 45.88 30.74 33.77

Canada 17.59 23.64 15.48 36.11 23.21

Chile 31.23 19.73 34.26 31.37 29.15

Colombia 51.72 26.54 46.78 43.49 42.13

Costa Rica 36.35 24.40 33.82 23.97 29.64

Cuba 53.60 26.60 34.00 13.99 32.05

Dominican Republic 47.97 33.84 46.38 24.33 38.13

Ecuador 43.69 29.23 37.74 29.98 35.16

El Salvador 49.88 29.58 53.68 8.78 35.48

Guatemala 48.75 34.25 57.12 20.33 40.11

Guyana 39.35 25.57 83.50 5.81 38.56

Haiti 57.68 56.20 58.13 2.60 43.65

Honduras 53.76 34.82 60.12 16.38 41.27

Jamaica 43.21 30.91 46.13 8.68 32.24

Mexico 43.03 30.36 52.84 61.85 47.02

Nicaragua 43.53 31.92 39.79 23.67 34.73

Panama 37.46 29.14 46.18 23.55 34.08

Paraguay 46.02 21.22 38.92 26.14 33.07

Peru 43.85 31.98 44.81 30.33 37.74

Suriname 36.66 12.35 67.00 38.67 38.67

Trinidad and Tobago 35.88 14.40 67.00 16.26 33.38

United States 20.42 23.51 20.96 45.10 27.50

Uruguay 26.65 20.69 28.36 13.89 22.40

Venezuela 58.82 27.75 55.42 35.94 44.48

The Americas are exceedingly diverse across their cultures,
languages and economies. Individuals within these nations are
highly mobile, both inter- and intra-nationally[33]—which, in
addition to the prevalence of poverty and lack of employment
opportunities, provides fertile soil for labour trafficking and
forced labour within national borders and across the region.[34]
Argentina, Chile, the United States, Uruguay and Canada had
the lowest vulnerability scores in the region however, this did
not exclude people within these countries falling victim to
modern slavery. Some populations within these countries had
a heightened vulnerability, such as the large irregular migrant
worker population and employees on temporary work visas in
the United States.[35] Some notable areas where improvements
can be made to reduce the vulnerability to slavery include
increasing protection measures for the most vulnerable,
particularly increasing transparency in temporary worker
visas and labour recruitment reforms, particularly prohibiting
excessive recruitment fees.[36]
Poverty, drug rings, and corrupt judicial systems and border
control are major contributors to the trafficking industry in
the Americas.[37] People smugglers operating between Mexico
and the USA provide illegal passage to migrants; however,
the cost is often a large debt and can involve payment through
sexual slavery or forced labour.[38] Family members also act as
human traffickers,[39] in addition to criminal networks acting
as recruiters, and young male 'pimps'.[40] Large drug cartels
and criminal gangs operating in Central and South America
create hostile, violent conditions, increasing the risk of modern
slavery and human trafficking for vulnerable populations. States
are typically weak to respond to these instances of organised
crime, thus allowing criminal syndicates to operate with relative
immunity. High levels of corruption among police, governments
and judicial systems compound the power of gangs.[41] In Brazil,
police retaliation to gang violence served to escalate the level of
violence and increase the incidence of homicide.[42]
Latin America reports high rates of violence against women, with
El Salvador ranking as the top country for female homicides in the
world.[43] Because of these crime rates, large numbers of women
are seeking asylum in countries such as the United States.[44]
However, asylum on the basis of gender violence remains a
controversial issue and many domestic crimes remain unreported
by police and hospital staff.[45] In the United States, women,
children and transgender youth are particularly vulnerable to
sexual exploitation.[46] There are also reports that lesbian, gay,
bisexual and transgender individuals in Latin America and the

92 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016


Caribbean are trafficked for the purposes of sexual exploitation
to Western Europe.[47]
According to a Gallup poll in 2012 and 2013, women in the
Americas were the least likely in the world to be treated with
respect and dignity, perhaps due to machismo cultural attitudes
and the pervasive violence in the region.[48] These factors, when
combined with continued high demand for domestic workers in
private homes, places these women at risk.[49] Discriminatory
cultural attitudes also place the lesbian, gay, bisexual or
transgender community at particular risk of human trafficking.[50]
Children, especially those in welfare systems or impoverished
and high crime areas, are vulnerable to forced labour and
sex trafficking.[51] Some children from the recent surge in
unaccompanied minors and undocumented families entering
the United States of America have been exploited by their state-
appointed guardians.[52] Children living in poverty, on the streets,
or in areas affected by extensive drug crime are also vulnerable,
as organised crime syndicates use vulnerable children to transport
and sell drugs.[53] Cultural attitudes regarding children at work are
also a contributing factor to labour exploitation of children; for
example, in Ecuador, it is suggested that attitudes surrounding
child street beggars are positive in that these working children will
alleviate the strain on poverty-stricken families, particularly in
indigenous communities.[54] Legal ambiguity between legitimate
child work and exploitation and/or trafficking continues to
hamper efforts to protect children.[55]
The relative wealth and work opportunities in the United
States and Canada are attractive draws for vulnerable migrant
populations from their countries of origin. Unaccompanied
children are at particular risk of modern slavery and exploitation.
Transnational flows show a trend towards the United States and
Canada;[56] however, migration flows also occur between South
American states.[57] In October–November 2015, 10,558 children
crossed the border from Mexico to United States—an increase
of more than 100 percent from the previous year's figure of
5,129.[58] The legal situation of these children is fraught with
uncertainty—legislators and government agencies in the United
States are currently confronting the issue of children travelling
alone in the hope of obtaining asylum. In 2015, the United
States Government provided millions in funding to assist the
government of Mexico to crack down on these migrants, some
GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
Within the Americas, the highest government response rankings
were held by the United States, Argentina, Canada and Brazil.
In 2015, the United States passed the Justice for Victims of
Trafficking Act, which expanded anti-trafficking training and
the amount of compensation provided to victims.[70] The United
States offered a model for survivor leadership. President Obama
formed an Advisory Council on Human Trafficking made up
entirely of survivors. While having a markedly-different risk
profile and access to resources than the United States, it is notable
that Haiti's efforts to combat trafficking improved markedly
with the introduction of its Law on the Fight Against Trafficking
in Persons. The new law criminalised all forms of human
trafficking, established victim protection measures along with
an anti-trafficking committee and enabled victims to receive
compensation.[71] Additionally, Argentina adopted a new NAP to
combat trafficking and gender-based violence[72] and Paraguay
adopted new guidelines for the identification and screening of
trafficking victims.[73]
The Americas cont.
of whom include refugees, crossing the US–Mexico border,[59]
and provided funding to Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador
to assist the reintegration of forcibly-returned migrants.[60]
Systemic discrimination in the
Americas towards indigenous
groups[61] increases their risk
of exploitation.[62] In Mexico, the
extreme poverty of and historic
discrimination against the
Tarahumara indigenous group
make the community "easy
prey for traffickers."[63] The dire
situation of approximately 3
million indigenous girls exploited
in the domestic service and sex
industries led the lower house
of the Mexican Congress to label
them as the most vulnerable
group in Mexico.[64]
Similarly, in Bolivia, the indigenous Guaraní community is
exploited in the agricultural industry, where they work under
conditions of forced labour.[65] The risk factors of poverty, lack
of education, sexual abuse, lack of social support, and physical
or mental health challenges are prevalent in Native American
populations in the United States, which heightens the risk of sex
trafficking for young indigenous women and girls.[66] These issues
are replicated in Colombia, where the civil war has displaced 6.5
million of the population, placing already vulnerable indigenous
women and children at risk of forced prostitution, commercial sexual
exploitation of children and forced begging.[67] In 2016, Canada will
launch an investigation into an estimated 4,000 murdered or missing
indigenous women.[68] Experts believe a percentage of these women
may be victims of commercial sexual exploitation.[69]
Government responses were particularly poor in Cuba and
Suriname. While Cuba's Government has successfully prosecuted
sex traffickers,[74] it continues to deny the existence of forced
labour as a problem within its borders and has not taken
any action to address this issue. [75] Indeed, there have been
allegations that the government coerces medical practitioners
to work in overseas medical institutions for its own financial
gain.[76] Suriname's record was similarly poor. The country has
no national plan of action to address trafficking, no legislation
criminalising modern slavery outside of trafficking and has not
conducted any awareness campaigns since 2010. While Brazil
maintained a high ranking in the 2015 Index, it is important to
note that the country was forced to suspend its public register of
companies fined for the use of forced labour by court order.[77]
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 93
 The Americas cont.

Credit Survivors Criminal Coordination & Addressing Government &

rating Country supported justice accountability risk business Total score

BBB* United States 96.30 79.63 68.75 78.57 75.00 82.84

BB Argentina 49.26 59.81 87.50 78.57 0.00 59.79

BB Canada 57.41 68.52 62.50 64.29 0.00 58.13

BB Brazil 45.56 34.44 87.50 78.57 37.50 56.85

BB Jamaica 47.78 61.85 81.25 54.76 0.00 52.91

BB Mexico 45.00 63.15 50.00 73.81 0.00 52.59

BB Dominican Republic 49.26 59.07 62.50 64.29 0.00 52.49

BB Costa Rica 56.48 45.56 37.50 71.43 0.00 51.13

B Nicaragua 44.07 66.11 56.25 52.38 0.00 49.46

B Chile 44.63 52.59 50.00 69.05 0.00 49.02

B Uruguay 40.56 43.70 43.75 78.57 0.00 48.29

B Colombia 44.07 41.85 43.75 73.81 0.00 47.84

B Guatemala 37.59 51.48 56.25 64.29 0.00 47.22

B Paraguay 35.93 55.56 37.50 76.19 0.00 46.86

B Ecuador 37.22 62.22 25.00 71.43 0.00 45.73

B Peru 47.78 28.33 62.50 61.90 0.00 44.83

CCC Trinidad and Tobago 31.11 44.63 31.25 66.67 0.00 39.69

CCC Panama 11.85 73.15 37.50 57.14 0.00 38.13

CCC El Salvador 32.96 28.89 50.00 57.14 0.00 37.21

CCC Bolivia 17.59 36.67 50.00 57.14 0.00 34.94

CCC Guyana 25.74 50.74 25.00 52.38 0.00 34.81

CCC Barbados 39.44 29.26 50.00 38.10 0.00 34.62

CCC Honduras 24.63 31.67 37.50 59.52 0.00 33.94

CCC Haiti 33.52 37.22 50.00 28.57 0.00 32.04

CC Venezuela 25.00 40.93 12.50 40.48 0.00 28.71

CC Suriname 20.56 19.44 31.25 40.48 0.00 25.36

CC Cuba 25.00 17.78 12.50 38.10 0.00 22.15

Overall government response trends in the region were mixed. Efforts to prevent governments from sourcing goods linked to
While all countries provided victim support services and 20 forced labour continued to be observed in this region, principally
of 27 countries had a toll-free reporting mechanism available by the United States and Brazil.
to all demographics, only six countries had formal guidelines
for identifying victims and only two had functioning referral
mechanisms. While the existence of toll free reporting mechanisms Despite the loss of its forced
are a good first step, efforts to build awareness of the mechanism,
and training and equipping those responding to complaints are
labour register, Brazil maintained
critical to improving response. Similar observations can be made policies against the use of
for criminal penalties and enforcement. While 22 countries in this forced labour in government and
region have criminalised human trafficking and allow victims of
the practice to receive compensation, only nine have criminalised corporate supply chains.[79]
forced labour.[78] This fact is particularly alarming given the
prevalence of forced labour in the Americas. Additionally, only The United States maintained similar policies[80] and the State of
eight countries have adequately criminalised child prostitution, California continued to require the production of annual reports
six have criminalised forced marriage and five have criminalised on the use of forced labour in government supply chains.[81]
the use of children in armed conflict. While 24 countries provided
anti-trafficking training to front-line police and 23 provided
anti-trafficking training to the judiciary, this was only delivered
systematically in two cases for the police and six cases for the
judiciary. Similarly, while 20 countries had an NAP to combat
some form of modern slavery, only four had an independent body
to monitor its implementation—Argentina, Brazil, Jamaica and
Uruguay. Furthermore, evidence of adequate funding for these
plans was only found in Brazil and Canada.

94 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Asia Pacific cont.

In plain sight: modern day slavery in the United States. Nilda came to the United
States when a friend of her employer in Guatemala City offered her a job working
as a domestic worker…Once in the United States she entered a hellish situation of
working about 16 hours a day for almost no pay. Her employers, who were Honduran,
sent her mother $100 per month, but withheld her passport and put her under strict
psychological control. 
Photo credit, Jon Lowenstein/ NOOR

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 95

SELECTED
COUNTRY
STUDIES
A young Cambodian migrant worker loads barrels onto his boat
at Songkhla Port, Thailand. 09/03/2014. Reports of forced labour,
physical abuse, and withholding of wages of migrant workers are
widespread in the Thai fishing industry.
Photo credit, Chris Kelly
 3
Prevalence Index Rank

CAMBODIA
"I was forced to go to sea. I was hit with a knife by
my employer and his team while I was on the ship.
They slapped me. We never stopped working. They
said they will never pay me if I try to escape."
Walk Free survey respondent

Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

256,800

Vunerability to Modern Slavery

41.51/100

Government Response Rating Population GDP (PPP)

CCC 15,578,000 $3,263

98 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

PREVALENCE
Cambodia is a source and destination for exploitation of men,
women and children in all forms of modern slavery, including
forced labour, debt bondage and forced marriage. The 2016
Global Slavery Index estimates 256,800 people or 1.65 percent
of the total population live in conditions of modern slavery
in Cambodia. This is based on a random-sample, nationally-
representative survey undertaken in 2015, that sought to identify
instances of both forced marriage and forced labour within the
general population (survey conducted in Khmer language).
Forced marriage
Walk Free survey results suggest some 55,800 people are victims
of forced marriage in Cambodia (22 percent of the estimated
256,800 people in modern slavery in Cambodia).
A literature review found no available research on forced
marriage, highlighting the need for further investigation. Some
limited figures are available on the prevalence of early marriages.
In 2014, UNICEF reported 18 percent of Cambodian women
marry under the age of 18.[1] Article 5 of the Law on Marriage
and Family (1989) allows for the marriage of children upon
the consent of their parents or guardians if the girl becomes
pregnant.[2] While this may increase the risk of girls being
forced to marry, and girls being forced to marry if they fall
pregnant through rape, there is insufficient data to suggest this
is widespread. NGOs report early marriage among teens aged
14 to 17 is common in certain ethnic groups and geographical
locations, particularly the north-east; however, these unions are
commonly performed with the consent of the children.[3]
Trafficking for marriage
The growing demand for foreign brides in China has created
an emerging market for traffickers in the region. Cambodian
women, eager to escape impoverished lives in rural villages,
are entering brokered marriages to Chinese men in the hope of
a more lucrative life. In reality, many women find themselves
deceived about their new living conditions, with many resettled
in rural China[4] forced to work on farms or as domestic helpers,
with some experiencing abuse at the hands of their husbands.[5]
Other women are recruited for factory jobs and find themselves
forced into marriage.[6] Victims rescued in the past 18 months
have mostly originated from Kampong Cham, Kampong Thom
and Kandal provinces.[7] Cambodian women are also forced into
marriage to Korean and Taiwanese men,[8] some of whom are
subsequently forced into prostitution.[9] No research has been
conducted on the extent of this emerging trafficking trend though
in 2015 NGOs were routinely responding to the needs of victims.
Forced labour
Cambodian men, often highly transient because of their need
to travel to secure employment, are subjected to forced labour
on fishing vessels in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. [10] In
2013, when significant media exposure and international pressure
brought this issue to global attention, ILO figures suggested 9
percent of Cambodian fishers were subject to forced labour,[11]
with Cambodians accounting for 40 percent of fishers across four
major Thai ports. To date, Cambodian victims of forced labour
on fishing vessels continue to be repatriated, including a group
of 59 trafficked fishermen who experienced slave-like conditions
on Thai vessels fishing in Indonesian waters in 2015.[12]
Cambodia cont.
Out of the estimated 201,000 people in forced labour, the Walk
Free survey found an estimated 60 percent of victims of forced
labour were in the manufacturing sector, some of whom may
have been employed in the apparel sector.
In 2014, the Cambodian apparel industry exported US$5.7 billion
worth of goods, roughly one-third of Cambodia's GDP.[13] The
sector employs an estimated 600,000–700,000 garment workers,
nearly 4 percent of Cambodia's population, and indirectly
supports many millions more family members.[14] The apparel
sector draws a large proportion of its workers from rural areas—
the 2015 Cambodia Apparel Workers Survey revealed 97 percent
of workers moved to Phnom Penh for their job.[15] Garment
workers producing for international apparel brands experience
high levels of serious labour rights abuses—conditions which
sometimes amount to modern slavery. Workers continue to
experience forced and excessive overtime as a result of factory
practices and pressure from actors along the supply chain.[16]
Workers unable or unwilling to perform overtime are subject to
dismissal, wage reductions and punitive transfers from a monthly
wage to a piece-rate wage where income is dependent on the
number of garments individuals produce.[17] Poor wages, poor
health and safety conditions, excessive noise, poor air quality,
unsanitary environments and employer abuse are common. In
some smaller factories that operate as subcontractors for export-
oriented factories, workers are employed as casual workers or
on short-term contracts that allow employers to easily dismiss
employees and intimidate workers against speaking out about
abuse for fear their contract will not be reviewed.[18]
Increasing demand for cheap domestic workers in private homes
in the Middle East, Malaysia and Singapore, coupled with the
possibility of earning up to three times the salary than at that at
home, is encouraging Cambodian women to travel abroad, often
through informal channels, for employment as maids, nannies and
carers. In 2011, the government placed a moratorium on sending
maids to Malaysia amid reports of serious abuse; however,
workers continue to travel there through informal channels. In
2015, exploited Cambodian domestic workers continued to be
repatriated from Malaysia,[19] with many suffering serious mental
health issues upon return.[20] Government estimates suggest 8,000
domestic workers remain employed in Malaysia.[21] Despite the
governments of Cambodia and Qatar signing a MoU in 2011
to begin sending Cambodian workers to the Gulf state, in 2015
workers were still prevented from travelling to Qatar amid
concerns of a 'high risk' of sexual abuse, low wages and harsh
laws.[22] There is also demand for domestic workers within homes
in Phnom Penh.[23] Walk Free survey data revealed that of an
estimated total of 201,000 people in forced labour, five percent
were exploited in the domestic service sector.
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 99
 Walk Free Foundation 2015 survey data intermediary rather than more overt selling of sex in brothels. [25]
Boys and young men are also vulnerable to sexual exploitation,
% male % female with many entering the massage industry due to a lack of training
Number % victims victims and skills.[26] The presence of the sex tourism industry has led to
Forced labour 201,000 78 38 62
the sexual exploitation of street children. The majority of street
children who have been identified as victims of this abuse are
Forced
boys, with many citing foreign nationals as the perpetrators.
55,800 22 5 95 Despite this, research suggests that both Cambodian men, and
marriage
men from neighbouring Asian countries are perhaps larger but
Modern less visible abusers of children in the sex industry.[27]
256,800 100 31 69
slavery total
Despite existing literature giving evidence of CSE cases in
Cambodia, the Walk Free survey did not identify any victims
Forced labour by sector of exploitation % in this sector. The survey result may not indicate an absence of
cases but possibly a lack of willingness to self-identify or report
Domestic work 5 this issue. We will continue to work with experts to identify the
Construction 11 most robust ways to ensure the issue of sexual exploitation is
fully accounted for in our survey results in future.
Manufacturing 60
Other manufacturing 0 Forced begging
Farming 18 Cambodian children are exploited as beggars in Cambodian cities
and surrounding tourist hot spots like Angkor Wat, as well as
Sex Industry 0
abroad in Thailand and Vietnam. There is limited data indicating
Drug production 0 the extent of children trafficked into this situation; however,
Retail sector 2 estimates from Friends International research suggest as many
as 80 percent of child beggars in Thailand are Cambodian.[28]
Other 3
DK 1 Orphanage tourism
Refused 1 In 2011, UNICEF reported a 75 percent increase in the number of
orphanages established in Cambodia between 2005 and 2010.[29]
Total 100*
Funding from foreign donors coupled with increasing numbers of
tourists attempting to add value to their vacations by volunteering
* Due to rounding, some totals may not correspond with the sum of the
at orphanages has driven the increase in residential care facilities.
separate figures.
Poverty, particularly the inability of some parents to provide
Commercial sexual exploitation adequate living conditions or education for their children, and
in some sinister cases, the opportunity to profit from the sale of
Cambodia was renowned as a sex tourism destination in the their children into care, supplies this trend. When in care, some
1990s and this legacy is still prevalent today with women and children are forced to perform dances for tourists, distribute
girls trafficked within the thriving sex industry in Cambodia's flyers or perform farm work to raise sufficient funds for their
major cities.[24] Despite significant attempts to curb CSE, NGOs maintenance.[30] In 2016, NGOs continue to report a high number
report the industry has been pushed underground and sex of residential care facilities being used as tourist attractions.[31]
offenders are still able to purchase sex with children through an

VULNERABILITY
Civil & political Social, health, &
Country protections economic rights Personal security Refugees & conflict Mean

Cambodia 53.68 42.96 57.40 12.00 41.51

The mass genocide of an estimated 2.2–2.8 million people under
the Khmer Rouge regime of 1975–1979 dramatically shaped the
current demographics of Cambodia. More than 50 percent of
the population are under 25,[32] placing immense strain on the
national economy to provide employment opportunities for the
young burgeoning workforce.[33]
Cambodia is a low-income country plagued by high levels of
poverty; with more than 40 percent of the population living on less
than US$2 per day.[34] In 2014, almost 80 percent of the country's
population lived in rural areas and suffered comparably high rates
of poverty.[35] Cambodians living in rural areas are susceptible
to land grabbing in the form of economic land concessions by
large companies. Between 2003 and 2013, 2.2 million hectares
of land was seized affecting 420,000 Cambodians, 300,000 of
which were forcibly evicted.[36] The loss of land and, therefore,
livelihood, coupled with few employment opportunities in rural
regions, is increasingly driving irregular and uninformed internal
and cross-border migration. The economic desperation of many
migrants, coupled with limited education or awareness of human
trafficking, creates ideal conditions for recruitment agents and
labour brokers to trap people into situations of debt bondage or
offer lucrative jobs that frequently result in exploitation.
As tourism in Cambodia continues to boom—increasing from
only 700,000 visitors in 2003 to more than 4.5 million in
2014[37]—the vulnerability of children to sex tourists and an
increasing phenomenon of orphanage tourism increases the risk
of children being exploited at the hands of international visitors.
Despite ongoing efforts to eliminate the child sex industry, men

100 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016


from other Asian nations, the USA, Australia, South Africa and
Europe continue to engage in child sex tourism in Cambodia.[38]
Corruption in Cambodia continues to plague anti-trafficking
efforts, particularly the prosecution of perpetrators and the
acceptance of bribes by officials. Transparency International
found Cambodia to be the most corrupt country of the ten
ASEAN states.[39] Government officials continue to avoid
investigation and prosecution for extensive human rights abuses
including torture and assassinations.[40] In 2015, no government
employees complicit in trafficking were prosecuted, and Phnom
Penh's former anti-trafficking police chief convicted for human
trafficking in 2011 had his sentence overturned.[41] Protests
by labour rights unions in early 2014 demanding a minimum
wage of US$177 per month were suppressed, and the leaders
involved were prosecuted.[42] Such corruption can play a central
GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
The Government of Cambodia is making progress in combating
trafficking. However this progress has been slow, and there are
many challenges ahead. In 2014, the government released a
five-year National Plan of Action (NPA) (2014–2018) devised
by the National Committee for Counter Trafficking (NCCT)[45]
in collaboration with USAID and both international and national
NGOs. This plan was designed to replace the 2011–2013 NPA,
which was never successfully implemented.[46] The NCCT has
stated that it has requested US$25,000 for funding from the
Cambodia Government but hopes that the majority of funding
will be provided by the partnered NGOs and INGOs.[47] The
plan calls for increased government resources to combat
trafficking, policy reform to aid the prosecution process and
greater involvement at the regional and local levels.[48] Although
the plan holds promise for improving the country's stance on
trafficking in persons, it has yet to be implemented.[49]
The Cambodian Government has been a member of the
Coordinated Mekong Ministerial Initiative against Trafficking
(COMMIT), of which UNIAP is secretariat, since its foundation
in 2004.[50] COMMIT is run by task forces that are the decisions
makers for all policy and programming relating to trafficking
within their country.[51] At the fourth inter-ministerial meeting
of COMMIT early in 2015, Cambodia pledged to eradicate
any situation that could cause a person to be exploited.[52]
Over the past five years, the government has been developing
nationwide guidelines relating to the identification of victims
within vulnerable populations of society. These guidelines have
been tested in five provinces throughout the country but are yet
to be finalised.[53]
The victim response and support network in Cambodia relies
heavily on NGOs who provide services and use methods based
on their particular missions and capacities. This creates a
patchwork of response mechanisms throughout the country with
no comprehensive unified national institutional response. Due
to the ever-changing nature of the NGO responses, victims may
be missing out on critical support due to a lack of awareness of
services available.[54]
Within the government, some ministries are involved in the
human trafficking response, including the Ministry of Interior
(MOI), Labour and Vocational Training (MOLVT), Women's
Affairs (MOWA), NCCT and Social Affairs, Veteran and Youth
Rehabilitation (MOSVY). Working with these ministries are
workforces, task forces and committees. Although the extensive
Cambodia cont.
role in both facilitating and furthering the prevalence of human
trafficking in the country.
Significant discrimination against girls and women persists,
with traditional gender roles championed in the school
curriculum. Chbab Srey - a customary code of what respectable
women say and do - continues to be taught to students.[43] The
code promotes ideas that women bring honour to and serve
their husband, maintain virginity before marriage and remain
monogamous thereafter, to refrain from drawing attention to
themselves, to remain inside the home at night and to not leave
the home without permission. The observance of these rules has
significant implications for female victims of trafficking - ideas
of subservience to men and shame for their conduct often restrict
victims from coming forward to report abuse, and societal stigma
for breaching cultural codes challenges successful reintegration
of victims.[44]
involvement of government agencies demonstrates that
government is making a concerted effort to combat trafficking,
it has also had the unintended consequence of creating undefined
boundaries of responsibility of the actors involved. This, in
turn, has resulted in discrepancies within services provided to
victims, with some areas being overly resourced while other
areas are completely lacking resources. Further, despite a
concerted effort at the national level, implementation at the
local level is largely lacking support. Law enforcement task
forces lack the resources and training necessary to provide an
effective response to trafficking. Similarly, although 2008 and
2009 saw the introduction of the Law on the Suppression of
Human Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation and the renewed
Penal Code, local practitioners lack the capacity to effectively
enforce them.[55]
Many victims in Cambodia do not receive adequate services.
The government is yet to develop a policy or practice that would
allow NGOs to take children into care, without risk of liability
and court action. If guardians of children refuse to allow their
child to attend a shelter, the children are often returned to their
homes where they may face a high risk of re-trafficking.
Male victims, in particular, lack sufficient shelter and associated
services. Foreign victims located in Cambodia are usually
repatriated to their home country and provided no legal
alternative regarding any hardship or risk they faced on return.
Similarly, Cambodian victims identified abroad lacked access
to government assistance particularly if located in countries
that lack Cambodian representation. These victims were largely
forced to rely on support from NGOs and INGOs.[56]
The Cambodian Government is obligated under international law
to ensure that the rights of workers are respected and redress
mechanisms are available. However, despite thousands of factory
inspections between 2010 and 2013, only ten fines were imposed
on factories violating labour regulations.[57]
In October 2015, prompted by years of ongoing violent protests
by garment workers and international pressure by rights groups,
the government raised the minimum wage for workers in the
apparel industry to US$140 a month.[58]
Though this goes some way to meeting worker demands,
greater inspections and increased punishments for perpetrating
employers must occur.
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 101
 RECOMMENDATIONS

Government Business
• Increase specialist human trafficking support staff at • Conduct social audits on suppliers identified as high risk.
embassies where high numbers of Cambodian victims • Travel and tourism businesses to adopt child-safe tourism
have been identified, particularly in China, Thailand, policies.
Malaysia and Vietnam. Ensure that embassies/consulates
• Promote respect for workers' rights in the supply chain,
have sufficient budgets to provide immediate emergency
including both direct suppliers and subcontractor factories.
care, and establish shelter options for exploited
Cambodians to recuperate while their situation is resolved
(particularly pertinent for the Royal Cambodian Embassy
to Thailand, which is understaffed and unable to address
the needs of the volume of Cambodian's in need).
• Ensure embassy staff have sufficient training to provide
support to victims of modern slavery and to collaborate
with NGOs (both regional and local) to provide for the
voluntary return of victims.
• Sign a MoU between Cambodia and China to combat
trafficking for marriage in China. This MoU should define
trafficking to reduce the definitional discrepancy between
both countries when handling these cases.
• Regulate recruitment agencies and standardise information
provided to overseas job seekers.
• Increase training for police officers in the identification
of victims and handling of trafficking cases. Provide
specialised training in technologies designed to identify
and track foreign child sex offenders travelling to
Cambodia.
• Continue and upscale awareness campaigns to prevent
the sexual abuse of children, targeting school teachers,
parents, children and tourists.
• Improve the amount and quality of labour inspections,
particularly in the apparel industry, focusing on forced
overtime, non-payment of wages and working conditions.
• Monitor and issue public progress reports on enforcement
actions.
• Discipline or prosecute, where appropriate, law enforcement
personnel found complicit in cases of modern slavery.
• Conduct widespread awareness campaigns on the risks
of exploitative work abroad, particularly for men in the
fishing sector.

102 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Cambodia cont.

Phnom Penh, Cambodia 02/01/2014. Garment workers tried to help workers leave a factory during a strike but were prevented
by military forces from a nearby army base. Two women take shelter during a clash between protestors and police when a
garment workers' strike turned violent.
Photo credit, Luc Forsyth / Ruom

Phnom Penh 2014. In this image, Special Forces soldiers assault non-profit employees observing a violent stand-off between the
military and striking garment workers.
Photo Credit, Luc Forsyth

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 103

 8
Prevalence Index Rank

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
"They talked to us as if they were selling a product.
All the traffickers see is the money. We were told
the girls would do anything we wanted, however
we wanted... [They] never in their wildest dreams
thought they were going to get arrested. We want
to break this cycle of impunity."
Interview conducted by Reuters with an agent who ran
a sting operation against a child prostitution ring,
4 January 2015.[1]

Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

104,800

Vunerability to Modern Slavery

38.13/100

Government Response Rating Population GDP (PPP)

BB 10,528,000 $13,262
104 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
 Dominican Republic cont.

PREVALENCE

The 2016 Global Slavery Index estimates 104,800 people or 1.00
percent of the total population live in conditions of modern slavery
in the Dominican Republic. This is based on a random-sample,
nationally-representative survey undertaken in 2015, that sought to
identify instances of both forced marriage and forced labour within
the general population (surveys conducted in Spanish language).
Children in the Dominican Republic are also at risk of exploitation
in domestic service, street vending (shining shoes and washing
car windows), begging, construction and the movement of illicit
narcotics.[14] There is evidence of children being trafficked from
rural to urban locations within the country, as well as Haitian
children being trafficked across the border.[15]

Commercial sexual exploitation Forced marriage

White sand beaches attract around five million tourists to the Walk Free survey data revealed a small number of forced
Dominican Republic each year,[2] making it the most visited marriage cases in the Dominican Republic, with one percent
Caribbean destination and accounting for 16 percent of GDP.[3] of the total of all cases of modern slavery identified as forced
Unfortunately, this has been accompanied by clear patterns of marriage. Little recent empirical evidence exists on forced and
child sex in tourist and nightspot destinations, such as beaches, child marriage. Data from 2007 suggests a national average of
parks, bars and nightclubs. An NGO reports foreigners account for 40 percent of girls married before 18.[16]
between 23 and 25 percent of customers engaging in commercial
sexual exploitation of children, which simultaneously indicates a
large proportion of CSE buyers are Dominican.[4] It is estimated Walk Free Foundation 2015 survey data
one in four sex workers in outdoor locations is a teenager, most
% male % female
aged between 15 and 17.[5] There is a cultural tolerance of older Number % victims victims
teenage girls aged 15 and above engaging in sex with tourists.[6]
Minors can be sourced from motoconchos (motorbike taxi drivers) Forced labour 103,800 99 93 7
and taken to cabañas (auto-motels) in Santo Domingo, Santiago
de los Caballeros and coastal towns, where customers pay by Forced
900 1 100 0
the hour.[7] There are serious concerns that police are complicit marriage
in or turn a blind eye to the abuse of people working in the sex Modern
industry, including in areas known for child sex trafficking.[8] 104,800 100 94 6
slavery total
Dominican women and children are also subject to trafficking
for CSE abroad. Victims have been identified in neighbouring
Haiti and throughout the Caribbean, as well as in Argentina, Forced labour by sector of exploitation %
and some other Latin and Central American countries.[9] In the Domestic work 4
past five years, the International Organisation for Migration
has provided assistance to Dominican girls rescued from the Construction 65
Haitian sex industry, as well as returning victims from several Manufacturing 0
islands in the Caribbean.[10] Dominican victims of CSE have
Other manufacturing 0
also been identified in Europe, notably the Netherlands, Spain,
Italy, Portugal and Greece, as well as in the USA, Japan and Farming 20
throughout the Middle East.[11] Sex Industry 0
Despite existing literature giving evidence of CSE cases in the Drug production 1
Dominican Republic, the Walk Free survey did not identify any Retail sector 0
victims in this sector. The survey result may not indicate an
Other 0
absence of cases but possibly a lack of willingness to self-identify
or report this issue. We will continue to work with experts to DK 0
identify the most robust ways to ensure the issue of sexual Refused 10
exploitation is fully accounted for in our survey results in future.
Total 100
Forced labour
Haitians, Dominicans of Haitian descent and Dominicans
themselves experience exploitative labour conditions that
sometimes amount to forced labour in various occupations
including construction, agriculture, private security services,
domestic services and the informal sector. Some 65 percent of
the total 104,800 cases of forced labour identified in the Walk
Free survey reported the exploitation having occurred in the
construction sector. Evidence of slavery-like practices on sugar
cane plantations and farms growing tomatoes and rice persists
with some workers labouring under the threat of deportation,
having their wage withheld or reduced, and having no formal
contract (though oral employment contracts are legally valid in
the Dominican Republic).[12] Most live in bateyes (communities
attached to plantations) characterised by no fresh water,
sanitation or electricity.[13] There is some evidence of children
working alongside their families on plantations.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 105

 VULNERABILITY
Civil & political Social, health, &
Country protections economic rights
Dominican Republic 47.97 33.84
Despite the Dominican Republic's high rates of economic
growth, more than 40 percent of the multi-ethnic, multicultural
population lives in poverty.[17] Unemployment is rife, with
many workers resorting to unstable informal work where they
face precarious working conditions. Women, in particular, are
vulnerable to informal employment where they commonly
earn incomes below minimum wage.[18] Dominicans frequently
seek opportunities to travel abroad for employment—the latest
survey by the Americas Barometer found 28.9 percent of citizens
intended to live or work in a third country within the next three
years.[19] Only Jamaicans and Haitians had a higher intention
to leave their country.[20] The desire to seek better employment
opportunities abroad drives labour brokers to exploit jobseekers,
often resulting in irregular migration and sometimes in situations
of debt bondage and forced labour.[21]
Uneven access to obtaining birth certificates and identification
documents denies many children admission to primary and
secondary schools.[22] This contradicts the General Education
Act which provides for education as "a permanent and inalienable
human right...without any discrimination on the grounds of race,
sex, belief, economic and social status or any other basis". [23]
NGOs report that the misapplication of this right means some
children are pushed into work while others attend school but are
GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
The Dominican Republic have enacted legislation criminalising
all forms of human trafficking[29] and in 2013 reformed the
Criminal Code to include slavery and increase penalties for
commercial sexual exploitation of children.[30] The Criminal
Code includes penalties for illegal travel, child labour and
commercial sexual exploitation.[31] To meet the legal mandate,
two inter-institutional groups were formed: the Inter-Agency
Committee Protection of Migrant Women (CIPROM) (Decree
No. 97-99 of 1999) and the Inter-agency Commission on
Combating Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Migrants
(CITIM) (Decree No.575-07 of 2007). The latter drafted and
promoted the implementation of the First National Plan against
trafficking 2009–2014. Combating trafficking in persons has
been added to the National Human Rights Plan.
In 2013, the Attorney General's Office shared letter No. 00788,
instructing all members of the Public Prosecution Service
to take immediate and forceful action against "pimping and
human trafficking". Since this time, to enhance investigation
and prosecution, the National Police, Migration Directorate,
Attorney General's Office and the three largest Prosecutors'
Offices (Santo Domingo, Distrito Nacional and Santiago)
have created specialised units to combat human trafficking. In
particular, the role of the Specialized Prosecutor against the
Smuggling of Migrants and Trafficking in Persons has created
a comprehensive policy to combat trafficking in persons and
migrant smuggling. The Prosecutors Office has created standard
operating procedures with the support of the Specialized
Prosecutor Office against TiP (Políticas para la Persecución Penal
de los Fenómenos Criminales: Tráfico Ilícito de Migrantes y Trata
de Personas). With the support of international organisations,
106 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
Personal security Refugees & conflict Mean
46.38 24.33 38.13
restricted from sitting national exams to obtain a diploma.[24] This
limits opportunities for children to pursue higher education and
access formal sector employment and may increase their risk
of accepting exploitative work as adults. As a result, women
accept offers of low or semi-skilled work as waitresses, dancers
or models, which in practice can manifest as commercial sexual
exploitation at the hand of a trafficker.[25]
Discrimination against certain ethnic groups in Dominican
society results in a significant disparity in employment, and
access to basic public services.[26] Haitians provide a cheap
source of labour for construction, agriculture and domestic work.
Undocumented or stateless Haitians and Dominicans of Haitian
descent are most vulnerable to modern slavery. The most recent
government figures from 2012 suggest that more than 458,000
Haitians live in the Dominican Republic, while NGOs estimated
in 2015 that as many as one million Haitians live in the country,
many of whom are stateless and vulnerable to deportation.[27] In
2013, the Dominican Constitutional Tribunal stripped citizenship
from children born to people 'in transit', the vast majority of
whom were undocumented Haitian immigrants.[28] The porous
border between Haiti and the Dominican Republic continues to
provide an escape to those in search of economic opportunities
and ensures traffickers can transport people without detection.
these government departments tasked with combating trafficking
have been provided specialised training and equipment to aid in
the investigation and prosecution of human trafficking cases.[32]
This has included capacity building activities such as training in
Creole, the language spoken in neighbouring Haiti and by many
victims of modern slavery, and the administration of a certificate
course in Human Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation undertaken
by 40 prosecutors.[33] The combination of improved public
policy and intensive training of law enforcement bodies has
increased investigations, prosecutions and convictions. Between
January 2014 and March 2015, 18 cases were prosecuted against
traffickers and 20 cases have been prosecuted for CSE.[34]
Despite these initial
improvements, NGOs report a
vital need for increased inspection
in all sectors where children are
known to be exploited.
Language training must be rolled out more broadly, as labour
inspections continue to be hampered by translation issues between
Spanish-speaking inspectors responsible for interviewing Creole-
speaking workers with limited or no Spanish-language abilities.[35]
There are also serious concerns about official complicity in
trafficking cases, with police reportedly failing to identify minor
victims of CSE, physically or sexually-abusing minors, and in
one case, a police officer is to be tried for his participation in a
sex trafficking ring that involved child victims.[36]
 Dominican Republic cont.

There are ongoing efforts to combat sex tourism where many
victims are sexually exploited at the hand of traffickers. Tourists
with sex convictions have been denied entry to the country by
immigration officials.[37] The Specialized Corps for Tourist Safety
(CESTUR) work in partnership with UNICEF to build capacity
and train members of the tourism industry.[38] Hotels have
signed codes of conduct and frequently display signs saying:
"It is prohibited to take minors into hotel rooms" and "Trafficking
and sexual exploitation are crimes punishable by law."[39] While
UNICEF reports that CESTUR is working to prevent child sex
abuse in tourist areas, rescuing minors and arresting and bringing
to justice child sex offenders, local NGOs have not seen evidence
of this.[40]
In 2015, the Inter-Agency Commission Against Trafficking in
Persons (CITIM), in collaboration with the IOM, developed a
protocol to detect, refer and assist child and adolescent victims
of trafficking. However, some reports indicate that CITIM did
not convene all relevant agencies during the reporting period and
that its efforts were otherwise limited.[41] In 2015, the IOM also
assisted the government in the creation of a second protocol—
to identify, assist and reintegrate survivors of trafficking in
persons.[42] Local organisations largely welcomed the protocols
but reported concerns about the limited efforts being made to
implement the protocols.[43]
Victim assistance continues to be largely provided by international
and local organisations. In late 2015, the government remodelled
a house that it intends to open as a shelter for human trafficking
survivors immediately after their rescue. The funding for the
remodelling was secured from a private donor. NGOs report
that the shelter is scheduled to open in 2016.[44] This is a positive
development considering no government agency currently
provides case management, therapy, job training or other
economic empowerment opportunities.[45] One NGO reported
that many survivors of slavery, particularly minors, are often
quickly returned to their family without sufficient screening and
often left to seek support on their own.
To address the unregistered status of many people in the
country, the 2014 Naturalization Law was passed to recognise
the nationality of those already registered as Dominicans,
and to establish a registration process for those entitled to
citizenship but who lacked official documentation.[46] The Plan
Nacional de Regularización de Extranjeros, (National Plan for the
Regularization of Foreigners) was established by Presidential
Decree No. 327-13 and began accepting applications from June
2014 to May 2015.[47] Following the expiration of the registration
period in June 2015, thousands of people have crossed the border
into Haiti, either spontaneously out of fear of arrest or have
been forcibly returned by Dominican authorities. [48] In June
2015, there were reports people were deported on the basis of
appearance with little or no verification of their identity and
nationality.[49] In January 2016, international organisations
reported that Dominican migration authorities have established
stronger procedures including case-by-case handling, verification
of migration status and dignified shelter, all of which were being
monitored by the UN country team.[50]
Deportations are creating a complex migrant situation, whereby
stateless people are returning to Anse-Pitre in South-East Haiti
where prolonged drought is resulting in food insecurity and
malnutrition. As of September 2015, four informal settlements
have sprung up in Haiti to house up to 3,000 people.[51] Lack of
basic services and health care means many men cross the border
back into the Dominican Republic each day seeking low-paid
work. Without identification documents proving they are either
Haitian or Dominican, this stateless group will remain extremely
vulnerable to exploitation.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Government
• Investigate cases of children being solicited for sex in tourist
areas, prosecute offenders and refer victims to shelters.
• Follow up on the regularisation of all migrants, and ensure
that nationality is granted to those who are entitled, that
consular services (especially Haitian) are available to
assure access to birth registration and ID documents.
• Assure access to Dominican Nationality to those who
would become stateless unless otherwise granted.
• Ensure that all children and adults can obtain identity
documents to reduce their vulnerability to forced labour.
• Continue to train police and labour inspectors in Creole to
ensure exploited workers are identified.
• Ensure the National Police and Public Ministry commit
to increasing the capacity of law enforcement officials to
investigate human trafficking.
• Investigate and record the rates of forced and child marriage.
• Commit to developing specialised services for victims,
particularly child victims, through CONANI (Child
Welfare Agency).

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 107

 4
Index Rank Index Rank
Prevalence

INDIA
“No one can imagine such a painful life. There is
much torture on me and I am punished even at my
minor mistakes like a child. My family is always
living under threats. There is also physical violence
against me and my family members.”
Survey respondent, India State Survey, 2016.

Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

18,354,700

Vunerability to Modern Slavery

51.35/100

Government Response Rating Population GDP (PPP)

B 1,311,051,000 5,701
108 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

PREVALENCE
India is undergoing a remarkable 'triple transition', in which
economic growth is both driving and is being affected by rapid
social and political change.[1] Economic growth has rapidly
transformed the country over the past 20 years, including the
creation of a burgeoning middle-class.[2] In 1993, some 45
percent of the population were living in poverty; by 2011 that had
been reduced to 21 percent.[3] In addition to economic growth,
ambitious programmes of legal and social reform are being
undertaken right across the board, from regulation of labour
relations to systems of social insurance for the most vulnerable.
Even with such remarkable change, given India has a population
of more than 1.3 billion people, there are still at least 270 million
people living on less than US$1.90 per day. While laws, systems
and attitudes regarding key 'fault lines' such as the caste system,
gender and feudalism are rapidly changing, social change of
this depth and scale necessarily takes time.[4] In this context, it
is perhaps unsurprising that existing research suggests that all
forms of modern slavery continue to exist in India, including
intergenerational bonded labour, forced child labour, commercial
sexual exploitation, forced begging, forced recruitment into non-
state armed groups and forced marriage.
Quantification of modern slavery in any country is difficult, but
is doubly so in a country as large and complex as India. Whereas
in other countries, a national survey was used to estimate
prevalence, in India, we chose to proceed with surveys at the
State level. In 2016, random-sample surveys were conducted
by Gallup in 15 States.[5] Collectively these surveys account for
nearly 80 percent of the Indian population.
The survey data suggest that there are more than 18 million
people or 1.4 percent of the total population, who are living in
conditions of modern slavery in India. Industries implicated in
the survey data include domestic work, the construction and sex
industries, agriculture, fishing, manufacturing, manual labour,
and forced begging.
Bonded labour
While bonded labour has been outlawed for decades, survey data
and pre-existing research confirms that this practice still persists.
Narratives available from 2016 survey respondents identify that
some respondents perceived their situation to be one of bonded
labour, some of which is inter-generational:
"Sir, it is the sin of my father that I have to repay the debts unless
I shall have to beg. I have a threat against my family. I am
prone to physical violence everyday." (Survey respondent, 2016)
"This is an old disease in the village that if you are not able
to pay off your debts you will have to work as a bonded
labor in the field of a powerful person. My husband was
employed far from the village so that he can not run away."
(Survey respondent, 2016)
In other cases, it appeared that bonded labour reflected debt
lending practices and continuation of a feudal mindset:
"There are many people in the village who were working with me
as a bonded labor. I was physically and sexually assaulted when
I was working in the field. I had also threat on my life and on
my family. I was also threatened that I had to leave the village."
(Survey respondent, 2016)
"It's very common in this village that we have to work for repay
the amount, our family borrowed. I was one of them. My motto
was just repay the amount as soon as I could. They threatened
India cont.
to evict us from our homeland, shown their anger if I denied
to perform any task. Sometimes the consequence extended
to my family and they used physical torture in several time."
(Survey respondent, 2016).
Bonded labour is not only illegal, research confirms that it has
serious negative health impacts for those affected, who typically
work in unsanitary and dangerous working conditions with no
access to health care.[6]
Domestic service
Examples of forced labour of domestic workers were described
by survey respondents. While not all domestic workers are
abused, domestic workers are a particularly vulnerable group
as work takes place in private homes and largely out of the reach
of regulation. Official figures in India suggest that there are more
than 4.2 million men, women and children working as cooks,
cleaners, drivers, gardeners and caregivers across the country.[7]
These estimates are from 2004[8] and experts suggest that there
may be many more workers unaccounted for in these statistics.[9]
Domestic workers in some states are excluded from labour laws
and can experience excessive overtime, withholding of wages
or receive insufficient remuneration. It is reported that girls as
young as ten continue to be hired in private homes.[10] Domestic
workers can be subject to threats of and actual physical violence
and in, some cases, sexual abuse.
"You are well aware that if a young lady works as a domestic
servant she is always a soft target of being easily molested.
So with me. I have not paid a single amount and in the
name of debt I was made a victim of the sexual violence."
(Survey respondent, 2016)
Forced begging
Street begging by adults and children is a prominent feature of
many Indian cities. Though many beggars do so out of economic
desperation, survey data confirms that criminals also force people
to beg:
"Though I am begging I am not paid a single amount. I have
to deposit all to them. I am deprived of food and good sleep.
I am not paid my wages only working as a bonded labor."
(Survey respondent, 2016)
"I was forced to do begging and still begging with the
others….I cant say anything to you because I am in constant
fear. I am threatened by my employer not to open my
mouth to anybody otherwise I will be punished severely."
(Survey respondent, 2016)
Commercial sexual exploitation
Existing research and the 2016 survey data confirm the existence
of forced prostitution. As one survey respondent said:
"My wife is kept in the locked room and sexually harassed and
being forced to work as a prostitute. She is physically punished
whenever she refuse to have sex. My family is under death
threat. We are also threatened of legal action against us."
(Survey respondent, 2016)
Another reported:
"I was forced to work in the flesh trade… Can you imagine that
I kept in a locked room for the whole day when I refused to
work under pressure? It is because they had always threatened
me and my family for physical violence and tortured."
(Survey respondent, 2016).
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 109
 Existing National Crime Records Bureau data indicate there were
almost 5,500 cases across India under existing human trafficking
laws in 2014. As the law does not differentiate between human
trafficking and sex work, and there are no formal guidelines on
who is identified in rescue and raid situations, it is impossible
to know if every one of these cases involved force or children,
or whether some were simply cases of economic survival.[11]
Forced marriage
More than 50 percent of women are married in India before
the legal age of 18.[12] Despite the illegality of sex-selective
termination of female foetuses, the introduction of sex-
determination by ultrasound[13] has seen some areas of India
experience significant gender disparity and a dearth of available
brides. The subsequent demand for brides, particularly in rural
communities where many girls of marriageable age have migrated
to cities for employment, has fuelled the trafficking of women
for forced marriage. It is reported that in some instances, girls
are forced into marriage and then used as unpaid labourers—
local day labourers cost US$140 for a season but a bride can
cost only US$100 as a once off payment.[14] The northern state
of Haryana has India’s most distorted sex ratio—114 males for
every 100 females.[15]
110 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
The Walk Free survey questions have been carefully designed
to draw a very clear distinction between arranged marriages
(which are not in scope), and forced marriages (which are in
scope). Cases of forced marriage were identified through the
survey process.
Forced recruitment for armed services
A number of regions in India continue to experience armed
violence and conflict between state-armed forces and armed
opposition groups (AOGs).[16] There is ongoing evidence to
suggest that children are forcibly recruited into AOGs in Jammu
& Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan, Bihar, Orissa, Jharkhand and
West Bengal, Assam, Manipur and Tripura, Uttar Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.[17] Some children as young
as six are used by Naxalites as informers and trained to fight
with crude weapons, such as sticks.[18] Once children reach 12
years, they receive training in weapon handling and the use
of improvised explosive devices. Some women and girls have
reported experiencing sexual violence in militant camps.[19]
Man carpet weaving, working
under a fair trade model,
having been liberated from
intergenerational debt bondage.
Photo credit, Grace Forrest
 India cont.

VULNERABILITY
Civil & political Social, health, & Refugees &
Country protections economic rights Personal security conflict Mean

India 37.07 36.68 43.88 87.78 51.35

There are more than 270 million people living below the poverty required to clean out dry latrines. When they seek to leave or
line in India.[20] Homelessness, including of children, remains refuse to do this work, they face violence and abuse.[25]
a major concern. For example, a census of children living on
Women and girls face significant discrimination and high rates
the street in Mumbai in 2013 found a total of more than 37,000
of sexual violence across India, and this is particularly true for
children, primarily concentrated in commercial areas with a
women and girls from the Scheduled Castes and Tribes.[26] While
bustling informal economy. Seventy percent were boys and thirty
Prime Minister Narendra Modi referred to a string of rapes as
percent were girls, and 18 percent were in the 10–12 year old
a national ‘shame’, and there has been a raft of legislative and
age bracket.[21]
criminal justice reforms signalling some progress, women are
The informal nature of much of India’s labour economy also still at very high risk of sexual assault and domestic violence.
impacts on vulnerability. According to government statistics,
While factors such as dowry payments and a desire to avoid
some 75 percent of rural workers and 69 percent of urban workers
sexual violence are commonly given as reasons for early and
are in the informal economy.[22]These workers face risks associated
child marriage, recent research suggests that these are symptoms
with a highly unregulated and unmonitored work environment,
of deeper risk factors. Vulnerability to early and child marriage
particularly in the country’s many brick kilns. The country’s
has been attributed to a complex matrix of underlying risk
steady population growth and the corresponding demand
factors, reflecting the interplay of patriarchy, class, caste, religion
for improvement of infrastructure and increased dwellings
and sexuality, that all impact on decision making.[27] Overlaid
have enabled the ʻblood bricks’ produced in these industries
with this are the economics of marriage, dominant concepts of
to continue.[23]
sexuality, widely-accepted gender norms including concepts of
Vulnerability to slavery in India has some common elements, masculinity, educational and institutional gaps, the centrality of
with poverty and the lack of capacity to absorb shocks, and marriage in Indian society, and the desire for parents to exercise
deep structural inequalities reflecting gender, caste and tribe all control over their children as they become young adults.[28]
being highly relevant.[24] However, vulnerability is also distinct
Across India, but particularly in some southern states, Indian
state by state. For example, in Bihar, agricultural shocks, high
migrant workers actively seek jobs in construction and care
prevalence within the population of members of the Scheduled
industries, primarily in the Gulf, Europe and North America. There
Castes, combined with borders to Nepal, result in forced labour
are reported to be 14 million Indian men and women working
connected to migration for work both within and from India.
overseas, primarily in the Gulf, many of whom will have sought
Also, Bihar is one of the states affected by the Naxalite conflict.
work through their networks rather than formal channels.[29]
According to the UN Security Council, Naxalites in Bihar,
Official migration processes are complex and often tainted by
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Odisha states recruited boys and
corruption, which further encourages irregular migration. These
girls between six and 12 years of age into specific children’s
channels leave migrants with little recourse against practices such
units. Uttar Pradesh which has the highest proportion of castes
as unilateral contracts, dangerous working and living conditions,
and tribes of all Indian states, the issues are quite different.
limited movement and access to communications, withholding of
For example, so-called ʻmanual scavenging’ is reported to be
passports and wages, and physical and sexual abuse.[30]
still widely practised, in which members of a certain caste are

Promising practices in responding to bonded labour

Uttar Pradesh (UP) is India’s most populous
state with a population of nearly 200
million people. In UP, statistics on bonded
labour suggest remarkable improvements,
reflecting the work of NGOs that work with
local communities to bring people out of
bonded labour.
In 2013, a group of labourers from
Chhattisgarh went to Jammu and Kashmir
(J & K) to work as daily-wage labourers in
a brick kiln. What began with a promise
of better life soon turned into drudgery,
perennial hunger, abuse and physical
violence. After enduring these conditions
for 12 months, the labourers were sold by
the employer to another brick kiln owner.
A young man named Deepak Das (name
changed) broke this cycle of exploitation
when he escaped from the kiln. Back in his
village, he met the NGO team who were
there to establish a Community Vigilance
Committee (village-level self-help groups).
On hearing Deepak’s account, the NGO
played a crucial role in convincing the J
& K officials to take action. The Bonded
Labour Act establishes a system to release
and rehabilitate of bonded labourers, and
prosecute offenders but it requires action
from local authorities.
The brick kiln was raided by a joint
team from the police, labour and social
welfare departments. All of Deepak’s
48 co-workers were rescued. The NGO
ensured that the freed labourers received
their release certificate and had their
statements recorded under the Bonded
Labour Act. This enabled the victims
to receive rehabilitation benefits and
entitlements from the government. The
freed labourers were also sensitised on the
larger issue of enslavement and trafficking,
which encouraged them to help the NGO
identify new cases in their area.
Civil society action, organised by the
people, for the people, is the backbone
of the anti-slavery movement in India. It
provides support to law enforcement while
creating the conditions of trust that victims
of abuse, exploitation and neglect require.
Continued cooperation between civil
society organisations and law enforcement
is key to ending bonded labour.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 111

 GOVERNMENT RESPONSE

Given the scale and complexity of the issue in India, it is
significant that the government of India has taken many steps
designed to address vulnerability on a broad scale. Recent
amendments to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
(Prevention of Atrocities) Act makes it an offence to, among other
things, compel a member of a Scheduled Caste or a Scheduled
Tribe to do begar or other forms of forced or bonded labour;
dispose or carry human or animal carcasses, or dig graves; or
do manual scavenging. The 2016 amendments also make it an
offence to promote dedicating a Scheduled Caste or a Scheduled
Tribe woman to a deity, idol, object of worship, temple, or other
religious institution as a devadasi or any other similar practice.[31]
The government has also drafted a ‘National Policy for Domestic
Workers’, which is currently awaiting Union Cabinet approval.
If enacted, the Policy would safeguard a minimum salary of Rs
9,000 (approximately $135 USD) per month for skilled full-
time domestic workers, paid leave and maternity leave, social
security, and the right to collectively bargain. It also includes
calls for provisions against sexual harassment and bonded labour
for domestic workers.[32] The fact that domestic workers were
identified in forced labour in the 2016 Walk Free Foundation state
surveys underscores the urgency of policy change on this issue.
In June 2015, the Ministry of Women and Child Development
launched ‘Khoya Paya’, a Lost and Found website, which
operates in addition to the Ministry of Home Affairs’ ‘Track
Child’ site. ‘Track Child’ provides a forum for police to exchange
information on missing children, while the new site extends to
the public, allowing registration of missing children by their
families in coordination with police efforts.[33]
In terms of more specific responses to modern slavery, India has
criminalised most forms of modern slavery, including trafficking,
slavery, forced labour, child prostitution and forced marriage,
as part of its penal code or under specific legislation. However,
there is no distinction drawn under the existing trafficking
legislation between human trafficking and sex work which
makes interpretation of results difficult. There is also no current
legislation covering the use of children in armed conflict.[34]
Responsibility for the national government’s response is divided
between three ministries: Ministry of Labour, Ministry of Home
Affairs, and Ministry of Women and Child Development. While
each agency has different mandates and areas to cover, the
absence of strong, continuing coordination across these agencies
had led to a fragmented and complex response to modern slavery.
Implementation of anti-trafficking laws in the Penal Code is the
responsibility of the Ministry of Home Affairs, which provides
information about cross-government efforts on its anti-trafficking
portal. The portal includes criminal justice statistics, details of
anti-trafficking police units, information on government and
law enforcement training, and information on anti-trafficking
legislation and reporting mechanisms, including the ChildLine
hotline.[35] Criminal justice statistics, both on human trafficking
and bonded labour crimes, are published by the National Crime
Records Bureau.[36]
Laws prohibiting bonded labour have been on the statute books
for decades.[37] The response to bonded labour is coordinated by
the Ministry of Labour while the district and sub-divisional level
vigilance committees provide advice to the courts on bonded labour
issues.[38] The National Human Rights Commission monitors the
government response, regularly reviews existing government
policies and practices from a human rights perspective,[39] and
provides training to district Magistrates, Deputy Commissioners
and other government officials.[40] Statistics suggest that many
states are yet to implement the Supreme Court order which
required district vigilance committees to undertake surveys to
identify and release those in bonded labour, as many still submit
an official report of zero cases.[41] The state of Karnataka has
made progress on the Order, as reflected in the numbers of cases
of bonded labourer identified in official crime statistics. Outside
this, there are concerns about the effectiveness of the response
to bonded labour in India.[42]

The importance of law enforcement

With the population of most Indian
states being larger than the population
of many countries, the role of state police
in combatting modern slavery is critical.
The active approach of state police in
several states has lent early successes
to the national government’s ambitious
programme of establishing specialist anti-
trafficking police units throughout India.
Known as the Integrated Anti Human
Trafficking Units (IAHTUs), these specialist
units comprise trained police officials,
prosecutors and NGO workers who work
as an integrated task force to prevent and
combat human trafficking.
a city in Maharashtra. The operation is
an example of successful cross-state
cooperation, as police and NGOs from both
States worked together to get the women
to safety and prosecute the perpetrators.
The operation was initiated by the Crime
Investigation Department of Telangana
police after gathering information from
a victim, who had escaped the brothel
and returned to her village. The police
team undertook days of preparatory work,
including a reconnaissance of the area,
briefing the local police department in the
neighbouring state and training on proper
conduct during the operation.
Children of the women were living in
the custody of the traffickers. Charging
150 rupees for every client, the women
received half, and half was taken away by
the traffickers. The women were denied
food when they tried to refuse clients.
The AHTU arrested the perpetrators and
presented them to the local magistrate.
The victims were taken safely back
to shelters in Hyderabad. The police
presented the minor victims to Child
Welfare with assistance from relevant
NGOs. The accused were sent to judicial
custody and the Preventive Detention Act
was invoked against the repeat offenders.

In July 2015, the AHTU of Telangana state The AHTU raid found women and girls
police removed 39 women and girls who living in unhygienic conditions in cramped
had been trapped working in squalid rooms. Of the 39 victims, a number were
conditions in a brothel in Chandrapur, HIV positive and some were pregnant.

112 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 India cont.

The importance of successful prosecutions

Prosecution of perpetrators is a critical
part of any response to modern slavery.
In any country, securing a prosecution is
typically a long and hard process, but this is
particularly true in India, given the millions
of cases pending in the overworked judicial
system. Legal support for the victim can
make the difference between case failure
and successful prosecution.
In March 2016, lawyers associated with
an NGO in Bihar, won a three-year long
case that resulted in sentencing of four
traffickers and financial restitution for
the 14-year-old victim who had been
kidnapped, sexually abused, enslaved and
then sold by her handler in a ten-month-
long ordeal. The four accused were given
between seven and ten year sentences
and fined Rupees 286,000 (US$4,300).
The victim received 60 percent of the
fine amount. The lawyers who fought the
case provided legal support to the victim
throughout the trial, which can be a very
difficult and emotionally-fraught process.
The lawyers also worked with the public
prosecutor to build a strong case against
the accused.
Every successful prosecution helps to
change the current balance of risk, in
which modern slavery is a high-profit low-
risk activity for perpetrators.

The Indian National Government has undertaken an ambitious
programme to establish specialist anti-trafficking police units
throughout the country. These are mandated to facilitate
interagency coordination for the rescue of children and post-
rescue care efforts, to monitor interventions and provide
feedback, and to collect and analyse data related to trafficking
to be shared with state governments and the media as appropriate.
The government continued to expand the number of units across
the country, reaching 225 units by December 2014, with the aim to
establish 330 anti-human trafficking units.[43] While these efforts
are commendable, it is also clear that some units are working
well and others are not. It is reported that one issue relates to
budget, but there are also numerous systemic issues that result
in investigations stopping at state boundaries. Reflecting these
concerns, a recent National Legal Services Authority submission
to the Supreme Court called for a central investigations bureau
to be established to investigate cross-border crimes.[44]
Both the judiciary and law enforcement have received training;
more than 20,000 police personnel have been trained on victim
identification, implementation of the new legal framework,
and victim-centred investigations. The government victim
compensation scheme also extends to victims of human
trafficking; however, the amount and efficiency of dispersal is
largely dependent on the state administration and is not available
country-wide.[45] In a recent landmark case, four traffickers were
prosecuted following a three-day trial for kidnapping a 14-year-
old Haryana girl and forcing her into domestic servitude and
sexual exploitation; they were sentenced to between seven
and ten years in jail, with half of the fine paid to the victim
as restitution.[46]
The Indian Government funds victim support services, however,
efforts need to be directed at improving these both in terms of
approach and quality of care. The Ujjawala project is one of the
primary support systems in India for children and young women
at risk, but this does not necessarily equate to specialist services
for victims of trafficking. Most shelters have limited facilities
and resources to provide holistic support. [47] Government
shelters are required to register; however, services vary as there
are no standards attached to registration, and no inspections or
follow-up. Furthermore, under existing laws, survivors under
the age of 21 can and are subject to extended periods of court
ordered custody in protective homes, effectively resulting in
their detention.[48] Specific government trafficking shelters are
currently available only for women and girls.[49]
India continued to take steps toward collaborating across the
region to respond to transnational trafficking crimes and provide
protection for Indian citizens migrating overseas. Indian police
have cooperated with regional counterparts on transnational
human trafficking investigations. In 2014, Indian and Bangladeshi
police undertook a joint investigation to identify two Bangladeshi
girls sold into commercial sexual exploitation in India. Both girls
were found and successfully repatriated; the offenders are being
prosecuted under new anti-trafficking provisions.[50] In March
2016, India and Bahrain agreed to increase bilateral cooperation
on human trafficking issues, especially women and children in
the Gulf.[51] [52] This agreement provides protection for victims,
including repatriation, and provides for close cooperation and
information exchange between police and other concerned
authorities.[53] In April 2016, media reports suggested India will
sign a similar agreement on anti-human trafficking collaboration
with the United Arab Emirates shortly.[54]
In December 2015, in response to public interest litigation
initiated by an NGO, the Supreme Court of India took note
of evidence of the deficiencies of the existing victim support
network.[55] The Supreme Court of India disposed of the litigation
when the Ministry of Women and Child Development stated
that it was taking steps to establish the ʻOrganised Crime
Investigative Agencyʼ (OCIA) and had established a committee
to prepare new ʻcomprehensive anti-trafficking legislationʼ
to ensure, among other things, that victims are not treated
as criminals and provided with adequate shelter homes. The
Supreme Court also highlighted the need for stronger victim
protection legislation and protocols and provision of adequate
shelters.[56] This is critical as recent research suggests that rescue
efforts involving children are not always operating in the best
interests of victims, and are not resulting in appropriate criminal
action against employers or traffickers, leaving children at risk
of retaliation and re-trafficking.[57]
Early indications are that many steps have resulted from this
Supreme Court order. An inter-ministerial committee has been
formed, legislation has been drafted and certain outcomes
appear close to completion. For example, efforts to develop
a comprehensive standard operating procedure on rescue,
rehabilitation and prevention of trafficking of women and
children for sexual exploitation was being finalised at the time
of print.[58] It is not yet clear how this will impact on the existing
laws and infrastructure, such as the anti-human trafficking units,
already established. Part of the challenge will be to ensure that
gains already made are not lost in efforts to create a new system,
while the new system does not add another layer of complexity
to an already overcrowded system.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 113

 RECOMMENDATIONS

Government Business
• W
 ith many of the necessary laws in place and under • P
 artner with civil society organisations to provide safe
development, the focus must be on implementation and work and vocational training to survivors of modern
tracking improvements in implementation. For example, slavery, under the Company Act 2013 corporate social
given the high levels of internal migration, there is a clear responsibility requirements.
need to ensure State police are encouraged and enabled to • E
 xport-oriented industries such as textiles, agriculture and
continue investigations across borders. This needs to be carpet weaving should work through their industry bodies
in addition to any central investigations bureau which will and with appropriate third parties to create industry-wide
likely focus on only the most complex cases. supply chains that are free of modern slavery.
• R
 atify and implement the Convention on the Worst Forms • D
 omestic industries, such as construction, manufacturing
of Child Labour. and brick kilns, should work with state governments and
• Ratify and implement the Domestic Workers Convention. local organisations to find innovative ways of eliminating
• P
 roactively require all states to follow up on the Supreme the need for child and bonded labour in their businesses.
Court Judgment of October 15, 2012, to identify and
release those in bonded labour, and report on progress.
Require States who report zero cases of bonded labour
to show what steps have been taken to actually find and
assist bonded labourers.
• U
 pdate regulations and processes for the implementation of
the Bonded Labour Act, and report on its implementation.
• F
 ocus on practical ways to regulate and monitor practices
of placement agencies.
• I mplement a new National Action Plan that targets the
full spectrum of modern slavery, while recognising the
differences between highly organised crime (which is
likely to be cross-border) and more localised practices of
bonded labour.
• E
 nsure that victims are not criminalised or detained both
by law enforcement and in the shelter system. Victims
must be protected (including protecting their identities)
throughout the duration of their court cases. Repeal laws
which permit detention of victims.
• I ncrease the proportion of female police officers in
enforcement.
• C
 reate and monitor implementation of standard operating
procedures for shelter homes to support quality and rights
based post-rescue rehabilitation of survivors.
• P
 revent the recruitment of children into armed opposition
groups and provide targeted rehabilitative services to
rescued children.

114 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 India
Asia cont. cont.
Pacific

STATE STUDY 1 – P
 roblem description and state government
responses in Uttar Pradesh

POPULATION GSDP (2014–2015)

199,812,341 [59]
US$161.1 Billion [60]

As the most populous state in India, Uttar Pradesh (UP) is a centre of agriculture, industry and tourism.
Though poverty across the state is declining, UPʼs poverty rate remains higher than the national
average.[61] A combination of population growth and persistent migration flows from neighbouring
states, predominantly Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal, have increased the available workforce
despite limited employment opportunities. This, coupled with the highest prevalence of Scheduled
Castes in India (the official term for Hindu, Sikh and Buddhist Dalits)[62] and prevailing discrimination
against women,[63] heightens people’s vulnerability to modern slavery in UP.

UP is a source, transit and destination state for modern slavery. UP’s 619 km stretch of open borders
with Nepal,[64] proximity to Bangladesh and New Delhi, and home to tourist destinations of Varanasi and
Agra, facilitate the flow of vulnerable people and impede the ability of law enforcement to detect human
traffickers. Following the 2015 earthquake in Nepal, migrants from earthquake affected areas poured
into UP,[65] some of whom were vulnerable to accepting exploitative jobs in the informal economy.

Children in UP are at particular risk of forced labour and commercial sexual exploitation. A 2015 study
found a 13 percent rise in child labour in UP despite the fact that child labour is gradually declining
across India.[66] Nationally, one in five child labourers in India is exploited in UP,[67] with almost 900,000
children aged 5–14 years in the workforce in 2011.[68] Many children are engaged in the worst forms of
child labour—forced begging in Varanasi and Agra, and forced labour in embroidery, carpet weaving,
leather work, sports ball stitching and bangle making.[69] Despite the efforts of some international
brands to sever contracts with factories manufacturing with child labour, the illegal work of many
children in UP goes undetected as they work from home for meagre piece-rate wages.

UP’s 40 million people belonging to Scheduled Castes[70] are particularly vulnerable to caste-based slavery
such as manual scavenging. Despite legislation prohibiting manual scavenging,[71] the act of removing
faeces from non-flush systems and septic tanks by hand for little or no pay remains common.[72]
Persisting hierarchical attitudes ensure manual scavengers remain entrapped in this lifestyle, subject
to violence, stigma, debt bondage and discrimination.

UP has the highest proportion of child marriages in India, with more than 2.8 million children married
in the 10–19 years category.[73] Children and young women are vulnerable to short-term contract
marriages with tourists who temporarily marry for the duration of their visit to UP.[74]

Uttar Pradesh does not have state-level legislation specifically targeting slavery; however, some
elements of trafficking are criminalised under the Goonda Act and the Gangster Act of UP, which
recently received Presidential assent.[75] The legally-mandated Uttar Pradesh Victim Compensation
Scheme 2014 provides for financial compensation to victims of trafficking who have suffered loss or
injury,[76] though no data exists on how many victims accessed this fund.

Under the national anti-trafficking initiative, 35 anti-human trafficking units were functional in UP
and will receive technical support from UNICEF during 2016–2017.[77] Considerable efforts were made
at the state level to combat modern slavery including the training of 2,076 stakeholders, rescue
missions across a range of districts and the approval of a State Task Force in 2015.[78] Operation Smile,
a 2014 initiative of the Ghaziabad Police which rescues children from child labour, and tracks missing
and trafficked children,[79] continued operations in 2016.[80] Following the earthquake in Nepal, the
government of UP installed CCTV cameras on border crossings to monitor human trafficking though
it is unclear whether any victims were identified in this way.[81]

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 115

 Asia Pacific cont.

STATE STUDY 2 – P
 roblem description and state government
responses in Bihar

POPULATION GSDP (2014–2015)

104,099,452 [82]
US$66.4 Billion [83]

In Bihar, a combination of chronic poverty, distress migration, open borders, caste, ethnicity and
gender drive the prevalence of modern slavery. According to the National Sample Survey Office’s most
recent report, 34 percent of Bihar’s population are below the poverty line, with 56 percent of children
under five years of age underweight.[84]

Despite a wealth of fertile land and natural resources, ongoing flooding and drought have reduced
agricultural output and hindered the state’s growth. With reduced livelihood opportunities, distress
migration is common. The 2011 Census showed that net migration out of Bihar stood at 1.7 million
people,[85] making it the second-highest state in India for out-migration. Other reports have suggested
as many as 4.42 million people migrate out of Bihar every year.[86] The use of migration as a survival
strategy across all age groups in Bihar, often under extremely vulnerable circumstances, exacerbates
vulnerability to slavery.[87]

Ongoing crimes against Scheduled Castes, 25 percent higher than the national average (3.5 per 100,000
population, compared with 2.8 per 100,000 nationally),[88] coupled with more desperate economic status
and severe social exclusion, increase vulnerability to exploitation. Although many new government
initiatives are starting to have a positive effect on discrimination against marginalised groups, more
than 56 percent of women in Bihar aged between 15 and 49 report that they are subject to physical
and sexual violence.[89]

Bihar’s proximity to Bangladesh and its 800 km stretch of open borders with Nepal, facilitate the ease
with which traffickers cross internationally without identification. Major transport hubs in these border
areas have become hotspots for trafficking, as well as sites of commercial sexual exploitation. Bihar
acts as a transit and destination for girls and women trafficked from Nepal, Bangladesh, West Bengal
and northeastern states. An estimated 40 red light areas exist in Bihar, many of which are home to
intergenerational sex workers from the Natt tribal group.[90]

Children in and from Bihar are subject to forced labour, forced marriage, forced begging and forced
recruitment into non-state Armed Opposition Groups (AOGs). Persistent civil unrest between the
Naxalite-Maoist insurgency and the government has resulted in Bihari children as young as six recruited
into service and taught to handle weapons as part of their training. Throughout 2015–2016, local
newspapers continued to report on the rescue of Bihari children trapped in forced labour in a variety
of sectors, including jacket-manufacturing,[91] bangle making,[92] textiles,[93] food manufacturing[94] and
waste recycling.[95]

Efforts to combat slavery and the corresponding attempts to address the corruption of local services
is still at an early stage. Bihar does not have state-specific laws addressing slavery, although they are
considering drafting legislation for anti-trafficking protection. Under the national initiative, Bihar
State Police created anti-human trafficking units (AHTUs) and this has led to the identification and
rescue of victims in 14 of 38 districts.[96] Data collection and reporting remains an issue, especially in
the management of missing persons by police despite previously receiving training in tracing and
rehabilitating missing children. The Astiva Action Plan for Preventing and Combating Trafficking
2008—that coordinates state, district and Panchayat (village) task forces in order to “care and protect
trafficking victims at all stages of rehabilitation and also ensure strong prosecution of cases”[97] commenced
strongly, but efforts since appear to have diminished. The 2015 ‘Operation Mahavir’, to trace and
free child victims of trafficking, saw police in 38 districts of Bihar monitoring places like brick kilns,
roadside hotels, markets, bus stands and railway stations.[98] However, at the time of writing, no data
was available on the number of cases identified in this operation. Many of the gaps in government
implementation of anti-slavery policies and legislation are a legacy of Bihar’s decades of misrule.
They reflect deep-seated, long-term challenges that will require continued and determined efforts.

116 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 India
Asia cont. cont.
Pacific

STATE STUDY 3 – P
 roblem description and state government
responses in Maharashtra

POPULATION GSDP (2014–2015)

112,374,333 [99]
US$264.80 Billion [100]

Maharashtra is one of the wealthiest states in India and is considered the trade and commercial hub
of the country. According to the 2011 Census, 45 percent of Maharashtra’s population is urban.[101]
The wealth disparity between rich and poor is particularly evident in Mumbai with 54 percent of the
capital cityʼs population residing in slums. Mumbai is home to 22 million people[102] and is notorious
for being the commercial sex capital of India.[103]

Human trafficking and commercial sexual exploitation is witnessed throughout Maharashtra. Rural
Maharashtra continues to be a major source of trafficking victims. Due to poverty and a lack of livelihood
prospects, men, women and children from rural tribes are pushed to search for opportunities in urban
cities, increasing their vulnerability to modern slavery. Commonly, women and girls are trafficked
and exploited by independent recruitment agencies largely unregulated by state authorities.[104]
Many human traffickers also pose as matchmakers arranging false marriages within India where,
instead of marriage, the women are sold and subjected to forced prostitution and forced labour
within the domestic service.[105]

Debt bondage is reported to be widespread in Maharashtra, particularly in unregulated industries such

as construction, agriculture, mining and brick manufacturing.[106] For example, borrowing money for
marriages, festivals and funerals is a common practice among some tribal groups in the State, which
can result in debt bondage.[107] [108] The Supreme Court has established vigilance committees directed
to pay attention to specific sectors where debt bondage is prevalent such as brick kilns, quarries,
carpet weaving, construction, agriculture, manufacturing, fishing and many others.[109] The vigilance
committees must conduct surveys on a District and Sub-Divisional District level every three years and
report their findings to the National Human Rights Commission.[110] [111] Despite these efforts, some
perpetrators of modern slavery, such as brick kiln owners, are reported to be politically connected,
enabling them to avoid prosecution.[112] In this way, the effectiveness of the committees and monitoring
mechanisms is reduced by ongoing corruption.

The government of Maharashtra has made efforts to implement legal mechanisms to protect vulnerable
populations from modern slavery. Maharashtra is the first state in the country to have prepared a state
action plan for the elimination of child labour.[113] It is also one of the first states to adopt various acts
specific to issues of mathadis (manual labourers who load and unload trucks),[114] migrant labourers
and domestic workers.[115] In accordance with the Maharashtra Domestic Workers Welfare Act (2008),
the Maharashtra Domestic Workers Welfare Board has registered many domestic workers within the
state so that they are privy to the benefits outlined in the Act.[116][117]

In 2008, Maharashtra established AHTUs and various rescue operations have been conducted since
then. By 2012, the AHTUs had rescued 2,683 victims across 478 operations, arrested 1,558 traffickers
and registered 372 cases.[118] AHTUs have repatriated 26 Bangladeshi women rescued from Pune,
Mumbai and Thane.[119] The Crime Branch’s Social Service Branch (SSB), which investigates trafficking
crimes in Mumbai, have reported increasing success in identifying and rescuing victims from 159
women and nine minors (2013) to 308 women and 23 minors (2014).[120] Despite these successes,
inter-departmental coordination remains a serious challenge to human trafficking law enforcement,
particularly between the local police, AHTUs and SSB.[121]

In 2014, the government of West Bengal and Maharashtra signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU)
to ensure the identification and repatriation of women and children who are victims of trafficking.[122]
The MoU established a standard operating procedure to ensure the verification of identities and
family tracing of rescued human trafficking victims.[123] In addition to this, it was reported in June
2015 that the governments of Jharkhand, Delhi, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra will sign
an MoU to closely collaborate and jointly combat modern slavery.[124] These efforts contribute to the
collaboration of states to combat modern slavery through the exchange and sharing of information
and the unification of inter-state modern slavery data.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 117

 6
Prevalence Index Rank

IRAQ
"The Islamic State didn't come to kill the women
and girls, but to use us as spoils of war, as objects
to be sold with little or to be gifted for free. Their
cruelty was not merely opportunistic. The IS
soldiers came with a pre-established policy
to commit such crimes."
Excerpt from a statement by Nadia Murad Basee Taha,
Trafficking Survivor, to the UN Security Council on 18
December 2015. On 15 August 2014, Nadia was captured
by Islamic State militants in Iraq; she was raped and
tortured for three months until she successfully escaped.

Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

403,800

Vunerability to Modern Slavery

63.83/100

Government Response Rating Population GDP (PPP)

No Data 35,730,000 $15,057

118 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

PREVALENCE
The 2016 Global Slavery Index estimates 403,800 people or
1.13 percent of the total population live in conditions of modern
slavery in Iraq. Though Walk Free did not conduct a survey
in Iraq, respondents in other survey countries—Bangladesh,
Cambodia and Nepal reported a family member exploited in Iraq.
Forced labour
The current armed conflict and the subsequent humanitarian
crisis in Iraq continue to significantly impact the security of
civilians and migrant workers in the country. Before the outbreak
of violence, Iraq was gaining popularity as a destination for
migrant workers, particularly from Bangladesh, Indonesia,
Nepal, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, India and Thailand.[1] Migrant
workers, either knowingly or unknowingly, came to Iraq to
meet manpower demands in growing sectors such as health,
construction, domestic work and hospitality. There are also
reports of Asian migrants forced into prostitution.[2] To attract
more local and foreign investors, Iraq passed an investment law
in 2006, which ensured the right of companies to employ foreign
workers and for non-Iraqi workers to remit their salaries.[3]
Before the violence escalated, migrant workers in Iraq
were already vulnerable to forced labour and debt bondage
commensurate with regional trends. However, the current crisis
has magnified these issues and introduced new risks and threats.
In mid-2014, hundreds of South Asian migrant workers in Iraq
were caught in the crossfire between the Iraqi military and
Islamic State (IS). Those wanting to leave the country faced a
difficult situation as employers retained worker passports. There
are reports of Indian migrant workers striking because they
wanted to return home but could not access their passports.[4]
During an intense period of conflict in Tikrit, north of Baghdad,
IS militants briefly captured Bangladeshi workers[5] while 41
Indian construction workers were detained indefinitely in Najaf,
south of Baghdad[6] and 46 Indian nurses were left stranded in a
hospital.[7] Reports of IS holding migrant workers in situations of
debt bondage in Iraq have emerged since their rise to prominence
in 2014, as well as their use for forced labour, sexual exploitation
and as human shields in conflict.[8]
Sexual slavery
There are verified reports of women and children being captured,
sold into slavery and held in barbarous conditions by IS. In 2014,
IS captured 3,000 women and children, mostly from the Kurdish-
speaking Yazidi minority group—the largest single capture of
women this century. IS propaganda claimed that the captured
Yazidi women and girls were 'spoils of war' to be divided among
fighters.[9] Publications released by IS[10] provide an extreme
interpretation of Shari'a describing the legality and illegalities
of dealing with slaves - "it is permissible to buy, sell, or give as a
gift female captives and slaves, for they are merely property, which
can be disposed of..." This alarming resurgence of slavery is
evident in Raqqa, the self-proclaimed IS capital, and surrounding
IS-occupied territory where women can be bought and sold at
the market.There are reports of IS offering to sell women back
to their families for as much as US$40,000.[11]
Forced recruitment of children into militia groups
There are grave concerns for Iraqi children being used in armed
combat by IS, emerging militias and within existing, expanding
and government groups such as the Popular Mobilization Forces
(PMF)[12] which operate under the control of the Prime Minister's
Office (PMO).[13] The forced recruitment of children by IS has
Iraq cont.
resulted in their use as suicide bombers, informants, bomb
makers and human shields. There are also reports of families
selling disabled children to IS.[14]
Online video footage released
by IS shows children, some as
young as ten, undergoing military
training at camps, carrying out
assassinations and completing
suicide bombing missions, as
well as graphic images of a child
shooting dead two alleged Russian
spies and another showing a child
carrying out a suicide bombing.[15]
PMF elements also recruit children, though it is unclear to what
extent children join alongside relatives and caregivers versus
those forcibly recruited. There are reliable testimonies of children
confirming that they were tricked into believing they were joining
the police but instead were taken to PMF training camps.[16] There
are unconfirmed reports the PMF abducts children. However, it
is unclear whether they are being abducted for ransom, leverage,
recruitment or other purposes.[17]
Forced marriage
Despite legislation preventing girls under 18 from marrying,
widespread evidence of forced and temporary marriage persists.
Forced marriages are often used as a tool to strengthen familial
ties within tribes and tribal allegiances.[18] Fasliyya, the practice
of marrying off a woman from one tribe to settle a feud with
another, continues with girls being traded as compensation for
crimes.[19] This practice reportedly increased throughout 2015–
2016 in the southern provinces of Iraq, namely Missan, Basrah,
Thi-Qar, Muthanna, and Babeil, where the role of government
is increasingly being overtaken by local tribes. [20] In Iraqi
Kurdistan, the tradition of jin be jin (a woman for a woman)
persists whereby brides are exchanged between tribes to avoid
payments of dowries.[21]
Dowry payments received by fathers of child brides continues
to provide an economic incentive to marry daughters early. New
research from November 2015 found economic incentives played
a role in 51.4 percent of forced marriages, out of a representative
sample of 1,249 cases.[22] Parental fear of inter-ethnic marriage has
also been noted as a cause for forced marriage. The socio-tribal
tradition of marrying daughters to relatives continues in 2016.[23]
According to research published in November 2015, 80.2 percent
of forced marriages in Iraq would end a girl's education.[24] This
lack of education is particularly concerning when coupled with
the reality of many girls being abandoned by their husbands or
widowed. Without education, and unable to financially depend on
their husband, girls find it incredibly difficult to access another
source of income. This is compounded by a lack of legal rights,
as many marriages are conducted outside of the court system by
a cleric. Another 2015 study which investigated 4,265 marriage
cases in Iraq across the governorates of Baghdad, Basrah, Thi-
Qar, Muthanna, Missan, Babil, Al Anbar, Diyala and Nineveh
found more than one-third were conducted outside of the court
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 119
 system. Of those marriages, 22 percent involved girls under the
age of 14.[25]
Reports suggest that the practice of muta'a, 'temporary marriage'
for the purpose of forced prostitution, is increasing due to the
dire lack of income in many households.[26] One NGO reported
encountering cases of 12-year-old girls who had already been
married two or three times.[27] Some of these girls are exploited
by their 'husbands' outside of Iraq in Jordan, Syria, the UAE
and Yemen.[28] Muta'a is unique to the Shiite community
VULNERABILITY
Civil & political Social, health, &
Country protections economic rights
Iraq 71.22 44.91
The brutal rise of the self-proclaimed Islamic State[32] in 2014–15
has seen almost 3.2 million Iraqis flee their homes[33] with a
further 8.2 million requiring immediate humanitarian support
as at June 2015.[34] As many as two million war widows and
more than one million orphans have been left destitute across
the country[35] with internally-displaced persons (IDPs) residing
in roughly 3,550 locations.[36] Chronic lack of funding, resulting
in emergency food distribution delays and health care cuts, has
left millions unable to meet their basic daily needs.[37]
There is a strong link between high levels of instability within
a country and increases in that population's vulnerability to
modern slavery.[38] In cases of armed conflict, there is often a
corresponding weakening of the rule of law, providing fertile
ground for traffickers to profit with impunity.[39] The demand for
the State to respond to other humanitarian emergencies, coupled
with few human-trafficking specific services or organisations
in these countries, means protection of vulnerable migrants,
IDPs and ethnic minorities, and support for victims of human
trafficking in times of crisis is limited.[40] In Iraq, a combination
of protracted displacement, dwindling financial resources,
limited employment opportunities and loss of assets, coupled
with missing identification documentation,[41] is creating fertile
ground for modern slavery.
The rapid onset of violence in some provinces meant many
fled without an opportunity to secure vital proof of identity
documentation[42] which is essential to access medical care,
education, food rations, employment and government social-
welfare schemes. The situation is particularly precarious for
women without a male companion, as ID cards often bear the
name of the male head of the household, without whom she
is unable to access services and assistance.[43] These women,
particularly girls and those refugees who originally fled Iraq
into Syria now subsequently returning to Iraq, are easy targets
for exploitation.[44] Some women are resorting to survival sex
while others are vulnerable to trafficking for commercial sexual
exploitation or forced marriages with men who abduct them.
This, in turn, increases their risk of falling victim of honour
crimes.[45] Some girls sold into commercial sexual exploitation
(CSE) are imprisoned for their protection from reprisals for
dishonouring their family.[46] Impunity for perpetrators of child
sexual offences exists if they subsequently enter a valid marriage
with the child victim.[47]
Many government institutions are riddled with corruption while
others have merged due to financial constraints—as evidenced by
120 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
(predominantly in Karbala, Najaf and Baghdad). However,
Sunni-Muslims have a similar marriage contract called misyar .[29]
IS's Women of the Islamic State: Manifesto and Case Study
publication claims it is legitimate to marry girls as young as
nine.[30] There is evidence of captured children, often from
minority groups, being married at very early ages, however, it
unclear to what extent such marriages occur. There are reports of
Sunni women from Mosul, Ramadi and Salah Al-Din forced into
marrying IS fighters. However, strong tribal ties have prevented
many families from publicly discussing this.[31]
Personal security Refugees & conflict Mean
58.04 81.13 63.83
the merging of the Ministry for Women's Affairs and the Ministry
for Human Rights with other Ministries in August 2015.[48] The
birth registration system remains weak, particularly in rural and
remote areas. Children in Iraq, already vulnerable to recruitment
into the armed forces and militia groups, are even more exposed
to risk when unable to prove their age.[49] Sixty-seven separate
attacks on schools in 2014,[50] including targeted murders of
teachers, has left many children without access to education.
Deeply entrenched religious and ethnic divisions continue to
expose some sectors of the community to modern slavery.
Yazidis, Assyrians, Christians and
other minorities are particularly
vulnerable to exploitation at the
hands of IS.
Fleeing IDPs of particular ethnicities and religious sects have been
prevented from entering certain governorates, exposing them to
danger and heightening their risk of seeking help from opportunistic
traffickers. In April 2015, thousands of Sunni-Muslims fleeing IS
in Anbar were prevented from entering Shia Baghdad, stranding
them in no man's land without shelter or food.[51]
Forced marriage and early marriage are prohibited by the Iraqi
Personal Status Code. [52] However, in February 2014, the draft
Jaafari Personal Status Law was approved by the Council of
Ministers. This law permits the marriage of girls as young as nine,
forbids wives to leave the house without permission and waives
the husband's responsibility to pay financial support (nafaqah)
when a wife is either a minor or a senior and hence unable to
sexually satisfy him. To date, the draft law remains dormant, but
it remains of significant concern, particularly as it would apply
only to Shiite Muslims thereby dividing the now unified judicial
courts into religious courts headed by clerics. Many clerics in Iraq
continue to perform underage marriages because they believe the
minimum legal age for marriage contradicts Islamic principles.
There are some encouraging practices emerging—in Dohuk,
the Islamic Religious Committee cooperates with the Personal
Status Court to ensure that couples have legally registered their
marriage before conducting a religious marriage.[53]

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
At present, the Government of Iraq has fragmented control
over some areas of the country, faces sectarian and ethnic
divisions, and is largely reliant on international aid to deliver
essential services to large swathes of its displaced population.
The information that follows on government responses should
be understood in that context, recognising this response, in
reality, does not reach all portions of the population outside of
government-controlled areas.
Despite the protracted conflict, in the past ten years the Iraqi
Government has passed some key pieces of legislation with
the aim of strengthening the country's counter-trafficking
framework. In 2005, Article 37 of the new constitution outlined
that, alongside prohibitions against torture, "forced labor, slavery,
slave trade, trafficking in women or children, and sex trade shall
be prohibited".[54] Law No.28 on Trafficking in Persons covers
prosecution of perpetrators (sentences of a maximum jail term of
life imprisonment and fines of up to 25 million dinars), protection
of victims and prevention. The law protects victims by providing
medical care, witness protection and financial assistance. The
Act largely adopts the UN definition of trafficking in persons,[55]
however, there are omissions such as the facilitating of child
prostitution is not considered an act of trafficking.
There is almost no proactive identification of victims in Iraq and
low levels of understanding of what constitutes a trafficking-
in-persons crime among law enforcement personnel.[56] The
Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs (MOLSA) is responsible
for the inspection of workplaces according to the Labour Law.
Despite this, no MOLSA staff has been trained on labour
inspections.[57] A large number of vulnerable migrant workers
working across the country means even training a few staff could
not possibly account for all of the workplaces that need review.
Migrant workers are extremely vulnerable to exploitation as the
conditions at workplaces are determined solely by employers
and remain unregulated.
Very limited support is available to victims in Iraq, and of
those services that exist, they assist a range of people including
orphans, the elderly, victims of domestic violence and victims
RECOMMENDATIONS
Government
• Islamic scholars qualified to interpret Shari'a law must
speak out against the practices of IS, particularly the
enslavement and sale of women and girls.
• Rescue and rehabilitate children forcibly recruited into IS,
PMF and other armed groups.
• Ensure all marriages are registered, punish clerics found
to be conducting forced marriages and engage fathers in
education on the minimum legal age of marriage.
• Coordinate and monitor the cross-border movement of
Iraqi girls, screening for cases of muta'a marriages.
• Train members of the Ministry of Interior (police officers,
staff at the Residency Department labour inspectors)
and members of the High Judicial Council (judges,
prosecutors, lawyers) on counter trafficking and build
their abilities on the identification and protection of
victims, including assistance delivery and recovery needs,
to be the focal points for counter-trafficking efforts.
Iraq cont.
of trafficking. Recognising that the recovery needs of trafficking
victims require specialised support, a government shelter has
been built to accommodate 100–150 female victims, but it has
not yet begun accepting victims. It is uncertain when the shelter
will open—it currently lacks sufficient funds to operate, has
inadequate safety protections[58] and requires Ministry of Justice
approval to open.[59] Specialised staff within MOLSA can provide
psycho-social and medical care to victims, but it is unclear if
any victims are given this support.[60]
Workers abandoned by their employer in Iraq have little to no
protection or humanitarian services to turn to. There are no
NGOs specialising in anti-human trafficking, and there are strict
government restrictions on an NGO's capacity to provide long-
term assistance such as accommodation or vocational training.[61]
Workers without passports or permits (many employers allow
permits to expire and fail to renew them) have no clear access
to help. NGOs are unable to assist victims who have been
designated for deportation by law enforcement. Many victims
of trafficking are imprisoned for infractions such as overstaying
visas, illegal border crossing, missing identity documents, forged
entry visa and forged residency documents.[62]
In June 2015, Iraq's Prime Minister Al-Abadi urged the UN to
consider IS's recruitment and use of children as crimes against
humanity.[63] However, this disregarded the government's own
use of children in the PMF militias that he formally commands.[64]
There are no comprehensive policies or strategies addressing child
recruitment and use in armed conflict.[65] Furthermore, legislation
criminalising the enlistment of children into armed forces, non-
state armed groups, and their use as active participants in hostilities,
only applies to offences committed from 17 July 1968 to 1 May
2003, therefore not to those committed subsequently.[66] The draft
National Guard Law presented to the Council of Representatives in
March 2015 includes exceptions related to the age of recruitment,
which would allow children associated with pro-government
militias to join the National Guard.[67] In December 2015, the
UN Security Council announced their abhorrence of all acts of
trafficking in human beings by IS, stating that certain acts might
be considered crimes against humanity.[68]
• O
 pen the dedicated shelter for trafficking victims to
provide essential accommodation, support and services.
• A
 llow NGOs to play a role in the provision of essential
assistance for victims of modern slavery; encourage the
creation of a specialised NGO with trained staff.
• C
 onduct widespread awareness campaigns, with the
support of international organisations, on modern slavery
and victim identification.
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 121
 photo credit, Samual Aranda/Panos

7
Prevalence Index Rank

MAURITANIA
Former slave, Noura Mint Mourada. Noura escaped
from the house of her owner with the help of the
activist group Initiative for the Resurgence of
Abolitionism in Mauritania, a group that fights
for the end of slavery in Mauritania.
Mauritania, Nr. Boutilimit

Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

43,000

Vunerability to Modern Slavery

46.77/100

Government Response Rating Population GDP (PPP)

CC 4,068,000 $3,912
122 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
 Mauritania cont.

PREVALENCE

The 2016 Global Slavery Index estimates 43,000 people or 1.06 the domestic sector typically herd animals (camels, cows, goats)
percent of the total population live in conditions of modern and or are forced to work in the fields.[11]
traditional slavery in Mauritania. This is based on a random-
There is an increasing demand for Mauritanian domestic
sample, nationally-representative survey undertaken in 2015,
workers in the Middle East. In September 2015, Mauritanian
that sought to identify instances of both forced marriage and
trade unions reported 900 Mauritanian women were trafficked
forced labour within the general population (surveys conducted
to work in Saudi Arabia.[12] These women believed they had
in French, Hassanya, Poulaar, Wolof and Soninke languages).
accepted roles as nurses, teachers and childminders, but instead
Mauritania continues to host a high proportion of people living were expected to perform domestic work in private homes.
in slavery in the world. Slavery is entrenched in Mauritanian These women experienced physical confinement in the home,
society. Slave status is inherited generation to generation and passport confiscation, and some reported physical and sexual
is deeply rooted in social castes and the wider social system. harassment.[13] As traditional migrant labour sending countries,
Those owned by masters often have no freedom to own land, such as the Philippines and Indonesia, implement stricter bans
cannot claim dowries from their marriages nor inherit property on the recruitment of their nationals for domestic work in the
or possessions from their families.[1] Middle East, the hiring of Mauritanian women to fill the void
is likely to continue.
Forced marriage
Forced begging
Religion and slavery are closely interrelated in Mauritania
Walk Free survey data reveals and religion has reportedly been called upon by masters as
an estimated 23,000 victims of justification for ownership over another person.[14] There have
forced marriage in Mauritania (or been cases of Talibes, boys who attend Koranic school, being
forced into begging on the streets.[15] Forced begging is practised
53 percent).[2] primarily by Black Mauritanians.[16] Boys from low-income
families in the Halpulaar community were most vulnerable to
UNFP estimates as many as 35 percent of marriages in the forced begging.[17]
country are forced or early.[3] The dangerous and damaging
practice of leblouh or gavage, the force-feeding of child brides
to make them gain weight before marriage, continues across the Walk Free Foundation 2015 survey data
country.[4] It is predominantly practised by Arab Moors seeking % male % female
the highest dowry for their daughter.[5] Number % victims victims
Maslaha marriages (kinship marriages) remain common between Forced labour 20.000 47 71 29
cousins with many girls being married early in a stated effort
to prevent them from rape and sexual violence.[6] The desire to Forced
23,000 53 28 72
marriage
prevent pregnancies out-of-wedlock has similarly been noted as
a driving factor fuelling the prevalence of forced marriages.[7] Modern
43,000 100 48 52
slavery total
The practice of siriya or 'temporary' marriages continues between
Mauritanian girls and wealthy Middle Eastern men.[8] Some
reports suggest young daughters are frequently married off to Forced labour by sector of exploitation %
Saudi Arabian men as prepubescent brides who are later rejected
once they reach puberty or become pregnant.[9] Mauritanian Domestic work 42
women and girls are also at risk of being forced into prostitution Construction 43
by their 'husbands' in the Middle East. Manufacturing 4

Forced labour Other manufacturing 1

Of a total 20,000 people estimated in forced labour, Walk Farming 1
Free survey results revealed 43 percent were exploited in Sex Industry 0
the construction sector in Mauritania. Forced labour in the
construction sector in Mauritania is a currently unidentified Drug production 3
issue with no existing research or reports on its existence or Retail sector 3
prevalence. Field-based sources describe situations in which Other 0
fathers send young sons to work as apprentices with a technical
person, doing mechanical work or masonry. Sometimes those DK 0
employers take advantage of the situation, exploiting children Refused 3
beyond their physical capacity. However, little more is known Total 100
about these men's experience, indicating a need for organisations
on the ground to further explore these cases.
Of a total 20,000 people estimated in forced labour, Walk Free
survey results revealed an estimated 42 percent were exploited in
domestic work. Forced labour in the domestic sector commonly
includes women performing domestic chores, such as fetching
water, gathering firewood, preparing food, pounding millet and
caring for their master's children.[10] Men and boys enslaved in

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 123

 VULNERABILITY
Civil & political Social, health, &
Country protections economic rights
Mauritania 65.96 40.54
Men, women and children in Mauritania continue to be
vulnerable to a range of risk factors associated with entering
into and remaining in situations of modern slavery. Mauritanian
society is deeply divided by ethnicity, descent, castes and class[18]
which continue to influence the vulnerability of some groups to
hereditary or chattel slavery—whereby slave status is inherited
generation to generation.
The Black Moors (also known as Haratines) were historically
enslaved by the Arab Moors, the minority rulers.Today, due to
their entrenched marginalised status, many remain under the
direct or indirect control of their traditional masters.[19] The
psychological nature of slavery means it is not uncommon
for masters and slaves to form bonds[20] which can hinder
efforts to shift the traditional cultural mindset that slavery is
acceptable. Many Black Moors remain caught in an isolating
system perpetuated by a lack of education and knowledge of life
outside of servitude.[21] Some AfroMauritanians, including the
Peuhl, Soninke, Wolof and Bambara, continue to be vulnerable
to modern slavery as a result of their discriminatory status.
The systematic exclusion of Black Moors and AfroMauritanians
from political and economic life results in a corresponding
economic disparity between groups.[22] An estimated 42 percent
of Mauritanian's are living in poverty,[23] many of whom reside
in rural communities reliant on the precarious agriculture and
pastoralist sectors for their livelihood. Mauritania is subject
to harsh climatic conditions­—including frequent droughts and
floods—which result in persistent severe food crises.[24] The lack
of alternative livelihood opportunities provides little incentive
for enslaved workers to seek work outside of their master's home
or farm.
Despite a constitutional guarantee of free compulsory primary
education, many children do not attend school.[25] In 2014, the UN
Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Racism reported
GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
Slavery in Mauritania was abolished in 1981, criminalised in
2007 and designated as a crime against humanity under the
constitutional reform in 2012.[33] In August 2015, a new anti-
slavery law was enacted that increased the maximum prison
sentence for the crime of slavery from 10 to 20 years.[34] All
forms of trafficking, except hereditary slavery, are prohibited by
the 2003 Law Against Trafficking in Persons, which prescribes
penalties of five to 10 years' imprisonment for violations.[35]
Despite these legislative advancements, a 'deliberate and
systematic failure' of both the government and local organisations
to enforce laws allows exploitation of citizens to continue.[36] In
2011, the first and only slave owner was convicted in Mauritania,
receiving an inadequate sentence of 6 month's imprisonment.[37]
Despite this unprecedented conviction, the government has not
pursued investigations, prosecutions or convictions for slavery
crimes since.[38]
124 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
Personal security Refugees & conflict Mean
49.85 30.74 46.77
as many as 80 percent of children in Haratine communities in
Nouakchott were not in school.[26] Lack of education increases
the vulnerability of children to the worst forms of child labour
and forced marriage, as a lack of future economic or employment
options leads many parents to marry their daughters early.
Some children continue to lack birth registration certificates
which deny them access to essential health and education
services, limits an individual's ability to assert property rights,
and reduces legal work options—this makes individuals highly
vulnerable to accepting jobs in the informal market where they
are denied appropriate protection. Some Mauritanian refugee
children who fled to neighbouring Mali remain stateless although
this situation is improving following the 2015 decision of
the Malian Government to extend birth certificates to 7,807
Mauritanian children.[27]
The opposing flow of Malian refugees into Mauritania following
the 2012 conflict has seen the creation of the M'bera refugee
camp. New refugees continued to arrive throughout 2015.[28] The
traditional caste hierarchy persists in the camp affecting equitable
aid distribution.Bella children, already vulnerable to exploitation
and forced labour as domestic workers in the homes of Arabs and
Tuaregs in Mali, are particularly vulnerable to food shortages and
ill-treatment in the camp.[29] UNHCR continues to advocate for
the adoption of national asylum law and provision of civil status
documentation for refugees,[30] many of whom are vulnerable
to human trafficking. The government does not provide legal
alternatives to the removal of foreign victims of modern slavery
to countries where they may face hardship or retribution.[31]
Mauritanians and other Sub-Saharan African migrants continue
to be vulnerable to human trafficking as they travel within the
country and onto North Africa. The vast, poorly-patrolled borders
increase the accessibility of transit through the country and the
ability of traffickers to exploit victims with impunity.[32]
In March 2013, the President of Mauritania established the
National Agency to Fight against the Vestiges of Slavery,
Integration, and Fight against Poverty (known as Tadamouns)
which outlined a National Plan of Action.[39] In March 2014, the
plan was formally adopted by the government of Mauritania
in cooperation with the OHCHR Field Office in Nouakchott
and a special Tribunal to prosecute crimes of slavery was
established.[40] The Tribunal has not prosecuted any cases of
slavery and field sources suggest there is no evidence that such
a Tribunal exists.[41] In December 2015, the government ordered
the creation of special courts to try slavery cases—further details
on the timeframe for their creation were not found.[42] The UN
Special Rapporteur on Trafficking has expressed concerns that
Tadamoun was not independent of the government.[43] To date,
it is unclear what effect the activities undertaken by the body
has had on victims.

In March 2016, Mauritania became
the second African nation to
commit to ending modern slavery
by ratifying the 2014 Protocol to the
Forced Labour Convention, 1930. [44]
Some experts believe this signifies a growing government
commitment to addressing forced labour throughout the country.
In the 2014 Global Slavery Index, we reported that advocacy
and awareness to address hereditary slavery was incrementally
building momentum in Mauritania, with prominent anti-slavery
activist Biram Dah Abeid drawing attention to the issue through
his candidacy in the June 2014 Presidential elections.[45] However,
since then,the Mauritanian Government has arrested Biram
alongside eight other anti-slavery activists during a peaceful
protest march in November 2014. In 2015, the government
increased its clampdown of anti-slavery activists, particularly
those linked to the IRA-Mauritania (Initiative for the Resurgence
of the Abolitionist Movement).[46] Biram and two other protesters
have remained imprisoned for 18 months before finally being
released in May 2016..
RECOMMENDATIONS
Government
• Educate parents on the dangerous health impacts of
leblouh or gavage, and prosecute those found forcing their
daughters to participate.
• Create bi-lateral agreements with labour-receiving
countries in the Middle East to ensure decent working
conditions are met for Mauritanian domestic workers.
• Fully implement the recommendations made by the ILO
Committee on the Application of Standards.
• Conduct a nationwide awareness campaign on the
illegality of slavery and forms of modern slavery that
persist in Mauritania today.[53]
• Increase support for victims by establishing a victim-
support mechanism with emergency shelter and
assistance, legal assistance and reintegration programmes
for both adults and children.
• Increase support to civil society organisations and NGOs
who are working to combat slavery and to implement new
slavery policies.
Mauritania cont.
The government has taken some small steps to increasing public
awareness of human trafficking, by televising two debates
and three symposia on the Vestiges of Slavery. [47] In 2015,
the government collaborated with the IOM allowing selected
border officials at the Headquarters of the General Directorate
for National Security (DGSN) in Nouakchott to participate
in awareness training on human trafficking and migrant
smuggling.[48] Further widespread training for law enforcement
personnel and the judiciary is needed to combat the chronic
lack of awareness of anti-slavery laws and the institutionalised
acceptance of slavery by many members of society. The
disinclination of authorities to assist victims of modern slavery,
coupled with systemic barriers in victims accessing justice (such
as the requirement that victims file complaints themselves despite
many being illiterate and, therefore, unable to complete and file
forms), means that cases are almost never pursued.[49]
Past editions of the Global Slavery Index have noted that the
Quran has been used by some religious leaders to give grounds
for the existence of modern slavery in Mauritania.[50] Activists
say some imams continue to speak in favour of slavery in
mosques, particularly in rural areas.[51] However, since December
2014, 1,000 mosques have committed to spreading anti-slavery
messages revealing a growing commitment to combat slavery.[52]
Business
• Import and export trading with any Mauritanian business
should be considered high risk until there is evidence
that the government are actively making progress in the
Roadmap to End Slavery (particularly China, Mauritania's
largest trading partner, importing more than 50 percent of
goods from the country).[54]
• Draft a clause to include in contracts with major cattle and
goat exporters, prohibiting the purchasing of livestock that
has been sourced from farmers using forced labour in their
herding practices.
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 125
 36
Prevalence Index Rank

MEXICO
"They took him to another state to work in a building
site. And they keep him working day and night. He
wanted to return home, but they say to him that if
he wanted to go home before the construction was
finished, he would have to do it with his own money
and he wouldn't receive payment for his work. He
accidentally spilled some material so they took
money out of his salary. He had no money to travel
home and had to stay until he was paid."
Walk Free survey respondent

Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

376,800

Vunerability to Modern Slavery

47.02/100

Government Response Rating Population GDP (PPP)

BB 127,017,000 $17,108
126 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
 Mexico cont.

PREVALENCE

The 2016 Global Slavery Index estimates 376,800 people or
0.30 percent of the total population live in conditions of modern
slavery in Mexico. This is based on a random-sample, nationally-
representative survey undertaken in 2015, that sought to identify
instances of both forced marriage and forced labour within the
general population (survey conducted in Spanish language).
Victims of modern slavery in Mexico are primarily Mexicans
themselves or citizens of Central and South American
countries.[1] There have been some isolated cases of victims
from Eastern European countries, Asia and Africa.[2] By some
estimates, 70 percent of modern slavery cases in Mexico are
related to organised crime groups.[3] The various cartels[4] commit
kidnappings for forced prostitution and forced labour across all
age groups, often with the complicity of local, state and federal
authorities.[5] Groups with increased vulnerability include women
and children, indigenous people, the disabled, migrants and
LGBTQ-identified persons.[6]
Anecdotal evidence from escapees indicates that Mexico's
desaparecidos (the disappeared) crisis, where tens of thousands
of men, women and children have vanished since 2006, involves
camps in which forced prostitution, labour and criminal acts are
sanctioned by the cartels.[7]
Commercial sexual exploitation
The commercial sexual exploitation of Mexican women and
children both within Mexico and in the USA persists. The
city of Tenancingo, Tlaxcala is dubiously dubbed the sex
trafficking capital of the world, with often poor, uneducated
and indigenous girls duped into 'love relationships' with local
men who essentially trap them into forced prostitution.[8] Some
of these women and children are relocated to the infamous kerb-
crawling district of La Merced, Mexico City where street and
brothel-based prostitution is rife.[9]
in maize harvesting, tomato fields,[15] tomato processing plants[16]
and other plantations such as chilli pepper, cucumber and
eggplant,[17] in 18 states.[18] News media reported that 49 victims,
including children, were found working in a cucumber field under
modern slavery conditions in the Mexican region of Colima.[19]
This added to the 452 persons found working in conditions
of servitude from February to March 2015.[20] In July 2015,
exploited agricultural workers from San Quintin Valley staged
mass protests against their abusive treatment and conditions.[21]
Mexican seasonal farm workers are also found in conditions of
forced labour in the USA, where they are subject to poor living
and working conditions that may amount to forced labour—
particularly, excessive working hours, withholding and non-
payment of salaries, confinement to plantations, refusal of
medical care, and physical and sexual abuse.[22] Under a loophole
in US labour laws, children as young as 12 can work in agriculture
with no minimum wage requirements or cap on working hours.[23]
Mexican workers in the USA also fulfil low-paid and low-skilled
roles in food processing, construction, janitorial/cleaning jobs,
child/elderly care and manufacturing.[24] A recent study found the
highest rate of reported trafficking violations and abusive labour
practices occur in the construction industry, with janitorial and
cleaning businesses the next worst.[25]
Forced labour is prevalent in the mining sector, with the coal
and silver industries accounting for the poor labour conditions
of men, women and children in Mexico.[26] There are also reports
of modern slavery in the garment sector; in February 2015, a
further 129 workers (121 women and eight men, including two
adolescents under the age of 18) were rescued from forced labour
conditions in a garment factory in Zapopan, Jalisco State.[27]
Walk Free Foundation 2015 survey data

Others are trafficked across the border into the USA, some % male % female
Number % victims victims
serving clients in New York, others being transported around
the country to service migrant farm workers in what is known Forced labour 376,800 100 95 5
as 'city to farm sex pipelines'.[10] Traffickers from Tenancingo
rank on the USA Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) Forced
0 0 0 0
marriage
list of most-wanted human traffickers. In 2015, ICE announced
it had caught the 12th member of a Tenancingo trafficking ring, Modern
376,800 100 95 5
the outcome of a lengthy operation that rescued 25 Mexican slavery total
commercial sex trafficking victims in New York City.[11]
NGOs in El Paso reveal the commercial sexual exploitation
of Mexican girls continues on a daily basis in their city and
Forced labour by sector of exploitation %
across the USA, with highways in New Mexico and Texas rapidly
transporting girls across the country within hours of their arrival Domestic work 0
across the border.[12] Construction 69
The commercial sexual exploitation of children to service tourists Manufacturing 0
continues, particularly in the areas of Acapulco, Cancun and
Other manufacturing 20
Puerto Vallarta.[13] Studies of Mexican children forced to enter
sex work found they experienced a higher prevalence of sexual Farming 5
violence and substance use risk, with associated health impacts.[14] Sex Industry 0
Despite verified evidence of CSE cases in Mexico, the Walk Drug production 0
Free survey did not identify any victims in this sector. This is a Retail sector 5
limitation of the survey highlighting difficulties accessing victims
of CSE, rather than a reflection of no cases of CSE occurring. Other 0
DK 0
Forced labour
Refused 0
Low, semi- and unskilled, domestic and foreign labourers are at
Total 100
risk of forced labour within the agricultural sector, particularly

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 127

 The Walk Free Foundation Survey did not identifty cases of
domestic workers in forced labour. This is despite evidence
of the historical exploitation of this group[28] and the fact that
more than 2.3 million women are currently employed in this
poorly regulated sector. Most domestic workers do not have
formal contracts and many domestic-worker maltreatment cases
continue to be brought to the attention of NGOs.[29]
Forced marriage
Although the WFF survey results uncovered no cases of forced
marriage, the literature suggests that forced and child marriage
persists with UNICEF estimating as many as 28 percent of
Mexican girls wed before the age of 18.[30]
VULNERABILITY
Civil & political Social, health, &
Country protections economic rights
Mexico 43.03 30.36
Endemic internal violence resulting from cartel activity, a high
risk of kidnapping[34] and the weak rule of law all contribute to
a high risk of modern slavery in Mexico. Cartel violence across
North and Central America has displaced many men, women and
children resulting in large-scale migration attempts to the United
States. Migrants that reach the border of Mexico and the USA
remain vulnerable to coyotes and polleros or border 'guides' who
may elect to sell them into slavery or hold them in debt bondage
once they have entered the United States.[35]
Limited formal employment opportunities for Mexican men in
some smaller towns is reportedly driving them to become pimps
and traffickers. In turn, they are deceptively recruiting women
and children into the commercial sex industry. Women from
poor southern states, particularly Chiapas, Oaxaca and Guerrero
are highly vulnerable to recruitment into the sex industry in
Northern Mexico and abroad, as limited livelihood opportunities
exist in their villages.[36] Young indigenous girls and those from
GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
Despite initial hopes that Mexico's National Programme for the
Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Crimes on Trafficking
in Persons and the Protection and Assistance to Victims 2014–
2018 would reduce trafficking, at the time of writing, no funds
were allocated to execute the plan. National activists report that
the human trafficking response is fragmented with some states,
such as Coahuila, actively policing and prosecuting cases, and
others implementing localised anti-trafficking committees.[40]
However, NGOs report that only half of Mexico's states are
performing prevention and prosecution, leaving significant gaps
in victim protection.
Mexico has taken steps to combat modern slavery crimes at
a transnational level by signing agreements with some key
countries including Guatemala, Peru and the USA to streamline
and strengthen coordination. Particularly important is the Merida
Initiative between the USA and Mexico, still operational from
2008, focusing on combating transnational organised crime
including trafficking.[41] Gaps in Mexico's provision of victim
shelters and ad hoc referral processes have resulted in victim
identification and support as Mexico's weakest response area.
NGOs reported a desperate need for government supported
128 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
Other
There have been some reports of kidnapping of babies for illegal
adoptions to couples throughout North America and Western
Europe[31] though little recent data reveals the prevalence of
this type of human trafficking.[32] Surrogacy continued to be
a contentious political issue in Mexico in 2015 with some
politicians conflating surrogacy with human trafficking.
However, it remains unclear to what extent Mexican women are
informed and willing to provide this service versus those who are
exploited by agencies. On 14 December 2015, the state Congress
of Tabasco State approved legislation preventing foreign couples
paying women to carry their baby.[33]
Personal security Refugees & conflict Mean
52.84 61.85 47.02
the mestizo ethnic group are highly vulnerable to coercion into
the commercial sex industry—mestizo women are favoured for
their fair skin while traffickers can purchase indigenous women
at the lowest price.[37]
Persisting government corruption and involvement at local, state
and federal levels allows organised crime groups to operate freely
in the country.[38] Some public officials are known to accept bribes
from traffickers, extort bribes and sexual services from adults
and children in the commercial sex sector and irregular migrants,
and threaten victims with prosecution if they do not file official
complaints against their traffickers.[39] Some cartel members
have infiltrated institutions obligated to uphold the rule of law,
leaving victims unwilling and often unable to come forward
to authorities to report abuse without fear of re-victimisation.
Ongoing, horrific, unpunished human rights violations in Mexico
perpetuate the climate of impunity for perpetrators.
compensation for victims and support services, with many
services provided through private financing.[42]
Throughout 2015, criminal charges have been laid against
traffickers, particularly for cases of sexual exploitation. In
October 2015, six traffickers were charged for the exploitation of
27 people in Mexico City.[43] This follows success in sentencing
the first person for child labour exploitation in 2014. Four people
were sentenced to four years and six months in prison for forcing
ten children aged between seven and 17 years to work and beg in
the town of Texcoco.[44] In January 2016, after a lengthy police
operation in Cancun, 16 trafficking victims were rescued, seven
of whom were minors, and six people were arrested. NGOs
reported this was indicative of better police awareness of and
attention to trafficking crimes, particularly victims of commercial
sexual exploitation.[45]
These are positive steps by the Mexican Government, which has
previously displayed consistently low levels of convictions in
cases of modern slavery.[46] Mexico's efforts to build the capacity
of the legal profession through wide-ranging training programmes
are contributing to a stronger criminal justice response. However,

these developments must be closely monitored considering the
complicity of Mexican officials in human rights abuses and
corruption in modern slavery cases.[47]
There is slow momentum to combat the sexual abuse of Mexican
children in Puerto Vallarta—the Ministry of Tourism signed
RECOMMENDATIONS
Government
• Investigate and prosecute government officials at all levels
complicit in modern slavery cases in Mexico.
• Increase investigations and prosecutions of drug cartels
for crimes relating to modern slavery including forced
labour and forced prostitution.
• Strengthen victim identification processes at border
crossings into the US, and at airports, bus and train
stations, particularly around the human trafficking of
children and young adults.
• Create a national coordination mechanism to streamline the
implementation of each state's counter-trafficking legislation.
• Promote legal and regulated migration as the safest
means of emigration to increase the number of Mexicans
emigrating via formal channels.
• Develop a comprehensive strategy to raise awareness among
labour migrants on their rights in destination countries.
• Strengthen workers' organisations and unions to empower
workers through the delivery of information about human
rights and labour rights.
Mexico cont.
a National Conduct Code for the Protection of Children in
the Travel and Tourism Sector, which identifies hotels and
accommodation establishments as free from human trafficking.[48]
Although NGOs suggest that many hotels continue to turn a blind
eye to blatant cases of child sexual abuse.[49]
Business
• Businesses operating in the tourist sector should adopt the
National Code of Conduct for the Protection of Children
and Adolescents in Sector Travel and Tourism.
• Members of the National Association of Hotels and
Motels (Asociación de Hoteles y Moteles) should continue
to train employers on victim identification.
• Sectors particularly vulnerable to child labour, including
agriculture and construction, should join efforts to
implement industry-wide standards on policies and
practices to address the use of forced child labour.
• Businesses employing Mexican citizens abroad should
verify policies on the recruitment of migrant workers,
ensuring all employers are employed via legal and
regular channels.
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 129
 24
Prevalence Index Rank

POLAND
"We left Poland with a few belongings and 10 Zloty
[£8] that I borrowed from a friend, I was worried,
but happy that I would be working again....The
room was cold and dirty. Black mould was on the
walls, wallpaper was dropping off and the house
was damp. My heart stopped. I paid my debt [for
travel to the UK] after a month, but if I left I knew
they would find me and kill me, so I had to stay....
I was their property and there was no escape.
I lived every day in fear."
A Polish migrant describes their experiences of forced
labour while living in the UK[1]

Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

181,100

Vunerability to Modern Slavery

26.66/100

Government Response Rating Population GDP (PPP)

BB 38,025,000 $24,744
130 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
 Poland cont.

PREVALENCE

The 2016 Global Slavery Index estimates 181,100 people or Commercial sexual exploitation
0.48 percent of the total population live in conditions of modern Forced prostitution and commercial sexual exploitation affect
slavery in Poland. This is based on a random-sample, nationally- women and girls trafficked in and out of Poland. Of 50 trafficking
representative survey undertaken in 2015, that sought to identify victims identified by Polish police in 2014, the majority were
instances of both forced marriage and forced labour within the women. These women, including one minor, were trafficked for
general population (survey conducted in Polish language). prostitution or pornography.[18] Most of the victims originated
from the Ukraine.[19] The Polish Border Guards have also identified
Forced labour
Bulgarian Roma people as victims, who are typically involved in
Forced labour affects migrant populations within Poland and 'roadside prostitution'. An investigation by the Maritime Border
Polish citizens migrating overseas. Walk Free Foundation survey Guard identified two citizens of Bulgaria and one citizen of
data suggests construction (45 percent), domestic labour (31 Poland as victims of human trafficking for prostitution.[20] A study
percent), other manual labour (eight percent), and manufacturing of prosecutions for the crime of commercial sexual exploitation
(six percent) were sectors of concern Within Poland, migrant of children found that 14 children were trafficked within Poland
labourers from nearby Eastern European countries, such as and one child trafficked to Germany between September 2011
Ukraine, Bulgaria and Romania,[2] and parts of South East Asia, and February 2012.[21]
are vulnerable to exploitation in the construction, agriculture,
retail and domestic sectors.[3] Despite existing literature giving evidence of CSE cases in
Poland, the Walk Free survey did not identify any victims in
While previously victims of exploitation were predominately this sector. The survey result may not indicate an absence of
from the former Soviet Union, there has been a shift in recent cases but possibly a lack of willingness to self-identify or report
years to an increase in the number of identified victims from this issue. We will continue to work with experts to identify the
Asia,[4] including Vietnam, the Philippines, China and Korea.[5] most robust ways to ensure the issue of sexual exploitation is
In 2014, the Border Guard identified 31 victims of forced labour, fully accounted for in our survey results in future.
19 of whom originated from the Philippines. When cases of
domestic servitude are included, this figure increases to 34
forced labour victims, of which 21 were from the Philippines.[6] Walk Free Foundation 2015 survey data
A study released by the European Alliance for Human Rights in
North Korea implicated Polish firms in the use of North Korean % male % female
forced labour. As many as 800 North Koreans are believed to be Number % victims victims
working in the country, primarily in shipyards and orchards.[7] Forced labour 181,100 100 56 44
Even those migrants who legally enter the country may become
subject to forced labour. In 2010, 58 Thai migrant workers who Forced
0 0 0 0
entered the country with work permits, for example, were made marriage
to work excessive hours, received limited food and were not Modern
paid full wages.[8] 181,100 100 56 44
slavery total
Polish nationals made up the fifth largest group of European Union
(EU)-registered trafficking victims experiencing exploitation
within the EU between 2010 and 2012.[9] Most of these individuals
Forced labour by sector of exploitation %
were identified in the UK (405), Poland (263) and the Netherlands
(187).[10] In 2012, 54 individuals were identified as victims of Domestic work 31
labour exploitation;[11] victims are recruited online, attracted by
Construction 45
the promise of employment and the provision of accommodation
and transport.[12] Polish victims in the UK are most likely to be Manufacturing 6
victims of labour exploitation and have been forced to work in Other manufacturing 8
agriculture, construction, factories and car washes.[13] Polish men
Farming 0
and women have also experienced modern slavery in the UK, the
Netherlands, Germany and France.[14] Sex Industry 0
Drug production 0
Forced begging
Retail sector 0
Regionally-organised crime syndicates are implicated in forced
begging rings. Roma mothers from poor communities in Moldova Other 0
and the Ukraine are offered jobs in the sales or care sectors DK 0
in Poland but have their passports confiscated upon arrival.[15]
Refused 10
Along with their children, they are forced to beg on the streets
and report their daily intake back to the trafficker. Children as Total 100
young as three and five have been identified in cases of Ukrainian
nationals trafficked to Poland for forced begging.[16]
In 2014, the police identified only one case of forced begging.
However the Border Guard found three suspected cases; in every
instance, the victims were Romanian citizens.[17]

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 131

 Exploitation of persons to obtain loans and
benefits by deceit
An emerging issue in Poland is the exploitation of vulnerable
persons to obtain benefits or loans by deceit. In recent years, there
have been reported cases in the UK of Polish citizens forced to
take out social benefits or loans, the proceeds of which go to
criminal networks. In 2013, the Central Bureau of Investigation
(UK) reported ten investigations of this type of crime.[22]
VULNERABILITY
Civil & political Social, health, &
Country protections economic rights
Poland 34.76 19.50
High levels of unemployment in Poland, significant rates of
emigration to Western Europe, the low socioeconomic status
of citizens in neighbouring countries and regional instability
contribute to the vulnerability of nationals and migrants to
modern slavery both within Poland and in Western Europe.
Economic factors remain the chief motivator for Polish
emigration.[24] Official unemployment figures have hovered
around 10 percent since the end of 2012, although this has
recently decreased to approximately 7 percent at the close of
2015.[25] Youth unemployment, however, has remained relatively
high at nearly 21 percent in 2015.[26] The outflow of labour from
Poland has stabilised,[27] but there are still around two million
Polish people living abroad as of 2015, with 640,000 Polish
residing in the United Kingdom (UK) alone.[28]
Polish migrants tend to be from rural areas and the main
breadwinners of their families[29] and, as such, there is pressure
to find work, often at the expense of basic labour conditions.
Research conducted in the
UK shows that migrants from
Eastern European Accession
countries, including Poland, suffer
from discrimination, insecure
conditions, substandard pay,
racial stereotyping and skill
degradation.[30]
GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
The Government of Poland has been largely reactive in
responding to modern slavery in recent years[46] while it is unclear
what steps the new government (elected in October 2015) will
take to tackle this crime. The National Action Plan 2013–2015
(NAP) outlines provisions to address the most critical areas of
response. Implementation of the NAP has been largely successful.
The government succeeded in amending the legislation relating
to third-country nationals,[47] expanding victim identification
processes,[48] setting standards for the provision of assistance to
victims,[49] and training employees of crisis centres, NGOs and
consular staff on identification and assistance mechanisms.[50]
The government set aside the equivalent of US$363,000 for the
132 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
The Ministry of the Interior reported that Polish-based criminal
gangs have targeted gaps in the financial and social welfare
systems of the UK and Germany. These gangs target people
in a precarious financial situation who are deceived to believe
that they will receive a job at the end of the process. Most of
the victims are middle-aged men, but these criminal networks
have been known to transport entire families to receive greater
social welfare benefits.[23]
Personal security Refugees & conflict Mean
29.07 23.33 26.66
Significant emigration of Polish citizens, a growing economy,[31]
and historical links with South East Asian Communist countries[32]
has led to an influx of economic migrants from South East Asia.
Migrants from Asia, in particular, face difficulties integrating
into Polish society.[33] While Poland is considered a relatively
peaceful country, discrimination towards migrant workers
and minorities[34] can lead to isolation[35] and an increase in
vulnerability to exploitation. According to a 2013 study from the
Centre of Research on Prejudice at the University of Warsaw, up
to 69 percent of Poles do not want 'non-whites' living in Poland,
believing that they deprive Poles of employment and have a
detrimental effect on the economy.[36] Coupled with a limited
understanding of the Polish language, migrants are vulnerable
to exploitation and have difficulties accessing support once
exploitation has occurred.
Ongoing conflict and the economic crisis in the Ukraine has led
to increasing numbers of refugees[37] and economic migrants
leaving the Ukraine to neighbouring countries, including
Poland.[38] Ukrainians make up the largest group of registered
foreign workers in Poland, with an increase in the issuance of
declarations of intent and work permits in recent years. In the
first half or 2015, more than 20,000 permits were issued, twice
that for the same period in 2012.[39] [40] Limited and contradicting
data exists on the overall number of registered and unregistered
migrants.[41] [42] However, there are estimates of between 300,000
and 500,000 Ukrainians working in Poland.[43] Those who are
undocumented are vulnerable to exploitation and forced labour.[44]
There have been cases, for example, where economic migrants
have become vulnerable to traffickers en route to and in Poland,
and in neighbouring Russia, Germany, Belarus and Israel.[45]
implementation of NAP activities in 2014,[51] which reflects a
gradual increase in State funding over recent years for programs
to combat human trafficking. However, legislation related to
third-country nationals has been criticised for its complexity
and ambiguity[52] while a lack of standardised data collection
techniques prevents comparability of case data between different
agencies. Some measures were also delayed due to a lack of
financing or other difficulties.[53] The current NAP expired in
December 2015; NAPs are typically issued every three years.[54]
However, there is no indication when the new government will
approve a new NAP or what the budget will be.[55]

The government is beginning to respond to the issue of forced
labour, as opposed to focusing its efforts entirely on forced
prostitution. While protection services are still geared towards
protecting women and children who have experienced sexual
exploitation,[56][57] the government has indicated that victims
of forced labour are provided with support.[58] In 2010, the
Penal Code was amended so that its definition of trafficking
was more explicit about the inclusion of forced labour, and,
therefore, better reflected the United Nations Trafficking Protocol
of 2000.[59] To curb the exploitation of Polish citizens abroad,
from 2014, the Police Unit cooperated with the Irish, English and
Scottish police to prevent and address cases of forced labour.[60]
The small number of criminal law cases of forced labour (only
eight in 2014),[61] however, suggests that there is still low
awareness of forced labour among police, prosecutors[62][63] and
labour inspectors[64][65] as well as a low understanding of available
mechanisms for recourse among migrant workers, particularly
those working without documentation.[66]
As part of its NAP, the Government of Poland, through the
International Organisation for Migration (IOM), organised
a meeting for consular staff and government officials at the
Embassy of the Philippines. This meeting detailed the dangers
that migrant workers, particularly women, may encounter.[67]
RECOMMENDATIONS
Government
• Enact a new National Action Plan, with a corresponding
budget.
• Develop and implement a campaign to shift community and
business perception around forced and exploitative labour.
• Develop policies that require businesses to conduct audits
and inspections to identify forced labour throughout their
supply chains.
• Continue investigations of organised crime gangs in
relation to human trafficking and forced begging.
• Conduct targeted and relevant raising-awareness
campaigns among migrant populations to raise awareness
of their rights. In particular, promote their entitlement
to a three-month reflection period to decide whether to
participate in the criminal process.
• Extend existing trafficking training for front-line law
enforcement to include a systematic and comprehensive
program on forced labour.
• Ensure trafficking training for prosecutors and judges is
adequately financed and delivered in a systematic fashion.
• Develop and implement a standardised approach for
collecting data on modern slavery.
Poland cont.
Poland also imposes licensing
regulations on private employment
agencies and, by law, it is an
offence for job seekers to pay for
their placement.[68] Despite such
initiatives, the low awareness of
migrant's rights remains an issue.
Victims of trafficking are entitled to a three-month 'reflection
period' in which they can decide whether to participate in
criminal proceedings; however GRETA (Group of Experts on
Action against Trafficking in Human Beings) notes that this was
not effectively communicated to victims and as such the right
was rarely exercised.[69]
Poland has made no visible attempts to work with businesses
to address modern slavery. Businesses are not included in the
previous National Action Plan while the level of knowledge of
the effects of modern slavery in supply chains and how to engage
business remains low.[70] Research suggests that business people
do not consider it their responsibility to eliminate forced or
exploitative labour,[71] contributing to high levels of exploitation
in this sector.
Business
• Ensure that employees are not paying recruitment fees to
receive a job.
• Ensure that employees are only recruited from registered
employment agencies.[72]
• Businesses should familiarise themselves with
international labour standards, which are also enshrined in
Polish Law, and introduce these standards into their Code
of Conduct[73] and supplier contracts.
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 133
 5
Prevalence Index Rank

QATAR
"Qatar must change its ways in relation to the
people it welcomes to the country. I am speaking as
a player but it must be even worse for the workers
over there. I have had the chance to see how it
works. If Qatar does not change its ways, I have the
courage to say that in 2022 we will have the World
Cup of Shame and the World Cup of Slavery, for not
respecting human rights, and I am brave enough
to say it."
Abdeslam Ouaddou, Professional Footballer

Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

30,300

Vunerability to Modern Slavery

31.71/100

Government Response Rating Population GDP (PPP)

CCC 2,235,000 $140,649

134 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

PREVALENCE
The 2016 Global Slavery Index estimates 30,300 people or 1.36
percent of the total population live in conditions of modern slavery
in Qatar.
Forced labour
Forced labour in the construction sector is one of the dominant
forms of modern slavery in Qatar, reflecting the demand for
cheap labour to build extensive infrastructure for the 2022 FIFA
World Cup and National Vision 2030. The ongoing construction
of football stadiums, and the huge infrastructure projects required
to access and service these locations, continues to see massive
influxes of migrant labour who are vulnerable to abuse.
The vast majority of construction workers are low, semi and
unskilled. They are almost exclusively male (99.4 percent in
2012[1]) and are predominately from South and South East
Asian nations—India, Nepal, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and
Bangladesh. These men are vulnerable to exploitation at all
stages of the recruitment process—from the initial stage where
they often incur large debts to pay recruitment agents' fees to
reliance on their sponsor for residency and legal status, and
discrimination from laws that criminalise workers for leaving
exploitative situations ('absconding').
The incidence of migrant construction workers taking out loans
to pay recruitment fees in their respective home countries creates
situations of debt bondage in Qatar. The average recruitment
charges are as follows: India: US$1,300, Nepal: US$1,400, the
Philippines: US$1,130, Sri Lanka: US$900 and Bangladesh:
US$925.[2] Interest on these loans is being charged at rates of
between 30 and 60 percent p.a. This directly conflicts with the
laws of Islamic Finance under which Qatar financial institutions
have been able to attract ever larger investor contributions
from parties seeking to ensure that their money is managed in
accordance with the strict requirements of the Islamic faith.
Workers who incur debt through their recruitment, many of
whom are deceived about their true salary and face employers
who are indifferent to their predicament, face substantial pressure
to continue their employment to service their debt. Between the
recruitment fees, the interest rates and the fact that their wages,
even when paid in full, are often substantially lower than the level
misrepresented to them when accepting the job, many workers
are completely unable to escape the cycle of debt.
Despite substantial international pressure to reform the treatment
of migrant construction workers, reports continue to find
workers facing conditions that may amount to those of slavery.
These include work performed under the threat of penalty or
deportation, deprivation of food, inadequate accommodation
with limited or no privacy, physical confinement in the work
location/labour camp severely restricting freedom of movement,
misrepresentation and substitution of types and terms of work,
confiscation of identity documents, non-payment, withholding
and/or deductions from pay, and unsafe working conditions in
extremely high temperatures.
Domestic workers in Qatar are almost exclusively female, aside
from gardeners, drivers, cooks and guards/watchmen who are
almost exclusively male. Traditionally, the majority of female
domestic workers come from the Philippines, Indonesia, Sri
Lanka, India and Nepal. Efforts by sending countries (particularly
the Philippines) to address the low wages paid to domestic
workers is resulting in a growing trend of hiring cheaper maids
from Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia and other Sub-Saharan African
Qatar cont.
nations.[3] Workers from nations without embassies in Qatar have
few alternate options to flee to in cases of exploitation.
Domestic workers are excluded from protections contained
within the Labour Law pursuant to Art 3(4) of the Labour Law
No.14 of 2004 . Draft legislation specifically relating to domestic
workers is currently under consideration.[4] Qatar has not ratified
nor does it comply with ILO Convention No.189, the Domestic
Workers Convention . Domestic workers continue to report
cases of serious maltreatment and abuse including physical,
psychological and sexual violence. Rather than being able to
access help, domestic workers risk imprisonment for 'illicit
relations' if they report such abuse to authorities. Among female
foreign nationals, domestic workers are particularly prone to
being detained and deported for violating the Sponsorship Law.
In March 2013, of the 378 women
held in detention, 90–95 percent
had been employed as domestic
workers.[5]
Information on the exploitation of migrant fishermen on Qatari
boats is an emerging but under-researched area. Anecdotal
evidence suggests Qatari shipowners are hiring migrant labourers,
predominately men from India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and the
Philippines,[6] to work on small to medium-sized vessels often
for months at a time.[7] Migrant fishermen are known to experience
practices that may amount to forced labour such as limited and
delayed payment of wages (for example, some men receive no
wage and instead receive a percentage of that day's catch), forced
overtime, poor living conditions and abandonment at sea.[8]
Commercial sexual exploitation
Data on adult commercial sexual exploitation is scarce due to the
significant social stigma of discussing sex and widespread denial
of the existence of prostitution in Qatar. Both prostitution and
sex outside of marriage are illegal in Qatar. Anecdotal evidence
suggests some women travelling for employment in the domestic
service sector or retail and service industries may be subjected
to involuntary prostitution at the hands of traffickers or labour
brokers. It is also believed women who 'abscond' from formal
employment and those without No Objection Certificates (a legal
document issued by a Sponsor to certify he has no objections
to his employee changing Sponsor/moving to another job) may
have few options but to turn to operators of the sex trade.
Forced and early marriage
There is limited information available on forced and early
marriage in Qatar. According to a 2010 government review in
Qatar, 9.3 percent of marriages of Qatari women occur in the
15–19-year-old age category; while 16.6 percent of marriages
of non-Qatari women in Qatar occur in the 15–19-year-old age
category.[9] The circumstances surrounding these early marriages
are unknown.
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 135
 VULNERABILITY
Civil & political Social, health, &
Country Personal security Refugees & conflict Mean
protections economic rights

Qatar 48.79 15.26 50.50 12.30 31.71

The population of Qatar has grown at an unprecedented rate; The kafala system, and limited local knowledge of the rights of
between 2004 and 2014, the population has almost tripled.[10] foreign workers creates a starkly unequal platform for victims to
In 2015, 88 percent[11] of Qatar's population of 2,347,000 assert their rights. Worker vulnerability is compounded by their
people[12] were non-Qatari, making Qatar the country with the limited access to mechanisms for legal redress. Generally, workers
largest population proportion of foreigners in the world. [13] filing a court case need to stay in the country for the duration of
This foreign population is predominantly made up of young, the hearing which can take up to one year to be heard. During this
semi- or low-skilled workers who meet the demand for cheap in- time, the worker will likely have no job—which exacerbates debts
house domestic help, as labourers for the booming construction and the inability to provide for dependents—no accommodation
industry and as low-paid workers in roles notoriously rejected and no accepted legal status as the employer is unlikely to agree
by locals. Qatari citizens represent no more than 12 percent of to transfer their sponsorship if they are being sued.
the population; Qatari males constitute only 4.7 percent of the
Women occupy an inferior status in Qatari society which affects
total male workforce and only one percent of the private sector.[14]
a female victim's ability to access justice once exploited.
Qatari leaders continue to hold strong and widespread fears
of migrants gaining power via collective bargaining, asserting
their labour rights, and eventually challenging the balance of
power and control within their borders. Demonstrations, trade
For example, in Qatar, women's
unions and associations dealing with public affairs continue to testimony is worth half of men's,
be banned in Qatar.[15]
so police frequently discount
Terminology on this issue continues to be a cause for concern and women's statements when
heated debate in Qatar. The word 'slavery' is deemed incorrect
when discussing the exploitation of workers in Qatar and can refuted by male employers; and
create great offence to Qatari nationals. In 2007, Qatar's own judges routinely sentence women
National Human Rights Committee (NHRC) published a report
which referred to the existence of modern-day 'slavery practices'
for immorality and adultery
in industries at that time. The backlash from the Qatari public stemming from associated sexual
and business sectors almost caused the government to close the
NHRC completely. It has taken considerable time and effort
abuse claims.
by the NHRC to re-establish a trusted position and distance
Being a woman not only increases vulnerability to being
itself from the terminology/word 'slavery'. Human trafficking
exploited but perpetuates victimisation once trapped.[20]
is acknowledged but largely misunderstood, and forced labour
is equated with poor employment practices rather than human Statelessness is a key risk factor for vulnerability to trafficking,
rights violations. forced labour and forced marriage. The NHRC of Qatar maintains
concerns that Qatari women married to non-Qatari men are
Prevailing attitudes about migrant workers suggest persistent and
subject to discrimination as their children cannot obtain Qatari
deep-seated racism. Media stereotyping of migrant workers as
citizenship, as per article 34 of the Nationality Act for 2005. The
inferior, potential rapists (male workers)[16] and thieves (domestic
Bidoon (also referred to as Bidun), a stateless minority in the
workers)[17] drives discrimination and fear. All-male labour camp
Gulf region, number approximately 1,200–1,500 in Qatar.[21]
accommodation sites for construction workers are located away
Bidoon are only allowed to apply for citizenship after living in
from Qatari residential areas as there is a belief that workers are
the country for 25 consecutive years according to the Nationality
culturally insensitive, with others fearing 'foreign bachelors'
Act for 2005. As only 50 citizenship applicants are accepted
may sexually violate Qatari women and children.[18] In 2015,
each year, most Bidoon remain unable to acquire citizenship.
Doha's Central Municipal Council called on the government to
Furthermore, the government does not register the birth of Bidoon
more strictly enforce a five-year-old ban on blue-collar workers
children.[22] These issues of statelessness must be addressed to
living in neighbourhoods populated by Qatari families.[19] These
reduce vulnerability to modern slavery.
attitudes drive division and inequality.
Despite some reforms to the kafala system in 2015 (not yet in
practice, discussed below), the sponsorship system increases
the dependency of migrant workers on sponsors rendering
them vulnerable to various forms of exploitation and abuse.
The system is also open to abuse, particularly with the creation
of what is termed the 'Loose Market'—a black market trading in
visas for migrant workers which do not correspond to the work
being undertaken by individuals. The process enables Qatari
individuals and businesses to profit from the system's failings
and allows workers to fraudulently enter the country. These
workers are then open to exploitation on the black market due
to their precarious legal status.

136 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Qatar cont.

GOVERNMENT RESPONSE

In October 2015, the Emir of Qatar issued Law Number 21 of committed to devising "regulations, including standards and
2015 on the regulation of the entry and exit of expatriates and conditions, to better manage the recruitment and employment of
their residency, thereby amending some aspects of the kafala domestic helpers". Urgent legislative and practical support is
system (expected to enter into force at the end of 2016). The new needed for this highly vulnerable cohort.
law addresses the issue of employees obtaining their sponsor's
Another legislative reform was signed in February 2015, in which
permission to change jobs or travel abroad, instead requiring the
the Emir signed into law a requirement that companies pay their
Ministry of Interior to approve these movements. The Ministry
employees through direct bank transfers to be implemented on
must still obtain the employer's consent for employee movement,
November 2, 2015. It is expected this will make it easier to
but workers will have a right to appeal if permission is denied.
settle disputes about non-payment of wages. Firms that flout the
The new law allows migrant workers to change employers after rules risk penalties of up to one month in prison and a maximum
their contracts expire or after five years of working for one QR6,000 fine.[26]
employer. As the suggested maximum duration of contracts is
In June 2014, at the 26th session of the United Nations Human
five years, and the law will not come into force until the end
Rights Council special dialogue, Qatar announced that it
of 2016, it may be 2022 (the year of the World Cup) before
has adopted the Arab Initiative to Build National Capacities
an employee can change jobs without permission from their
to Combat Human Trafficking in the Arab Countries. The
employer.[23] Some safeguards have been enacted, such as the
Government of Qatar has committed to covering all costs of the
ability of the Ministries of Interior and Labour to transfer work
Arab Initiative, to the amount of US$6 million. This Initiative is
visas in cases of "abuse or for the public good", however, it is
being implemented in partnership with the QFPSR, the United
unclear how accessible these safeguards will be to workers in
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and the Arab League. The
practice.[24] The new law addresses the black market visa selling
government is making some efforts to engage with international
practice—Article 38 says employers will receive a jail term
trade unions and human rights groups to better understand
of no more than three years and/or a fine up to QR500,000.
and plan long-term interventions against trafficking, but their
Likewise, employers who hire workers without authorisation
response to these issues still lack coordination. As a first step,
may be fined QR12,000.
the government will need to address the pervading perception of
Some international groups have criticised these reforms saying poor labour practices as separate from forced labour.
they "add a new layer of repression for migrant workers and
Positive developments, such as the requirement that companies
leave the kafala modern slavery system intact". [25] These reforms
set up bank accounts for workers and pay wages electronically,
continue to exclude migrant domestic workers, who remain
as well as bans on midday outdoor work, need to be reinforced
insufficiently protected in law and overwhelmingly exposed to
with collective action from employers, police and the judiciary.
abuse. Widespread reluctance to extend the rights of domestic
The increase in routine and surprise raids of manpower agencies,
workers persist, despite reports Qatar has worked on a draft law
including the cancellation of 15 agencies licenses from 2014–
for domestic workers and despite the statement in the National
2015, is an encouraging sign.
Development Strategy wherein the government ostensibly

RECOMMENDATIONS

Government
• Create an independent reform commission—labour rights,
freedom of association, the right to bargain collectively.
• Amend Article 3 of the Labour Law to ensure domestic
workers, drivers, cooks and gardeners have their labour
rights legally protected.
• Establish a minimum wage for domestic workers.
• Monitor the non-payment of wages and prosecute offenders
to effectively dissuade illegal practices by employers.
• Retract provisions in legislation about absconding and
ensure that victims are not criminalised for fleeing
exploitative situations.
• Ensure law enforcement actors and the judiciary are
adequately trained and sensitised on forced labour practices.
• Enforce existing laws that facilitate migrant workers'
access to redress mechanisms and actively promote these
mechanisms among highly vulnerable populations.
• Provide new individual sponsors with information and/
or training on their legal obligations to safeguard the
wellbeing of migrant workers.
• Amend provisions in the Penal Code about 'illicit
relations' to ensure victims of CSE are not criminalised.
Business
• Must ensure employers are trained in the new wage
payment system, and penalise employers for non-
compliance with this requirement.
• Must comply with restrictions on midday work and alert
authorities about businesses breaching this requirement.
• International businesses operating in Qatar must update
the Code of Conduct and contractual provisions to include
specific clauses on passport retention and the recruitment
of employees for suppliers and sub-suppliers operating in
Qatar.
• Investigate the recruitment practices of suppliers and sub-
suppliers and work with suppliers to compensate staff that
has paid excessive recruitment fees.
• Ensure suppliers are paying staff to the contracted amount
or national minimum wage, including premiums for
overtime work.
• Work with suppliers to develop corrective action plans
and recourse for workers found exploited in supply chains.
1
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 137
 photo credit, Denis Sinyakov

6
Prevalence Index Rank

RUSSIA
"Ayauly and Bibihul were among 12 migrants from
Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, including three children,
who were held captive for 10 years in a supermarket
after being promised employment in Russia. In
Russia, they were beaten and forced to work without
pay by the couple who owned the supermarket.
Their passports were confiscated by their traffickers
who said they needed the documents to officially
register them as workers with authorities. The
passports were never returned…The couple used
threats of violence, beatings, and sexual violence
to demand subservience."
United States Department of State's Trafficking in Persons
Report 2013.

Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

1,048,500

Vunerability to Modern Slavery

43.45/100

Government Response Rating Population GDP (PPP)

CC 143,335,000 $25,636
138 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

PREVALENCE
The 2016 Global Slavery Index estimates 1,048,500 people or
0.73 percent of the total population live in conditions of modern
slavery in Russia. This is based on a random-sample, nationally-
representative survey undertaken in 2014, that sought to identify
instances of both forced marriage and forced labour within the
general population (surveys conducted in Russian language).
Forced labour
With 98 percent of cases in the survey in forced labour, our
data suggests that construction (55 percent), drug production
(14 percent), maufacturing (6 percent), and domestic work (2
percent) are sectors of concern. Research suggests that Russian
and foreign workers, particularly from former Soviet Union
states such as Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan and Kyrgyzstan,
and neighbouring Ukraine and North Korea have experienced
labour practices that amounted to modern slavery in Russia.
There are reported instances and victims of modern slavery in
the agricultural and construction sector, within factories (garment
factories predominantly, also brick factories) and private homes,
in salvage/trash, forestry (gathering of berries/nuts/flowers or
illegal logging), automotives and fishing.[1] Victims from Ukraine
have also experienced forced labour in the fisheries and seafaring
sectors, with the alleged complicity of recruitment agencies,[2] as
well as forced labour in clothes sorting, illegal vodka packaging
and domestic servitude.[3]
In response to the shooting down of a Russian jet on the Syrian-
Turkish border, Russia announced economic sanctions against
Turkey.[4] Turkish companies operating in Russia, including the
Turkish workforce numbering around 90,000, will now face
operational restrictions.[5] Experts have raised concerns that
Turkish employees will be substituted with more vulnerable
and less qualified workers.[6]
There is some evidence that Russians are being trafficked abroad
and exploited. Russian nationals predominantly move to nearby
Eastern European countries such as the Ukraine, Kazakhstan and
Belarus, but sizeable populations are also present in Israel and
across Western Europe.[7] Distinct trafficking routes have been
identified with victims being taken to (or tricked into going to)
Greece and Cyprus, the Middle East, Egypt and Israel, China
and the Mediterranean including Spain and Malta.[8] In 2013, a
high-profile trafficker was exposed after it was proven that he
and his associates had trafficked their victims from villages and
towns in Russia with promises of jobs as dancers and waitresses
in Israel.[9]
There is some evidence to suggest conscripted soldiers are
exploited by their commanders or someone who their commander
has rented them to. There are also cases in which people in
positions of power, including prison officials, heads of state
orphanages, etc., unlawfully use the labour of people under their
care. Due to the position of dependence and power imbalance
between victims and perpetrators, these situations can be
characterised as highly exploitative. When soldiers try to escape
the situation and return home, the military usually charges them
with desertion.[10]
Commercial sexual exploitation
Evidence of Russian women being commercially sexually
exploited in prostitution and pornography abroad, as well as local
and foreign women sexually exploited within Russia, persisted
throughout 2015. Russian victims of forced prostitution have
been identified in EU countries (Spain, Germany, Italy, Greece,
Russia cont.
Netherlands, Norway, Cyprus, Malta), the Middle East (UAE,
Turkey, Bahrain, Israel, Egypt, Lebanon) and the Far East (China,
South Korea, Kazakhstan).[11] Foreign women from across the
globe—Uzbekistan, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Tajikistan,
Vietnam and various countries in Africa—have been identified
as CSE victims in the Russian sex industry.[12]
The profile of Russian victims vulnerable to CSE abroad is
shifting from well-educated women looking for economic
opportunities abroad to impoverished women, frequently with
dysfunctional family backgrounds or from state orphanage
facilities, seeking to escape their current situation.[13] The lure
of lucrative employment, coupled with a new location increases
the vulnerability of women. Targeting women who are unlikely
to be missed or turn to the police also reduces the likelihood of
detection for the small, local, organised crime groups facilitating
CSE in Russia.[14]
Despite existing literature giving evidence of CSE cases in
Russia, the Walk Free survey did not identify any victims in
this sector. The survey result may not indicate an absence of
cases but possibly a lack of willingness to self-identify or report
this issue. We will continue to work with experts to identify the
most robust ways to ensure the issue of sexual exploitation is
fully accounted for in our survey results in future.
Commercial sexual exploitation - children
Russian children are reportedly trafficked through St. Petersburg
to Europe and from smaller towns and villages to larger cities
throughout Russia for CSE.[15] Russian law does not prohibit
the possession of child pornography,[16] and reports of children,
particularly orphans, street children and migrant children being
used in the production of pornography persisted in 2015.[17]
Russia continues to host foreign sex tourists, some of whom
target children. This has been identified in the north-west regions
of Russia (Karelia, Vyborg, Murmansk) which are close to
Europe and also in the Far East (Vladivostok) which is close
to China.[18]
Forced recruitment - children
There are reports of children being used by combined Russian-
separatist forces in the conflict in eastern Ukraine.[19] The United
States (US) Government has reported that children have received
arms in Russian-occupied Crimea or military training in Russian-
occupied South Ossetia,[20] however, limited verified information
exists on the involvement of children in the conflict.
Forced begging
Adults and children, including the disabled, are recruited from
the smaller towns and provinces with promises of jobs, brought
to larger cities and stationed in the metro or on the street to
beg.They are expected to reach a certain quota of money each
day and are punished by their traffickers when they do not.[21]
Forced marriage
In the 2014 survey, Walk Free found two percent of cases
involved forced marriage. Evidence suggests that the problem
of forced marriage in Russia is concentrated in regions where
there is a strongly patriarchal view of marriage, primarily in
Chechnya and Dagestan. However, there is limited research
on forced marriages in Russia to confirm this.[22] Some female
migrants in Russia, particularly those from Central Asia, may
have experienced forced marriages in their country of origin and
have since migrated to Russia with their husbands.
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 139
 VULNERABILITY
Civil & political Social, health, &
Country
protections economic rights
Russia 57.21 18.47
Continuing economic decline coupled with ongoing regional
instability and cross-border migration flows has created new
pockets of vulnerability among both Russian citizens and
migrants. Among Russian citizens, increased unemployment,
poverty, demands for cheap labour in unregulated markets and
a lack of social safety nets creates opportunities for labour
exploitation. This is especially true for those residing outside
the major regional centres with limited employment prospects
who are forced to travel for employment.
Russia is the second largest
migrant receiving country in the
world,[23] with approximately
seven million or more said to have
irregular employment or living
status.[24]
Irregular migrants who are willing to engage in high-risk social
behaviour, including illegal migration and informal work, are
susceptible to human trafficking and forced labour into and
within Russia.
In some cases, these are not active decisions by migrant
groups, but rather attributed to a lack of general education on
safe migration and deceptive recruitment. Persistent conflict
in neighbouring Ukraine has entrenched a fertile passage for
human traffickers from both countries to flourish. As the second
poorest country in Europe by GDP,[25] Ukrainian citizens are
desperately seeking employment, often compromising the need
for employment contracts. Although Russia, as an employment
destination country for Ukrainians, has declined since the
conflict,[26] it was still within the top five destination choices
for Ukrainians in 2015.[27] Some 41 percent of Ukrainian's abroad
remained engaged in unofficial work in 2015 compared to 28
percent in 2011.[28]
This reflects patterns among other migrant groups who are willing
to accept jobs without knowing exactly what work and conditions
they are committing to. Migrant workers in Russia often rely
on underground networks and intermediaries (generally within
GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
The Russian Government continues to make few efforts to
address the exploitation of their own and foreign citizens. On 1
January 2015, a new migration law was implemented requiring
foreign workers from countries outside the Eurasian economic
union to pass Russian language and history tests, acquire
expensive permits and pay steep monthly fees.[34] Furthermore,
Tajik citizens who could previously travel in Russia using
national identity cards will now have to produce an international
passport[35] and many face a re-entry ban.[36] For those Tajik
workers already in the country, this change of law gives workers
neither the right to remain nor the right to leave.[37] There are
140 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
Personal security Refugees & conflict Mean
40.66 57.47 43.45
the diaspora) to get work permits and registration which often
operate outside of formal channels. Once operating outside of
regulated channels, irregular migrants and their families face
few opportunities for recourse. Children of irregular migrants
thus lack the documentation needed to access education and
social services, exacerbating their likelihood of participation in
the informal labour force.
Refugees crossing into Russia are often met by a deficient
processing system, leaving asylum seekers without robust
protection systems. The complex asylum process has seen
refugees in recent months continuously crossing borders with
little confirmation from the government on if/how asylum
claims will be processed. This lack of assurance and protection
mechanisms places refugees in Russia at risk. As of January
2016, up to 5,500 mainly Syrian refugees who crossed the border
from Russia to Norway on bike began being transported back
to Russia.[29]
Negative or indifferent societal attitudes toward immigration
do little to bolster support or promote government action on
the issue. Indeed, corrupt law enforcement officials enable
trafficking networks to operate, both in situations of forced
labour and commercial sexual exploitation.
In 2015, economic contraction in Russia slashed migrant job
opportunities while depreciation of the ruble has reduced the real
incomes of migrant workers.[30] This has had serious impacts on
both migrant workers within Russia and their dependent families
abroad - remittances to Ukraine declined by 27 percent, to
Uzbekistan by 16 percent, Armenia by 11 percent and Tajikistan
by 8 percent.[31] Job-poor Tajikistan is the most remittance-
dependent country in the world—the latest figures from 2013
reveal 49 percent of their GDP constituted remittances. In 2015,
25 percent of Tajik migrant workers in Russia were expected
to return home despite having no job prospects,[32] creating
increasingly dire options. The defection of Tajik special-forces
commander Colonel Gumurod Khalimov to IS in 2015 resulted
in him calling on Tajik migrant labourers in Russia to follow
him.[33] IS are known to be offering significant sums of cash to
desperate, unemployed workers in Russia. It remains to be seen
whether the drop in remittances and economic recession will
affect the prevalence of modern slavery; this will be essential
to monitor over 2016.
concerns that this new law will further increase the vulnerability
of workers in already precarious situations by facilitating their
dependence on informal verbal agreements with traffickers and
illegal brokers to secure visas and jobs in the informal market.
In June 2015, a new law on 'undesirable foreign organisations'
came into force, authorising the extrajudicial banning of foreign
or international groups which allegedly undermine Russia's
security, defence, or constitutional order. [38] This follows
enactment of the 2012 Law on Foreign Agents which demanded
that many Russian civil society organisations register as 'foreign

agents' if they engaged in political activities and accepted foreign
funds. Amendments to the law in June 2014, which gave the
Justice Ministry power to brand groups as 'foreign agents' without
their consent, made the operation of many NGOs in Russia even
more complicated and precarious.[39] These developments have
made the operation of NGOs combating modern slavery and
working with victims difficult. No NGO in Russia is currently
devoted purely to anti-slavery efforts and no NGO working
with victims of forced marriage exists. Government-funded care
remains unavailable to victims of trafficking.[40]
Russia continues to lack a dedicated human trafficking law;
however, modifications to the Russian Criminal Code, namely
Articles 127.1 and 127.2, prohibit human trafficking and the use
of slave labour. Articles 240 and 241 address the inducement to
and organisation of prostitution, and are often used to prosecute
offences.[41] A pending human trafficking law has yet to be passed.
There were several legislative developments in 2015. In July 2015,
new amendments to the Administrative Code and the Federal Law
on the Legal Status of Foreign Citizens in the Russian Federation
entered into force.[42] These amendments now allow authorities
to deport migrant workers if they work in a profession that is
not indicated in their patent (work visa) and fine the employers
for hiring such workers. Employees' visas will not be tied to
their Russian employer and workers will be able to change the
profession listed in their patent in some cases.[43] A draft article
10.13 for the new Administrative Code expected to be adopted
in 2016 requires the government to shut down the activity of a
legal entity if it created conditions for trafficking in minors and
child pornography. Elena Mizulina, a Senator, also planned an
amendment to the Criminal Code, article 127.1 Trafficking in
Human Beings, prohibiting commercial surrogate motherhood.
A new amendment to the Labor Code, Tax Code and Federal Law
on Employment limiting out-staffing (employment agency work)
came into force on 1 January 2016. Out-staffing is work that
an employee fulfils at his/her employer's instruction, but for an
individual or legal entity, not his/her boss. Employment agencies
were able to 'rent out' an employee to any enterprise, leaving
them with fewer labour rights, creating loopholes for trafficking
RECOMMENDATIONS
Government
• Draft and approve a comprehensive law on human
trafficking, using international definitions.
• Train law enforcement personnel on human trafficking,
with a particular focus on attitudinal change.
• Criminalise the possession of child pornography.
• Sign and ratify the Council of Europe Convention on
Action against Trafficking in Human Beings, and other
international treaties and conventions.
• Establish a national referral mechanism for identification
of human trafficking victims.
• Provide the financial and human resources to strengthen
the capacity for the Labour Inspectorate to conduct
rigorous onsite inspections.
• Allocate funding for the creation of shelters and other
outreach centres that can assist in identifying and referring
victims and providing them with direct services.
Russia cont.
and increasing their vulnerability to slave-like practices.[44]
Outsourcing now has strict provisions, including limitations on
the duration people may be employed as out-staffers, equal pay
to permanent workers in the same position and compensation
for hazardous work.
In 2015, a shelter for victims of
modern slavery was not identified
nor was a national coordinator on
trafficking in human beings. The
government has failed to develop
a national referral mechanism that
would allow formerly-enslaved
persons to receive adequate
medical, social, judicial and other
types of assistance after being
discovered by law enforcement.
The Federal Law on Government Protection of Victims, Witnesses
and other Participants of Criminal Proceedings provides for the
protection of "victims, witnesses and other participants in criminal
court proceedings", but the protection is only offered on a case-
by-case basis, and the programme suffers from a lack of funding.
There do not seem to be protocols in place to ensure that victims
of trafficking are not prosecuted for crimes committed as a result
of being trafficked. Migrant victims are not offered reflection
periods or residence permits, however, if a victim cooperates with
law enforcement, he/she may be granted temporary residence,
security and legal aid, but these agreements are informal and
decisions are made on a case-by-case basis. Therefore, aside
from established deportation procedures for migrants who have
been found in violation of immigration law,[45] Russia continues
to rely on international organisations to safely repatriate victims
to their country of origin or social reintegration in Russia.[46]
• P
 ublically report statistics on the number of identified
victims, prosecutions and court outcomes related to
modern slavery.
• E
 nsure that forced labour and human trafficking are
prevented in the construction of FIFA sites in Russia and
during the games themselves.
Business
• Develop a National Action Plan on Business and Human
Rights.
• Ensure that migrant workers have legal documentation to
work in Russia.
• Ensure that migrant workers have full access to their
identity documents, safe accommodation and receive
a fair and full payment. In cases of non-compliance,
companies must work with suppliers to compensate
workers, including payment of overtime allowance.
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 141
 27
Prevalence Index Rank

SOUTH AFRICA
"There is, however, no sector and no region that is
not affected. We have seen fishermen from the Far
East arrive in Cape Town after years at sea without
breaks or remuneration. We have seen girls come
in to work as waitresses but end up in prostitution,
and little boys as young as seven years being
trafficked from West Africa to South Africa, having
been told that they will become famous soccer
players here."
Richard Ots, Chief of Mission for IOM South Africa,
9 October 2015.[1]

Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

248,700

Vunerability to Modern Slavery

45.87/100

Government Response Rating Population GDP (PPP)

B 54,954,000 $13,046
142 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
 South Africa cont.

PREVALENCE

The 2016 Global Slavery Index estimates 248,700 people or Walk Free survey results revealed an estimated 11 percent of
0.45 percent of the total population live in conditions of modern victims are exploited in construction, five percent in farming, and
slavery in South Africa. This is based on a random-sample, eight percent in drug production. This reflects existing research
nationally-representative survey undertaken in 2015, that sought which notes that foreign and domestic modern slavery victims
to identify instances of both forced marriage and forced labour have been exploited in agriculture,[14] mining,[15] construction,
within the general population (survey conducted in Afrikaans, street work and hospitality industries.[16]
English, Sotho, Zulu, Xhosa languages).
Child labour
Commercial sexual exploitation Though the Basic Conditions of Employment Act sets the minimum
Forty-three percent of victims in modern slavery in South Africa age for employment at 15 years,[17] young children labouring in
identified in the 2015 Walk Free survey were/are subjected to the agricultural and domestic service sectors persists, as well as
commercial sexual exploitation. Though the purchasing of sex in food services, street vending and forced begging.[18] Children
is criminalised,[2] the sex industry thrives on the street and in in South Africa are trafficked from rural to urban areas, including
brothels and private residences. South African women, women to Bloemfontein, Cape Town, Durban and Johannesburg.[19]
from neighbouring states and Thai, Chinese, Russian and
Brazilian women have been identified as victims of commercial
sexual exploitation in South Africa.[3] South African women Walk Free Foundation 2015 survey data
have also been trafficked abroad, predominantly to Europe. [4]
Throughout 2015, the Directorate for Priority Crime Investigation % male % female
Number % victims victims
(DPCI), known as the Hawks, continued to identify Nigerian
sex trafficking syndicates operating between the North West, Forced labour 238,000 96 46 54
Gauteng and KwaZulu-Natal provinces.[5]
Forced
Forced marriage 10,600 4 0 100
marriage
Walk Free survey results reveal an estimated 10,600 women
Modern
are victims of forced marriage. Although UNICEF data from slavery total
248,700 100 44 56
2015 reveals that South Africa has one of the lowest rates of
child marriage in Sub-Saharan Africa,[6] the persistence of some
traditional practices have been noted by academics as fuelling
early and forced marriages. Ukuthwala, meaning 'to carry' in Forced labour by sector of exploitation %
isiXhosa and isiZulu, is a customary practice used to bypass
extensive and lengthy marriage rituals.[7] It often involves the Domestic work 4
kidnapping and rape of a girl or young woman by a man or Construction 11
group of men with the intention of compelling the girl or young
Manufacturing 0
woman's family to endorse marriage negotiations.[8] Traditionally,
ukuthwala was an accepted path to marriage, however, it did not Other manufacturing 6
involve rape or consensual sex until the marriage negotiations Farming 5
concluded. Today, girls as young as 12 are abducted and raped,
Sex industry 43
often by significantly older men, and routinely exposed to HIV/
AIDS transmission. One study on HIV/AIDS-positive young Drug production 8
girls aged 12–19 found 56 percent were forcibly married through Retail sector 4
ukuthwala.[9] The financial burden of daughters, coupled with
the continuing tradition of grooms providing a lobola payment Other 19
(dowry), reportedly incentivises some parents to force their DK 0
daughters into early marriage. The continued existence of Refused 0
ukuthwala, coupled with Walk Free estimates of more than
10,000 victims of forced marriage, necessitates further studies Total 100
of marriage practices in South Africa.

Forced labour
The Walk Free Foundation survey suggests that more than
200,000 workers are subject to forced labour in South Africa.
Both women and children are employed as domestic workers
in South Africa. The legacy of apartheid, leaving many African
and coloured women without education, has created a labour
pool of unskilled workers who are funnelled into low-paying
domestic work.[10] Economic necessity is the key driver of
women accepting work in the domestic service sector.[11] On 1
December 2015, new minimum wage rates came into effect for
domestic workers,[12] however, critics have slammed the rise for
not ensuring a living wage.[13] Domestic workers in South Africa
have reported withholding of wages and unpaid overtime, and
physical, sexual and psychological abuse.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 143

 VULNERABILITY
Civil & political Social, health, &
Country
protections economic rights
South Africa 40.27 43.06
The legacy of apartheid, perpetuating beliefs about racial
superiority and inferiority,[20] coupled with concerning economic
disparity, rising violence against minorities, and widespread
discrimination and brutality against women increased people's
vulnerability to exploitation.[21]
In 2015, the violent crime rate in South Africa increased for the
third consecutive year.[22] Statistics from 2014 show increases in
the rate of homicide, attempted homicide, aggravated burglary,
carjacking and robbery at private residences and businesses.[23]
There was a small reduction in sexual offences, kidnapping
and grievous bodily harm, however, in reality, this amounted to
62,649 reported sexual offences. South Africa does not separate
'sexual offences' into specific categories i.e. 'rape', 'sexual assault'
or 'trafficking in persons for sexual offences' which obscures
understanding of the prevalence of each distinct crime.[24]
South Africa's unemployment rates increased to an 11-year high in
2015.[25] This was attributable to a combination of power outages
which obstructed economic activity in mines and factories, a
persistent drought, and widespread pessimism among local youth
regarding the bleak economic outlook across the country.[26] By
the third quarter of the 2015 financial year, 5.4 million people
in the labour force were unemployed, and 14.9 million were not
economically active—resulting in an unemployment rate of 25.5
percent.[27] The World Bank forecasts South Africa risks entering
a recession unless bold economic policy is undertaken.[28]
Immigrants, particularly those from Zimbabwe, Ethiopia and
Somalia, are at risk of violent economic attacks. In 2015, rising
xenophobia resulted in the street attack and murder of migrants
from Durban to Johannesburg, [29] sparking protests in Cape
Town.[30] Reports suggest that the catalyst fuelling the violence
is rooted in the South African economy's systemic inequality[31]
and a perception among unemployed youth that the few job
opportunities available had been taken by African immigrants.
In response, the government deployed troops to stem further
attacks.[32] Despite 22 arrests following the violence in February
2016, no investigations or prosecutions had occurred.[33]
Women and children are the primary targets of many violent
crimes. In 2012, it was estimated that every eight hours a woman
is killed by her intimate partner in South Africa.[34]
GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
On 9 August 2015, President Zuma officially proclaimed entry
into force of the Prevention and Combating of Trafficking in
Persons Act (7/2013).[44] This Act rectifies significant previous
gaps in legislation that largely prevented prosecutors bringing
forward cases of trafficking for forced labour,[45] provides for
the payment of compensation to victims[46] and requires internet
service providers to take all reasonable steps to prevent and
report trafficking.[47] Chapter 3 of the Act attaches positive duties
on the State to provide support to foreign victims including a rest
and recovery period and accompanying visitor's visa. Though
it is important to note that, at the time of writing, the sections
144 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
Personal security Refugees & conflict Mean
58.30 41.84 45.87
Sexual abuse is endemic—in the
Gauteng province, 25.3 percent
of women self-identified as
victims of at least one instance of
rape and 37.4 percent of men in
the province admitted to having
committed rape at least once in
their lifetime.[35]
Media analysis of high-profile cases such as the gang-rape and
murder of teenager Anene Booysen in 2013[36] and of a national
football star Eudy Simelane in 2009[37] indicate that the hyper-
masculinity and 'macho' demeanour of some men in South Africa
is a contributing factor to the high rate of sexual assault cases.[38]
This also impacts women from the LGTBQI community who
are at risk of 'corrective rape'—one recent case in 2014 involved
a teenager who was gang-raped and murdered.[39] Unlike the
majority of cases, particularly those related to the Lesbian Gay
Bisexual Transgender Queer (LGBTQ)-identified community,
one perpetrator was sentenced to two terms of life imprisonment
for the murder of the victim, Gift Makau.[40] Children are also
at high risk of sexual assault in South Africa. In 2014, there
were 51 daily cases of child rape reported to police, equating
to 18,524 cases over the year.[41] Domestic violence and abuse
in the home are often precursors to women and children fleeing
home and accepting jobs in the informal economy where they
may suffer exploitation.
In 2015, according to the 2015 Edelman Trust Barometer,
only 16 percent of South African respondents reported trusting
their government—making the country one of the least-
trusted governments globally, including developing nations.[42]
Corruption and mistrust of public authorities heighten
vulnerability for victims—they are less likely to report abuse,
risk being returned to situations of abuse by complicit authorities,
and risk being criminalised for conduct that occurred to them
while in the trafficking situation. One expert described a lack of
specialised skills and knowledge by police officers in responding
to large-scale organised crime, as well as poor collaboration
between NGOs and authorities in the handling of cases.[43]
concerning the protection of and services to foreign victims have
not yet become operational.[48]
The enactment of this legislation will arguably provide clearer
data on the prevalence of modern slavery, particularly efforts
to prosecute and punishment perpetrators. Until August 2015,
cases of trafficking have been brought under other acts, such as
the Sexual Offences Amendment Act or the Children's Amendment
Act, where traffickers were charged for trafficking in persons, but
were often also charged with kidnapping and rape.[49] This creates
what one expert has dubbed "an elusive statistical nightmare" for
understanding the extent of modern slavery in South Africa,[50]

a situation exacerbated by the continuing lack of an official
government database on modern slavery. Under section 42 of
the new Act, Ministries responsible for combating trafficking
are required to submit annual reports on the implementation
of the Act.[51]
As of January 2016, no cases had been tried under the new
trafficking act. However, some recent prominent cases indicate
the government are making concerted efforts to prosecute
offenders of modern slavery.
In 2015, the government
welcomed the Western Cape High
Court's rejection of an appeal
by Mvumeleni Jezile (aged 33)
who was sentenced to 22 years
imprisonment after forcibly
marrying a 14-year-old girl.[52]
This high-profile ukuthwala case was used as evidence by
the Minister in the Presidency responsible for Women, Susan
Shabangu, that the government is continuing endeavours to
ensure the rights of women, emphasising that cultural practices
must not violate rights and reminding perpetrators that time
will not erase crimes committed.[53] This followed the well-
documented 2014 conviction of 62-year-old businessman
Nyambi Mabuza who was handed down eight life sentences
for the trafficking of Mozambican girls, between the ages of
11 and 17 for sexual exploitation. [54] Despite these positive
developments, to date, none of the international syndicates
facilitating the commercial sexual exploitation of women have
been successfully prosecuted.[55]
Also in 2015, in an effort to curb illegal movement of children
across borders, the government enacted new immigration
regulations requiring all minors under the age of 18 years to
produce, in addition to their passport, an Unabridged Birth
Certificate (showing the particulars of both parents) when
exiting and entering South African ports of entry.[56] For children
RECOMMENDATIONS
Government
• Implement a wide-scale awareness campaign to educate
South Africans about the new Prevention and Combating
of Trafficking in Persons Act.
• Establish a national database on modern slavery cases
and convictions.
• Initiate a comprehensive counter-corruption strategy.
• Conduct targeted educational programs in schools and
rural communities about the dangers of ukuthwala and
the physical and psychological damage caused by early
marriage.
South Africa cont.
travelling with only one parent or unaccompanied, an affidavit
providing consent must also be carried. While admirable in its
attempts to address the ongoing exploitation of children, experts
have questioned whether such onerous requirements will curb
trafficking considering the frequently illegal and clandestine
border movements that traffickers use and the inability of
immigration guards to verify the authenticity of birth certificates
at borders.[57] However, one expert noted that in the week
preceding the implementation of the regulations, immigration
authorities discovered three incidences of children travelling
abroad in suspicious circumstances. One of these cases involved
authorities preventing the travel of a 7-year-old girl to Pakistan to
visit her father - authorities subsequently established the girl had
no father in Pakistan and was a victim of child sexual abuse.[58]
International and local organisations working with victims
continued to express concerns of victims being criminalised for
illegal conduct, such as prostitution, instead of being identified
as victims of trafficking.[59] Studies have also highlighted the
unwillingness of women to turn to the police for support because
of stigmatisation and fear that police would inform others in the
community about the victim's involvement in the sex industry.[60]
There are also concerns that victims and authorities alike are
unable to correctly identify victims despite ongoing awareness
programs and training being conducted throughout 2015.[61] Local
groups are concerned that there is no formal strategy to address the
abuse, both physical and sexual, of sex workers by authorities.[62]
During 2015, key government and civil society stakeholders met
to improve the coordination and integration of services to better
support victims of trafficking.[63] The multi-sectoral national task
team, comprised of the Departments of Justice and Constitutional
Development, Home Affairs and Social Development, as well as
the National Prosecuting Authority, South African Police Service,
civil society representatives and international organisations,
are tasked with implementing the National Action Plan to Fight
Human Trafficking in South Africa. The Child Protection and
International Social Services directorates in the Department of
Social Development continue to implement a strategy for the
prevention of child trafficking. The Child Protection Directorate
also ensures the safe return of South African child victims and
unaccompanied South African minors to their families and legal
guardians in South Africa.[64]
• C
 onsult with NGOs and victims to ensure policies and
services match the needs of victims.
• R
 eview and increase the minimum wage rate for domestic
workers to ensure a living wage.
• I nvestigate, prosecute and imprison members of known
criminal syndicates sexually exploiting and trafficking
people for commercial gain, especially young women
and children.
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 145
 photo credit, Chriis Kelly

20
Prevalence Index Rank

THAILAND
"Every morning at 2 a.m., they heard a kick on the
door and a threat: Get up or get beaten. For the
next 16 hours, No. 31 and his wife stood in the
factory that owned them with their aching hands
in ice water."
Excerpt from an interview conducted by the Associated
Press with victims of forced labour in Thailand in
December, 2015.[1]

Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

425,500

Vunerability to Modern Slavery

47.54/100

Government Response Rating Population GDP (PPP)

B 67,959,000 $15,735
146 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
 Thailand cont.

PREVALENCE

The 2016 Global Slavery Index estimates 425,500 people or documents, all of which render the victims' ability to escape
0.63 percent of the total population live in conditions of modern from their exploitation much more difficult, or impossible.[15]
slavery in Thailand.
Commercial sexual exploitation
Forced labour Thailand's sex industry is reported to be a site for the commercial
Human trafficking for forced labour in the Thai fishing industry sexual exploitation of children, both boys and girls. The profile
(on both the seafaring and processing sides) enslaves men, of CSE victims is difficult to define—older teenage girls (15–
children and women from the Greater Mekong Subregion 17) and young women are commonly found in entertainment
(GMS).[2] In the US$7 billion industry,[3] seafaring labourers, hotspots, bars and hotels. On the streets, the age of victims
often young men and boys, endure brutal treatment that includes tends to be younger (under 17) with many children performing
severe and frequent physical abuse and threats thereof, excessive survival sex and a higher prevalence of young boys available to
and inhumane working hours, sleep and food deprivation, forced service the demands of male tourists.[16] They experience greater
use of methamphetamines, and long trips at sea confined to the transmission rates of sexually-transmitted infections (including
vessel.[4] Thailand's fishing industry is reliant on trans-shipments HIV/AIDS) often as a result of being forced to provide sexual
at sea to reduce expenditure on fuel and sustain constant fishing[5] services to clients without condom use.[17]
meaning that some long-haul trawlers and the fishermen remain
Victims from Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam have been
at sea for years at a time. Traumatised victims have reported
identified in Thailand while some victims from Bangladesh,
witnessing the vessels' captains excessively and violently abusing
Pakistan, Vietnam, North Korea and China transit through
and murdering other workers, and captains abandoning overboard
Thailand on route to Indonesia, the United States, Western
workers at sea.[6] Due to overfishing in the Gulf of Thailand and
Europe, Singapore and Russia.[18] Of the 595 victims of human
Andaman Sea, fishing vessels are forced to operate far from shore,
trafficking identified by the government in 2014, 222 were
sometimes travelling along the coastlines of Indonesia and other
victims of commercial sexual exploitation, most of whom were
neighbouring countries. Both jurisdictionally and practically,
girls from Laos and Thailand.[19] However, these statistics refer
this makes monitoring costly and difficult. This situation is
only to those victims formally identified by the government.
exacerbated by poor registration and licencing of fishing vessels
in which many operate under layers of false documentation.[7] Child soldiers
Exploitation in seafood pre-processing facilities is also evident, Armed violence, attacks against civilians and conflict between
with reports of men, women and children from Myanmar, local armed groups and the government continues to plague
Cambodia and Laos working excessive hours in oppressive and the southern border of Thailand.[20] Children are recruited into
abusive conditions. non-state armed groups where they are trained to be lookouts,
informers and/or combatants.[21] Little comprehensive research
Skilled Thai migrants move toward stronger economies, such
exists on the scale of involvement of children in armed groups
as those in the United States, Europe, Israel, East Asia and
in Thailand. However, a 2015 Child Soldiers International study
Australia. Official numbers from the Ministry of Labour's
found children as young as 14 participated in hostilities. [22]
Office for Thai Workers Going Overseas recorded 143,101 Thai
Children allegedly associated with armed groups continue to
citizens moving abroad for work in 2012;[8] however, others
face administrative detention[23] contrary to their need for shelter
also migrate via irregular channels.[9] The vast majority (around
and rehabilitation.
84 percent) of overseas Thai workers are men, working in the
construction, agricultural and manufacturing industries.[10]
Thai migrant workers supply the majority of labour for Israel's
agriculture. In 2015, serious labour abuses against the workforce
were uncovered including excessive work hours (sometimes up
to 17 hours/day), low wages, inadequate and unsanitary living
conditions and exposure to harmful pesticides with unsatisfactory
safety equipment.[11]
Women overseas-workers tend to find employment in private
households or the entertainment or service sectors such as
restaurants.[12] According to World Bank data, approximately
US$5.69 billion in personal remittances made up around 1.47
percent of Thailand's US$387 billion Gross Domestic Product
in 2013.[13] Thai migrants often must pay significant fees for the
migration and recruitment processes (sometimes up to a year's
wages) and they are vulnerable to exploitation by recruiters and/or
employers; in places where it is available, assistance for exploited
workers can be difficult to access in unfamiliar settings.[14]
Domestic workers are predominantly females from rural Thailand
(including ethnic minorities), Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar,
some of whom are the children of migrants working formally and
informally in Thailand. Victims often report that their employers
physically and sexually abuse them, confine them within the
home, withhold their pay and withhold their identification

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 147

 Rohingya refugees
The Rohingya people, a Muslim ethnic group living in Myanmar, continue to face systemic persecution and denial of
rights. In April 2015, the Myanmar Government stripped Rohingya of their voting rights by rescinding their temporary
ID cards, the last official identification available to them.[24] Many lost their homes, farms and the ability to work,
creating a dire choice between residing in shanty towns on the outskirts of Rakhine or paying smugglers to transport
them abroad.

Throughout 2014–2015, Rohingya refugees undertook dangerous and often fatal sea and land journeys across the
Bay of Bengal, the Andaman Sea and the Myanmar/Thai border in pursuit of a better life. Many of these cases were
situations of people smuggling, where a sum was paid in exchange for transportation. However, for some refugees,
their smugglers intended to exploit them upon arrival or deliver them to someone who would. Some Rohingya are held
at camps where they are held for ransom—those unable to pay are often physically abused, sold into forced labour,
often in the fishing sector (men), or forced to marry to secure their release (women).

In May 2015, Thai authorities discovered abandoned people smuggling camps on the Thai/Malaysia border with the
remains of Rohingya people who had died through starvation, disease and violence at the hands of smugglers and
traffickers. There is concerning evidence of official complicity in the trade and exploitation of Rohingya—one of the
mass grave sites was located in an open field behind the police station in Padang Besar, some 500 metres from the
official border crossing manned by officials from Thailand and Malaysia. Several arrests of officials have been made
for alleged smuggling and trafficking, including the arrest of Army Lt. Gen. Manas Kongpan together with local
politicians, community leaders, businessmen and gangsters.[25]

Thailand has been reluctant to provide assistance to Rohingya refugees, including preventing boats carrying Rohingya
from landing in Thailand.[26] Throughout 2015, Thailand attended international meetings to address this issue and
reported they would not "push back migrants stranded in Thai waters".[27] In March 2016, 92 alleged human traffickers
and smugglers went on trial for their involvement in the discovered Rohingya death camps. [28]

VULNERABILITY
Civil & political Social, health, &
Country protections economic rights Personal security Refugees & conflict Mean

Thailand 49.23 28.62 48.97 63.33 47.54

Over the past decade, significant structural differences in
population demographics and economic development between
Thailand and neighbouring countries have transformed the
available workforce.[29] As an increasingly well-educated Thai
population shun poorly-paid work in unglamorous sectors—
predominantly in fishing, construction, agriculture, domestic
services and small manufacturing businesses[30]—migrant workers
play a critical role in filling these labour shortages.[31] Workers,
particularly from neighbouring Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar,
who often use irregular channels of migration into Thailand, are
particularly vulnerable to exploitation. Employment brokers on
both sides of the border—even through the legal immigration
process—can knowingly or unwittingly place migrants in the
hands of exploitative employers.[32]
Migrant workers in Thailand may migrate through MoU
procedures (signed in 2002/2003 with Cambodia, Laos and
Myanmar), the national verification process (NV) or at One Stop
Service Centres (OSSCs) established in 2014.[33] Despite these
efforts to provide options for regular migration and regularisation,
in 2015, the International Labour Organisation maintained
concerns for an unknown but presumably a considerable number
of workers with irregular status.[34] Many migrant workers are
not provided with a visa, but a stay of deportation, allowing
them to work for one employer in one district for a year at a time
before expulsion from the country.[35] This system heightens the
vulnerability to exploitation by creating a compliant workforce
labouring under the threat of deportation. Extortion of money
is common—employers demand money for work permits and
police officers fine workers who are caught outside their district.
Workers are also unable to send their children to school.[36]
The Social Security Fund, which provides social protection to
migrant workers and their families, does not extend to workers
in the informal sector or on fishing boats.[37] For those trapped
in situations of modern slavery, the risk of fines, arrest and
deportation, coupled with language barriers, prevents victims
coming forward.
The risk of arrest and deportation is also high for refugees and
asylum seekers in Thailand, many of whom are vulnerable to
trafficking and forced labour. Thailand is not a party to the 1951
Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol, meaning many
asylum seekers are treated by Thai authorities as illegal migrants.
As at June 2015, 625,256 people were registered with UNHCR,
which includes 110,372 refugees, 8,166 asylum seekers and
506,197 stateless people.[38]
Thailand has one of the largest stateless populations of any
country. There are as many as 450,000 Hill Tribe ethnic people in
Northern Thailand that remain without citizenship despite being
born in the country, being legally eligible for Thai citizenship
and waiting for their applications to be approved for several
years. Hill Tribe people face some hurdles in their application
for citizenship: navigating a complex bureaucracy in a language
they do not speak, living in remote areas with limited access to

148 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016


the required administrative offices and/or relying on misinformed
government officials that have little political incentive to approve
the applications. Even if Hill Tribe people know their legal rights
and recognise the importance, it can take up to 10 years for their
citizenship applications to be approved.[39]
The lack of citizenship rights for Hill Tribe minorities makes
them particularly vulnerable to abuse and exploitation. They are
much more likely to migrate for economic reasons, including
paying a middleman. They also lack the legal documentation
to take out formal loans, increasing the likelihood of taking
informal loans for financial emergencies, making them more
vulnerable to debt bondage. Furthermore, and because of their
undocumented status, Hill Tribe minorities are also much less
likely to call the police if they believe they have been subjected
to criminal exploitation, allowing perpetrators to abuse or
exploit ethnic minorities with little fear of actually being held
accountable for their crimes, so there continues to be a culture
of impunity when it comes to trafficking in persons.[40]
Migrant, Hill Tribe, refugee, stateless, and street working
children are particularly vulnerable to CSE and forced begging.
GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
Examining the Thai response to combating modern slavery must
be considered in light of the new government led by the National
Council for Peace and Order (NCPO) who took control of the
government in a coup d'état in May 2014. On 31 March 2015,
nationwide enforcement of the Martial Law Act of 1914 was
replaced with section 44 of the interim Constitution, providing
unlimited administrative, legislative and judiciary powers to
Prime Minister Prayut Chan-o-cha in his capacity as the NCPO
chairman without any oversight or accountability.[44] The interim
constitution also absolves anyone carrying out actions on behalf
of the NCPO of all legal liability.[45] In September 2015, a
247-person commission rejected a draft constitution prepared
by the Constitution Drafting Committee, extending military rule
under the interim document until 2017.[46] These developments
point to a worrying trend of the government being principally
concerned with consolidating its power though experts suggest
they will combat trafficking to the extent it assists the country's
economic interests.[47]
Throughout 2015, the Thai
Government faced unprecedented
pressure to tackle forced labour
in the fishing sector. In April 2015,
the European Commission put
Thailand on formal notice for not
taking sufficient measures to
combat illegal, unreported and
unregulated fishing (IUU)[48] under
threat of a trade ban which could
see Thailand lose up to US$1.4m a
year in seafood exports.[49]
The government have reportedly accelerated their efforts to
combat exploitation and avoid trade sanctions, including the
Thailand cont.
These groups can experience high poverty, pressure to support
their family, face xenophobic and discriminatory attitudes from
Thais, lack community support and have limited or no access
to health care or schooling, which has further implications for
future employment and livelihood opportunities.[41]
Police complicity in human trafficking crimes continued to be
reported in 2015. Thailand's most senior police investigator
into human trafficking fled to Australia to seek political asylum,
fearing for his life after he uncovered complicity of influential
figures in the Thai Government, military and police.[42] NGOs
reported official corruption is a significant barrier to justice for
victims, including preventing victims from testifying in cases
due to their mistrust of police.[43] The presence of police in
commercial sexual establishments, as either clients or complicit
in accepting bribes, fuelled a perception of police corruption.
This is similarly noted in the fishing industry where the business
interests of some public officials conflict with formal duties.
As Thai nationals seek higher-paid employment opportunities
abroad, some are falling victim to forced labour and CSE abroad.
Victims have been identified globally.
creation of the Command Centre for Combating Illegal Fishing
in May 2015 to address IUU fishing.[50] Since the Centre was
established, the Deputy National Police Chief reported the
investigation of 36 cases, arrests of 102 suspects, and rescue
of 130 presumed trafficking victims.[51] The first major reform
of fishing legislation in over 50 years—the Royal Ordinance on
Fisheries B.E. 2558 2015—came into force on 15 November
2015 with the objective of eliminating illegal fishing and
promoting sustainable fishing. The law is being implemented
by 28 port-in-port-out (PiPo) Centres and officers from the
Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Labour, Marine Department
and Mobile Team Units. To promote understanding of these
major legal changes, a 'fishermen's' legal handbook has been
published.[52] Though these legal reforms were long overdue,
the lack of consultation with workers' organisations and industry
associations was a missed opportunity, with some concerns the
suspension of unlicensed vessels will force Thai boat owners into
other illegal activities.[53] For the migrant fishermen themselves,
despite the creation of the One Stop Service Centre for the
registration of migrant workers,[54] organisations reported in
2015 that the hoped-for large-scale registration and regularisation
had not occurred. Almost all workers in the Thai fishing sector
remain unregistered.[55]
Thailand took new steps to combat the CSE of children,
particularly their abuse for pornography. In May 2015, the
National Legislative Assembly of Thailand voted unanimously
to amend The Criminal Code of Thailand to criminalise child
pornography.[56] This brings Thailand's legislation in line with the
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on
the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography.[57]
The Bill prescribes punishment of up to five years' imprisonment
for mere possession of child pornography, up to seven years for
distribution, and up to 10 years for production and trade. The
government also made efforts to prosecute some perpetrators
of CSE of children—in June 2015, following extensive
investigations, Pra Chai, a Buddhist monk and leader of a
trafficking ring, was sentenced to 124 years in prison for his
involvement in the human trafficking and sexual exploitation of
teenage boys. This was the sixth conviction of a Buddhist monk
for involvement in a trafficking ring since 2014.[58]
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 149

Also in 2015, the government approved a change in the Thai
Nationality Act to allow citizenship applications to be approved at
the district and provincial levels, a move which will significantly
increase the efficiency and speed at which these are processed.
Before this change, the law required that all citizenship
applications be submitted and approved at the district, provincial
and national levels by several committees and subcommittees.
One international organisation reported 426 of their clients had
their pending citizenship applications approved shortly after the
government enacted this change.[59] This is a positive first step
in addressing the vulnerabilities of a significantly large sector
of the Thai population.
In addition to the significant legislative improvements over the
past year, in August 2015 Thailand established a new court in
the special division of the Criminal Court devoted solely to
trying human trafficking cases.[60] A second special court was
created to hear cases related to corruption and misbehaviour by
government officials.[61] The challenge for the Thai Government
is now effectively implementing these legislative changes and
using the courts.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Government
• Improve victim identification and protection.
• Make far more effective use of the 2003 MoU with
Myanmar on Migrant Workers for the safe migration
of migrants from Myanmar, and grant these workers
employment-based visas that allow the workers to change
employers without losing legal status and having to obtain
their first employer's permission.
• Record and report all cases of modern slavery in a
single national database, including details on the arrest,
prosecution and conviction of offenders, disaggregated by
age, sex and type of exploitation.[63]
• Investigate and prosecute modern slavery cases
particularly those involving labour exploitation and/or
complicity of law enforcement officials, justice officials,
monks, and teachers.
• Reform labour laws to allow migrant workers the right to
create or join an existing union.
• Create supply chain transparency laws to ensure the
labour practices are aligned with international standards.
• Criminalise the recruitment and use of children in state
or non-state armed forces
• Ratify the 1951 Refugee Convention and work with
UNHCR to deliver services to asylum seekers
150 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
Thailand cont.
While Thailand's Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act is a comprehensive
piece of legislation, implementation and enforcement were
skewed toward certain sectors in 2015. Despite the rhetoric
of the National Policy Strategies and Measures to Prevent and
Suppress Trafficking in Persons (2011–2016), the government's
efforts remain disconnected to the reality of exploitation on the
ground. The majority of the RTG's efforts focus on addressing
the sexual exploitation of women and children, with limited focus
on exploitation of workers in the construction and agricultural
sectors, particularly in southern Thailand, and in the domestic
service sector.
The Ministry of Social Development and Human Security
(MSDHS) is responsible for the provision of assistance and
protection to victims of trafficking and throughout 2015
continued to operate shelters and provide rehabilitative support.
Despite this, these services lack specialisation; some victims are
prevented from leaving, and victims are unable to work. Many of
the support services provided to child victims of trafficking for
sexual purposes come from INGOs and NGOs in the country.[62]
Business
• Businesses importing Thai seafood products conduct
in-depth supply chain mapping exercise, including
subcontractors multiple tiers deep, to identify product origin.
• Conduct social audits on suppliers identified as high risk,
ensuring interviews with migrant workers are conducted
in a safe environment, and that workers voices are sought
in feedback processes.
• Work with suppliers to develop corrective action plans
and recourse for workers found exploited in supply chains.
This may include systems to pay back workers held in
debt bondage and compensating underpaid workers.
Thai ‘trashfish’ workers unload trashfish at the port in Songkhla, Thailand. 21/02/2014. Reports of forced labour, physical abuse,
and withholding of wages of migrant workers are widespread in the Thai fishing industry.
Photo credit, Chris Kelly

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 151

 52
Prevalence Index Rank

UNITED KINGDOM
"Salah, an orphan, was 12 when she was brought to the UK on a 'holiday' from West Africa. Within days
of arriving, she was forced into domestic slavery. Given only leftovers to eat, Salah quietly cried herself
to sleep on the floor every night. If she made a noise, she was kicked and beaten. In the daytime, her
captors invited men to the house to rape her for money. When she finally managed to escape, Salah
was forced to sleep on the streets for months before she finally found a safe place to stay. Neither the
people that trafficked Salah to the UK nor the family that abused her for years were punished for what
they did. Salah is supported via ECPAT UK's London-based peer support group for trafficked girls.
She is still traumatised by her experience but is determined to rebuild her life."
ECPAT UK

Estimated Number Living in Modern Slavery

11,700

Vunerability to Modern Slavery

26.79/100

Government Response Rating Population GDP (PPP)

BBB 64,856,000 $39,762

152 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

PREVALENCE
The UK is a destination for men and women from Central and
Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa and the Middle East often seeking
better livelihood opportunities. In 2014, research was carried out
in the context of the UK Government's Modern Slavery Strategy
to estimate the scale of enslaved people living in the UK. The
Home Office estimated as many as 10,000–13,000 potential
victims of modern slavery in the UK, an estimate reflected in
the 2016 Global Slavery Index.[1]
Cases of modern slavery have been uncovered in diverse sectors
and locations—from Vietnamese children locked into Manchester
flats to grow cannabis to Albanian women and girls sexually
exploited in the London sex industry, and to the hundreds of
men working low or semi-skilled jobs trapped in situations of
debt bondage.[2] The National Crime Agency estimates 3,309
potential victims of human trafficking came into contact with
the State or an NGO in 2014.[3] The latest government statistics
derived from the UK National Referral Mechanism in 2014
reveal 2,340 potential victims of trafficking from 96 countries
of origin, of whom 61 percent were female and 29 percent were
children.[4] Of those identified through the NRM, the majority
were adults classified as victims of sexual exploitation followed
by adults exploited in the domestic service sector and other
types of labour exploitation.[5] The largest proportion of victims
was from Albania, followed by Nigeria, Vietnam, Romania and
Slovakia. The 6th highest group of victims by country of origin
were UK nationals.[6] These statistics do not reflect the unknown
number of victims who refuse to enter the NRM or are unable
to escape their situation of exploitation. Concerns have been
consistently raised about the numbers of trafficked children
going missing from local authority care and being re-trafficked.[7]
Forced labour
As noted in the government's 2015 review of modern slavery,
labour exploitation amounting to modern slavery has been found
across multiple sectors, including, but not limited to, factories,
agricultural and construction sections, car washes, nail bars,
restaurants and bars, the tarmac and paving industry, and the
maritime sector.[8] Some victims have been identified in the scrap
metal and recycling industry, chicken catching, selling DVDs,
VULNERABILITY
Civil & political Social, health, &
Country protections economic rights
United Kingdom 18.45 20.37
Domestic trafficking remains a serious threat in the UK,
particularly the grooming of teenage girls for commercial sexual
exploitation.[15] Despite this, the majority of modern slavery
victims identified in the UK are men, women and children
from abroad.[16] The past two decades has brought a significant
number of migrants and job seekers, vulnerable to accepting
low-paid, low-skilled work, which may be exploited at the
hand of traffickers, gangmasters or opportunistic employers.
Despite an increased and widespread awareness of the existence
of modern slavery, too few potential victims or perpetrators of
modern slavery are identified.[17] Once within the UK, the diverse
sectors victims are found in, including those on geographically-
remote farms or behind closed doors in private homes, make it
exceedingly difficult to identify and provide outreach.
United Kingdom cont.
cleaning, nannies and taxi drivers. These cases are incredibly
diverse, impacting men, women and children.
Significant numbers of domestic workers are brought to the UK
each year, including an unknown number who travel into and
out of the UK with the families they are working for in other
countries.[9] In 2014, 16,753 individuals entered the UK on the
Overseas Domestic Worker visa.[10]
In the UK, migrant domestic workers are tied to their employer
by the immigration rules, increasing their vulnerability to
exploitative practices by dissuading workers to come forward
and risk deportation. Kalayaan, a UK-based NGO for migrant
domestic workers, found that, in a 2015 study of their domestic
worker clients, the treatment of migrant workers differed
between those on tied and untied visas—68 percent of those
on tied visas experienced restrictions on freedom of movement
compared with 38 percent who were not tied, 70 percent worked
excessive hours compared with 49 percent who were not tied, 38
percent were not paid compared with 14 percent who were not
tied,[11] and 66 percent of workers had their passports withheld
compared with 54 percent who were not tied. Although all
figures demonstrate high levels of exploitative treatment from
employers,the consistently higher rates of abuse experienced
by those on tied visas indicate an urgent need to review the
current system.
Forced marriage
The most recent data from the Forced Marriage Unit (FMU), a
joint Foreign and Commonwealth Office and Home Office Unit,
revealed 1,267 individuals were provided advice or support
on forced marriage in 2014.[12] Of this cohort, 79 percent were
female, more than 10 percent involved victims with disabilities
and 11 percent involved victims under the age of 16.[13] In
23 percent of the cases handled by the FMU, there were no
overseas elements. Of the 77 percent of cases with an overseas
element, 88 different countries were identified, with the largest
proportion involving Pakistan (38.3 percent), India (7.8 percent)
and Bangladesh (7.1 percent). Considering that some victims are
supported by specialist independent NGO services or by local
police,[14] it is likely there is an even larger total figure.
Personal security Refugees & conflict Mean
21.83 46.50 26.79
The restrictions imposed by the Overseas Domestic Worker
visa in April 2012 are reportedly linked to vulnerability. This
tied visa, valid for six months, is not renewable and prevents
domestic workers changing their employer, regardless of their
circumstances. In effect, it means domestic workers cannot
legally remain in the UK if they leave their employers—easily
allowing employers to use the threat of the involvement of the
immigration authorities to coerce workers. Although not in
and of itself responsible for modern slavery, this dependency
on the employer reduces the willingness of domestic workers
to challenge any mistreatment or report abuse to the police.
This is because it will likely result in the termination of their
employment and removal to their home country (unless the
conditions they experienced amount to a situation of trafficking
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 153
 or forced labour thereby allowing them to access short-term
protective services). A recent policy change, bringing into effect
Section 53 of the Modern Slavery Act 2015, means that domestic
workers must receive a positive Conclusive Grounds decision
from the National Referral Mechanism confirming they have
been trafficked before allowing them to change employers.
This provision provides for a maximum of six months further
leave—a relatively short period in which the individual has no
recourse to public funds and is restricted to one full-time job as a
domestic worker in a private household.[18] Despite the efforts of
some parliamentarians to revoke the tied visa in the new Modern
Slavery Act, the visa remains in place.
The situation can be further complicated in cases involving
domestic workers in diplomatic households. Before and during
2014, diplomatic immunity trumped trafficking in cases of a
diplomat employer exploiting a domestic worker.[19] In 2015,
the UK Court of Appeals set aside immunity in a case brought
GOVERNMENT RESPONSE
The UK has been proactive in passing new legislation and
associated policy measures to combat most forms of modern
slavery throughout 2015. Government representatives, including
the Home Secretary Theresa May, and the Independent Anti-
Slavery Commissioner, Kevin Hyland, have been outspoken on
the existence of and need to tackle slavery on British soil. In
2014, the UK Government published a Modern Slavery Strategy
detailing the role of government, law enforcement, NGOs and
other partners in the fight against modern slavery under a 'four
Ps' structure—pursue, prevent, protect, prepare.[25]
In March 2015, after months of drafting and debate, the
landmark Modern Slavery Act 2015 came into force. The Act
consolidated the existing legislation on the various forms of
modern slavery and increased the maximum sentence from 14
years to life imprisonment. Other key developments include asset
confiscation for perpetrators and the introduction of Slavery and
Trafficking Prevention Orders and Slavery and Trafficking Risk
Orders to restrict the activity of individuals where they pose a
risk of causing harm.[26] The initial draft Bill included no victim
protection measures. However, as a result of significant pressure
from the voluntary sector and parliamentarians, the final text
of the Act includes a statutory defence for victims compelled
to commit crimes, court powers to order perpetrators to pay
reparations to victims, provision of advocates to support child
victims, and statutory guidance on victim identification and victim
services.[27] A clause to enable a system of 'Independent Child
Trafficking Advocates' across England and Wales has yet to be
enacted, despite pressure from NGOs and international bodies.[28]
As a result of the scrutiny of the Modern Slavery Act, the
government commissioned a review of the National Referral
Mechanism for victims of human trafficking.[29] The subsequent
report, published in November 2014, recommended a significant
overhaul of the system. In August 2015, based on these
recommendations, a year-long NRM pilot was established to
trial a new system.[30] The outcome of the pilot has the potential to
significantly change the way victims are identified in the UK.[31]
The Modern Slavery Act has helped to put the issue of modern
slavery in supply chains front and centre for businesses operating
in the UK.
154 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
by Moroccan nationals who were in domestic servitude in the
Sudanese and Libyan embassies in London.[20]
The tied visa has been criticised widely by local and international
organisations. The Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights of
Migrants noted the importance of the right to change employer
"in facilitating the escape of migrant domestic workers from
exploitative and abusive situations".[21] On 2 December 2015,
the London Assembly called for the Mayor of London to write
to Home Secretary, Theresa May, to make the case to repeal
the tied-visa system.[22] At the request of Theresa May MP, an
independent expert undertook a review of the visa, the findings
of which were published in December 2015.[23] The report found
that the "existence of a tie to a specific employer and the absence
of a universal right to change employer and apply for extensions
of the visa are incompatible with the reasonable protection of
overseas domestic workers".[24] As of January 2016, it remains
unclear if the Home Office will implement the recommendations
as no timetable on a response has been provided.
Under the Act, companies whose
turnover is above GB£36m are
required to report on what steps
they have taken to ensure modern
slavery is not taking place in their
business or supply chains. Though
the intention of this provision is to
ensure big businesses are making
efforts to safeguard their supply
chains, in practice, a company can
merely make 'a statement that the
organisation has taken no such steps'
to combat slavery in their supply
chain and comply with
the legislation.
There are no formal repercussions should a company report
that no efforts have been made to examine their supply chains
and, in fact, no enforcement mechanism to ensure companies
make a statement in the first place. The impact of the new laws
remains to be seen.
Separate legislation exists in Scotland and Northern Ireland.
On 1 October 2015, the Human Trafficking and Exploitation
(Scotland) Bill was passed, largely mirroring the criminal justice
provisions of the Modern Slavery Act but showing stronger
provision of support to victims.[32] The Bill requires Scottish
Ministers to create a trafficking and exploitation strategy,
reviewable every three years, with a requirement to consult
with individuals and organisations on the strategy.[33] The Human
Trafficking and Exploitation (Criminal Justice and Support for
Victims) Act (Northern Ireland) 2015 was given royal assent on
13 January 2015.

In December 2015, the UK Government launched a new
enhanced helpline, replacing the existing number, which will
become operational in 2016. Victims will be able to call or text
for help—the texting function has been included for those fearful
of being overheard.[34] NGO Polaris won the Home Office tender
to run the service.[35]
Forced marriage was criminalised under the Anti-Social
Behaviour, Crime and Policing Act 2014 . In June 2015, a 34-year-
old man was the first person convicted of a forced marriage
offence under this new legislation, after making a 25-year-old
woman marry him under duress.[36] Though this first conviction
RECOMMENDATIONS
Government
• Implement the recommendations made in the independent
review of the Overseas Domestic Workers (ODW) visa
and immediately revoke the tied visa.
• Sign and ratify ILO Convention 189 on Decent Work for
Domestic Workers.
• Enact a statutory system of independent child trafficking
advocates or guardians for all separated and trafficked
children.
• Ensure provision of specialist foster care for trafficked
children and training of frontline workers.
• Improve data collection on victims and perpetrators
of modern slavery in the UK and encourage European
countries to follow the UKs led by estimating prevalence
within their borders so progress can be tracked over time.
United Kingdom cont.
is a positive development, there is a clear discrepancy between
the amount of cases being identified and the few that progress
to conviction. Also, NGOs report that the issuing of a Forced
Marriage Protection Order (FMPO) does not always restrict
families acquiring new passports or travelling abroad.[37] The
FMU has continued to operate a hotline to provide advice and
support to victims. They have also continued to deliver outreach
and training to professionals and potential victims throughout
the year, as well as the 2015 'right to choose' film campaign.[38]
Such awareness raising must be backed by shelter services for
victims to flee to, which NGOs report are currently lacking.
• I ncrease funding for quality-assessed victim-support
shelters and services.
• U
 ndertake a robust and comprehensive evaluation of the
NRM pilots ensuring inclusion of victim feedback.
• R
 estructure and reform the NRM to improve identification
decision-making, and improve access to services and
outcomes for victims of modern slavery.
• C
 losely monitor the impact of the supply chain
requirements of the Modern Slavery Act, to ensure they
deliver results not just reporting.
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 155
APPENDICES
Mewat, India - March 14, 2014: Rubina, who
was trafficked from Assam when she was only
15. Bride trafficking is common in the interior
villages of Haryana.
Photo credit, Subrata Biswas/ Hindustan Times
 APPENDIX 1 - Terminology
While definitions vary, in this report, modern slavery refers to situations of exploitation that a person cannot refuse or leave
because of threats, violence, coercion, abuse of power or deception, with treatment akin to a farm animal. For example,
their passport might be taken away if they are in a foreign country, they may experience or be threatened with violence or
their family might be threatened.
Different countries use different terminology to describe modern slavery, including the term slavery itself but also other
concepts such as human trafficking, forced labour, debt bondage, forced or servile marriage, and the sale or exploitation
of children. These terms are defined in various international agreements (treaties), which many countries have voluntary
signed onto. The following are the key definitions most governments have agreed to, thereby committing to prohibit through
their national laws and policies:

Human trafficking
Human trafficking is defined in the UN Trafficking in Persons Protocol as involving three steps.
1. Recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons;
2. By means of threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of
power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent
of a person having control over another person;
3. With the intent of exploiting that person through: prostitution of others, sexual exploitation, forced labour, slavery
(or similar practices), servitude, and removal of organs.
The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of a child for the purpose of exploitation shall be considered
'trafficking in persons' even if this does not involve threat, use of force, or coercion.

Forced labour
Forced labour is defined in the International Labour Organisation (ILO) Convention on Forced Labour 1930 as "all work
or service which is exacted from any person under the menace of any penalty and for which the said person has not offered
himself voluntarily." This excludes compulsory military service, normal civil obligations, penalties imposed by a court
action taken in an emergency, and minor communal services.

Slavery and slavery-like practices

Slavery is defined in the Slavery Convention as the status or condition of a person over whom any or all of the powers
attaching to the right of ownership are exercised. In a later treaty, States agreed that there are also certain ‘slavery-like
practices’: debt bondage, forced or servile marriage, sale or exploitation of children (including in armed conflict) and
descent-based slavery.

Debt bondage
Debt bondage is a status or condition, where one person has pledged their labour or service (or that of someone under their
control), in circumstances where the fair value of that labour or service is not reasonably applied to reducing the debt or
length of debt, or the length and nature of the service is not limited or defined.

Forced or servile marriage

The following are defined as practices ‘similar to slavery’ in the 1956 Slavery Convention. Any institution or practice whereby:
• A
 woman, without the right to refuse, is promised or given in marriage on payment of a consideration in money or in
kind to her parents, guardian, family or any other person or group; or
• T
 he husband of a woman, his family, or his clan, has the right to transfer her to another person
for value received or otherwise; or
• A woman on the death of her husband is liable to be inherited by another person.

Worst forms of child labour

Drawing on the 1999 International Labour Conference Convention No.182, concerning the Prohibition and Immediate
Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour, the term ‘worst forms of child labour’ comprises:
a. a ll forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as the sale and trafficking of children, debt bondage and
serfdom and forced or compulsory labour, including forced or compulsory recruitment of children for use in armed
conflict;
b. the use, procuring or offering of a child for prostitution, for the production of pornography, or for pornographic
performances;
c. t he use, procuring or offering of a child for illicit activities, in particular for the production and trafficking of drugs
as defined in the relevant international treaties;
d. work which, by its nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out, is likely to harm the health, safety or
morals of children.

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APPENDIX 2 - Summary of Methodology

INTRODUCTION

The Global Slavery Index reflects a complex set of measures on the estimated number of people in modern slavery, the
factors that make individuals vulnerable, and also the steps governments are taking to respond to it.
The Index includes a model of vulnerability, which draws on 24 variables that impact on risk, such as the capacity to
borrow emergency funds, trust in the judiciary, levels of internal displacement, and discrimination. These variables are
grouped into four dimensions: civil and political protections; social, health and economic rights; personal security; and
conflict and refugees (see Part A: Assessing vulnerability).
Central to the Index is the estimated prevalence of modern slavery in 167 countries. The estimates are based on the
vulnerability model, together with survey data from face-to-face interviews conducted with over 42,000 individual
respondents in 53 languages, across 25 countries. Limited adjustments are made in specific cases where the existing data
are unable to account for country-specific considerations (see Part B: Estimating prevalence).
The rating of government responses is based on an assessment of 98 indicators of good practice for each country, taking
into account factors such as whether a country has the necessary laws in place, provides support programmes for victims
and works with business to regulate supply chains. The indicators are directed at measuring whether key outcomes have
been achieved, such as the identification of victims, and reduction in risk factors that enable slavery to occur (see Part C:
Government responses).

PART A: ASSESSING VULNERABILITY

The vulnerability model used in the 2014 Index was the starting point for the development of the 2016 model. Tests
undertaken in 2015 suggested that the vulnerability model, together with existing survey data, provides a robust foundation
for estimating prevalence[1]. Nonetheless, to ensure continual improvement, the 2014 model was subjected to extensive
external expert review by the Index Expert Working Group, individual experts, and an independent review. This review
process has heavily informed the methodological approaches, choices of source data and normalisation processes used in
the 2016 model.

Changes made to the 2014 model variables

During the Expert Working Group sessions in August 2015, the idea of integrating human security theory[2] into the
vulnerability framework was discussed. While a move to a theoretical approach was supported, the group felt that it was
too early to move to a purely theoretically-driven approach given the issues relating to missing data and differences in the
quality of data. Nonetheless, human security theory provided some insights into potential missing variables, for example,
data on gender and environmental security.
In 2016, we re-examined the 2014 variables, and replaced them with more rigorous and/or current sources where available,
and included new variables previously not available. Key reasons for adding or removing variables used in the 2014 model
included:
a. to ensure the continual availability of data – data that was irregularly published and updated, or lacked transparency
on the original data source were removed;
b. to ensure that we get as close to the source of the data as possible; for example, where a 2014 variable was a composite
score in another index, we sought to identify the source data and select the component measurements most useful
for our purposes; and
c. to replace weaker measures with potentially stronger variables.

Normalisation
To identify the variables that would be used in the 2016 model, we compiled an initial long list of variables to subject to
statistical testing. The data for each of these variables were normalised to a linear scale from 1 to 100. A normalisation
procedure was employed based upon the following formula:
y=1+(x–A)*(100–1)/(B–A)
Where a variable represented resilience to modern slavery instead of vulnerability, or the scale used by the data source gave
a higher score for a lower risk, the data were inverted. For example, a higher confidence in judiciary score would suggest
lower risk, therefore it made sense to invert this score. A description of the inverted variables and justification can be found
in the longer methodology paper available on the website.
For variables where the data were not normally distributed (i.e., Refugees, Displaced, and GDP(PPP)), these data were
logarithmically transformed before any normalisation was undertaken.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 159

 Correlation coefficient checks
After accepting these variables, we applied correlation coefficient checks to the variables to determine whether there was
significant empirical overlap that may warrant dropping additional variables. Following the check on collinearity, VIF[3]
and tolerance values[4] were checked for multi-collinearity.
The final vulnerability variables retained for principal factor analysis testing include:
1. Financial Inclusion – Borrowed Money[5] 13. Violent Crime[17]
2. F
 inancial Inclusion – Coming up with Emergency 14. Women’s Physical Security[18]
Funds[6] 15. Weapons Access[19]
3. Financial Inclusion – Received Wages[7] (inverted) 16. Discrimination: Sexuality[20]
4. Cell Phone Subscriptions (inverted) [8]
17. GINI Coefficient[21]
5. Social Safety[9] (inverted) 18. Discrimination: Intellectual Disability[22]
6. Undernourishment [10] 19. Discrimination: Immigrants[23]
7. Tuberculosis [11]
20. Discrimination: Minorities[24]
8. Confidence in Judicial System[12] (inverted) 21. Refugees[25]
9. Water Access[13] (inverted) 22. Displaced Persons[26]
10. Political Instability [14]
23. Political Rights – POLITY IV[27] (inverted)
11. Impact of Terrorism[15] 24. G
 lobal Slavery Index Government Response
12. Internal Conflicts Fought[16] Values[28] (inverted)

Factor analysis
Principal Factor Analysis was selected as the optimal method for identifying which variables empirically group together into
distinct major factors. On the basis of this analysis, the following dimensions were identified, and confirmed for cluster analysis.

Table 1: Dimensions used in cluster analysis

DIMENSION 2
DIMENSION 1 Social, Health & DIMENSION 3 DIMENSION 4
Civil & Political Protections Economic Rights Personal Security Refugee Populations & Conflict

Confidence in judicial system Financial inclusion: Financial inclusion: availability of Impact of terrorism
borrowed any money emergency funds

Political instability Financial inclusion: Violent crime Internal conflict

received wages

Weapons access Cell phone subscriptions Women’s physical security Refugees resident

Discrimination: sexuality Social safety net GINI coefficient

Displaced persons Undernourishment Discrimination:

intellectual disability

The Index 2016 Government Tuberculosis Discrimination:

Response immigrants

Political rights measure Water improved access Discrimination:

minorities

Variables within each dimension were averaged to provide a dimension vulnerability score. The dimension scores were
then averaged for an overall vulnerability score for each country.
Where data were missing, an imputed value was determined by applying the overall vulnerability average to the dimensions
where data were missing. For example, there were three countries in Dimension 4 that did not have any dimension-level
data points: Brunei, Cape Verde and Suriname. The overall vulnerability mean for each country (for Dimensions 1, 2 and
3) was applied to these missing data points as the Dimension 4 data point replacements. For a more detailed discussion on
missing data, please see the longer methodology paper, available for download on our website.

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 Summary of Methodology cont.

PART B: ESTIMATING PREVALENCE

Each of the national prevalence estimates in the Global Slavery Index reflects one of three methodologies:
• D
 irect estimation following a nationally representative random sample survey, or state surveys in the case of India
(25 countries);
• Multiple systems estimation (two countries); or
• E
 xtrapolation based on mathematical modelling of risk, to which relevant survey data has been applied
(139 countries).
Direct estimation through surveys
In 2014, Walk Free Foundation partnered with Gallup Inc. to conduct surveys in seven countries—Brazil, Ethiopia,
Indonesia, Nepal, Nigeria, Russia and Pakistan. A further 18 surveys were conducted in late 2014 and early 2015 for
inclusion in the 2016 Global Slavery Index: Bangladesh, Bolivia, Cambodia, Chile, Dominican Republic, Ghana,
Guatemala, Hungary, India, Mauritania, Mexico, Myanmar, Philippines, Poland, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tunisia
and Vietnam[29].

Methodology
The survey instrument developed in 2014 for the first round of surveying was again included in the Gallup World Poll in
late 2014 and early 2015. The original instrument, developed through cognitive testing in five countries, was subjected to
minor refinements following feedback from the survey teams.

Walk Free Foundation adds a module to the World Poll in selected countries. Overall, the World Poll survey data
are representative of 98 percent of the world’s adult population. Face-to-face or telephone surveys are conducted
across households in more than 160 countries and in over 140 languages. A detailed description of the World Poll
methodology is available online, however some of the key aspects of the methodology include:
• The target population is the entire civilian, non-institutionalised population, aged 15 and older.
• W
 ith the exception of areas which are scarcely populated or present a threat to the safety of interviewers,
samples are probability based and nationally representative.
• The questionnaire is translated into the major languages of each country.
• In-depth training is conducted with field staff and a standardised training manual is provided.
• Q
 uality control procedures ensure that the correct samples are selected and the correct person is randomly
selected in each household.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 161

 Table 2 sets out the sample sizes and coverage in each of the survey countries. A total of 29,206 respondents were interviewed
across the 25 national surveys. A fuller report on development of the survey methodology, population coverage and sampling
design can be downloaded from the Global Slavery Index website.

Table 2: Sample size, survey languages, and exclusions across WFF survey countries

Unweighted number Excluded

answering yes Sample Survey area as % of
Country to FL and FM size languages population Excluded areas

Brazil 3 1,007 Portuguese None

Afan Oromo,
Six of the nine zones of the Somali region
Ethiopia 9 1,004 Amharic, 3.4
(Degehabur, Warder, Korahe, Fik, Gode, Afder)
Tigrigna

Bahasa
Indonesia 7 1,000 No exclusions
Indonesian

Nepal 20 1,050 Nepali No exclusions

English, Hausa,
Three states of the North East region
Nigeria 3 1,000 Igbo, Pidgin, 4.5
(Adamawa, Borno and Yobe)
Yoruba

Province of Gilgit Baltistan, Azad Jammu &

Pakistan 9 1,000 Urdu 5
Kashmir (AJK)

Nenets, Yamalo-Nenets and Chukotsk regions,

Chechnya, Ingushetia, Dagestan, Adygeya,
Russia 40 2,000 Russian 7
Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachaevo-Cherkessie,
North Ossetia

Chile 8 1,032 Spanish No exclusions

Dominican
20 1,000 Spanish No exclusions
Republic

English, Hausa,
Ghana 11 1,000 Ewe, Twi, No exclusions
Dagbani

Guatemala 39 1,000 Spanish No exclusions

Rangamati, Khagrachori and Bandarban

Bangladesh 34 1,000 Bengali 1.1
situated in Chittagong division

Bolivia 17 1,000 Spanish No exclusions

Cambodia 50 1,000 Khmer 2.9–3 Koh Kong, Oddar Meanchey, and Stueng Treng

Hungary 5 1,000 Hungarian No exclusions

Hindi, Tamil,
Kannada,
Andaman & Nicobar islands, Arunachal
Telugu, Marathi,
Pradesh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu,
India 56 3,000 Gujarati, Bengali, 9.2
Lakshadweep, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
Malayalam,
Nagaland, Pondicherry, Sikkim, Tripura
Odia, Punjabi,
Assamese

French,
Hassanya,
Mauritania 37 1,000 No exclusions
Poulaar, Wolof,
Soninke

Mexico 11 1,031 Spanish No exclusions

Myanmar 18 1,020 Burmese 4.8 Chin, Kayah, and Kachin states

Filipino, Iluko,
Hiligaynon,
Cebuano,
Philippines 14 1,000 No exclusions
Bicol, Waray,
Maguindanaon,
Maranao

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 Summary of Methodology cont.

Unweighted number Excluded

answering yes Sample Survey area as % of
Country to FL and FM size languages population Excluded areas

Poland 6 1,000 Polish No exclusions

Afrikaans,
South Africa 18 1,000 English, Sotho, No exclusions
Zulu, Xhosa

Sri Lanka 3 1,062 Sinhala, Tamil 2.4 Mullativu and Batticaloa districts

Tunisia 17 1,000 Arabic No exclusions

Vietnam 4 1,000 Vietnamese No exclusions

The Walk Free Foundation survey questions were based on a network sampling frame, to partly address the limitations
of a census framework when the target population is largely hidden. That is, it was decided to use 'family' rather than
'household' as the reference group, in order to increase the likelihood of identifying victims in a random sample survey.
We used an explicit definition of 'family' that includes parents, spouse/partner, siblings, and children, and obtained counts
for each of these types of kinship.

Questions asked
In addition to demographic questions, the questions asked were:
1. Have you or has anyone in your immediate family ever been forced to work by an employer?
2. Have you or has anyone in your immediate family ever been forced to work by an employer to repay a debt with
that employer?
3. Have you or has anyone in your immediate family ever been offered one kind of work, but then were forced to do
something else and not allowed to leave?
4. Have you or has anyone in your immediate family ever been forced to marry?
An additional filter question was added in Mauritania to ensure capture of traditional forms of slavery:
5. Have you or has anyone in your immediate family ever been forced to work for a master
as a slave?

Where a respondent answered yes to any of these filter questions on behalf of themselves or an immediate family member,
they were then asked a series of follow up questions to capture more information about the experience, including when and
where the experience occurred. A copy of the survey instrument can be found at globalslaveryindex.org

Counting rules
A positive response for forced labor or forced marriage was recorded when a respondent's series of answers met the
following counting rules:
1. Respondents answered ‘yes’ to any of the forced labour questions or to the forced marriage question AND
2. Reported that the forced labour or forced marriage was either in relation to their own experience, or on behalf of a
spouse, child, parent or sibling AND
3. Had been coerced (forced labour) or did not consent (forced marriage) AND
4. Experienced forced labour or forced marriage in the five years preceding the survey.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 163

 Table 3: Prevalence estimates from surveys

Est proportion Est population

Country Population in modern slavery in modern slavery (n)

Brazil 200,361,925 0.0008 155,300

Ethiopia 94,100,756 0.0041 389,700

Indonesia 249,865,631 0.0029 714,100

Nepal 27,797,457 0.0082 228,700

Nigeria 173,615,345 0.0048 834,200

Pakistan 182,142,594 0.0113 2,058,200

Russia 143,499,861 0.0073 1,049,700

Bangladesh 160,996,000 0.0095 1,531,300

Bolivia 10,725,000 0.0044 46,900

Cambodia 15,578,000 0.0165 256,800

Chile 17,948,000 0.0015 27,700

Dominican Republic 10,528,000 0.0100 104,800

Ghana 27,410,000 0.0038 103,300

Guatemala 16,343,000 0.0084 138,100

Hungary 9,836,000 0.0023 22,500

India* 1,311,051,000 0.0063 8,324,900

Mauritania 4,068,000 0.0106 43,000

Mexico 127,017,000 0.0030 376,800

Myanmar 53,897,000 0.0096 515,100

Philippines 100,699,000 0.0040 401,000

Poland 38,025,000 0.0048 181,100

South Africa 54,954,000 0.0045 248,700

Sri Lanka 20,781,000 0.0022 45,900

Tunisia 11,102,000 0.0077 85,000

Vietnam 91,519,000 0.0015 139,300

Note: Mauritania calculated as ‘ever’ for forced labour and last five years for forced marriage.
Note: In India, the results from state surveys are used not the national survey results.

India state surveys

Given the complexity and size of India, a further 15 surveys were conducted at the state level in 2016, with 14,000
respondents.[30] This covers at a minimum 80 percent of the Indian population at the state level.
In future years, we will undertake similar state level surveys in other highly populous countries. See longer methodology
paper for additional questions included in the state surveys.

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 Summary of Methodology cont.

Table 4: States of India surveyed, 2016.

State Language used Sample size

Chhattisgarh Hindi 1,000

Madhya Pradesh Hindi 1,000

Bihar Hindi 1,000

Jharkhand Hindi 1,000

Odisha Oriya 1,000

Punjab Punjabi 1,000

Uttar Pradesh Hindi 1,000

Andhra Pradesh* Telugu 500

Telangana* Telugu 500

Kerala Malayalam 1,000

Maharashtra Marathi 1,000

Rajasthan Hindi 1,000

Himachal Pradesh Hindi 1,000

Karnataka Kannada 1,000

West Bengal Bengali 1,000

Total 8 14,000

There was an unusually high level of refusals during the India state surveys, where respondents were willing to answer
the first filter questions about forced labour and forced marriage, but refused to answer subsequent questions that sought
further information.

Table 5: Refusal rate to subsequent questions about forced labour/marriage, 2016 survey

Forced labour Forced marriage Total

Pass filter 34,182,535 4,458,994 35,227,044

Refused individual 29,854,316 3,001,877 30,205,546

Identified individual 4,328,220 1,457,116 5,021,499

Confirmed estimate 2,396,034 109,978 2,621,406

This high refusal rate was not experienced in the national survey for India, or in other national surveys.
Consultation with the survey team and experts in India strongly suggested that the high refusal rate reflects the sensitivity
of the issues being discussed, fear of consequences of providing further information, and the lack of privacy in interview
situations. This sensitivity was also reflected in the detention by local officials of some of the team in the survey process. In
addition the survey team observed that with such a large sample size, the team was spending several days in each location.
They observed that information about the survey questions was rapidly percolating through the community in the areas
being surveyed, with the result that some people may have been pre-warned not to share information.
These observations were confirmed by subsequent analysis of the characteristics of refusers, and non-refusers, and also
analysis of refusal rates in relation to time spent in each site. Refusers were more likely to be rural, poor and live very close
to their family than non-refusers. Refusal rates increased the longer a field team spent in a location. Based on the convergent
evidence, we can expect that the ratio of filtered to confirmed cases would be lower for refusers than for respondents.
To account for the high level of refusals, a statistical method was developed to reasonably but conservatively estimate the
result that would have been achieved, had more respondents completed the survey questions. This involved calculating the
ratio of 'identified' cases (respondents who passed the filter question and then went on to identify which member of their
family the victim was) to 'confirmed' cases (cases which met the full criteria set out above), and then applying this ratio to
the number of respondents who 'passed' the first filter question (see Table 5 above). This assumed that those who were not
willing to report further information would yield a similar proportion of 'positive' cases had they continued with the questions.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 165

 2. Multiple systems estimation
Multiple Systems Estimation (MSE) has been used by human rights data analysts in recent years to estimate the hidden
populations in conflict situations, such as casualty counts in the Syrian civil war.[31] MSE applies capture—recapture method
to estimate a population size for multiple lists.
MSE can be applied in countries where nationally-representative random sample surveys will not necessarily work. This
is particularly the case in more ‘developed’ countries, where low levels of vulnerability mean that there are few cases
to report, where law enforcement is strong and organised crime is more hidden, and where the resulting numbers are so
small, that even if they were not hidden, they would not be found and selected for interview in a random sample survey.[32]
MSE was used in 2014 by the UK Government to estimate the number of people in modern slavery. Drawing on data from
the UK National Crime Agency Strategic Assessment[33], six lists were compared to derive an estimation of between 10,000
and 13,000 people in modern slavery. This figure is used in the Index for the UK, and used to extrapolate for countries with
a similar risk profile, predominately those in Western Europe. A paper summarising the process was recently published
by the Royal Statistical Society.[34] MSE was also tested in the Netherlands in 2016, along similar lines to the UK test.[35]

3. Calculating prevalence for non-survey countries

The extrapolation process followed the following steps:
1. Countries were grouped and ordered based on vulnerability measures (see discussion of cluster analysis below).
2. Within each group, existing survey data points were identified. The average proportion of enslavement from these
surveys was calculated for each group and applied to all countries within the group for which there was no survey data.
3. A limited set of adjustments were made to better account for conflict, geopolitical concerns, state-sanctioned forced
labour, and a final, downward adjustment for Small Island Developing States.[36]
As was the case in 2014, a K-means cluster analysis[37] was run to group the 167 countries into distinct groups using the
vulnerability data. This groups countries together based on having a similar risk profile. Tests were run to determine that
the ideal group size was between 10 and 15 groups. Twelve groups had the highest Pseudo-F score. The resulting groups
were sufficiently distinct on overall mean values, although the minimum and maximum values did indicate some overlap
among countries at the bottom of one list and the top of the next. A fuller explanation of this aspect of the methodology is
available at globalslaveryindex.org
Once countries had been grouped in this way, 28 data points (25 from the surveys, two derived from the application of
multiple systems estimation in the UK and the Netherlands, and one survey in DRC) were then used as the foundation from
which to extrapolate to the remainder of the 167 countries.
The team identified where the available data points fell across these groups (see Table 6), and used this to calculate the
average proportion of a population in modern slavery for each cluster. Where no survey data points were available in a
cluster, the average of the two surrounding clusters was applied. This average became the starting point for the extrapolation
process and was applied to each country within a cluster for which a survey was not available.

Table 6: Distribution of data from random sample surveys across the groups

Number of countries
Cluster Survey data in the cluster in the cluster

1 Pakistan, Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of the Congo 13

2 No survey data 4

3 Myanmar, India, Ethiopia, Philippines, Mexico, Russia, Bangladesh 19

4 Mauritania, Ghana 16

5 Cambodia 12

6 South Africa, Indonesia, Nepal 8

7 Guatemala, Dominican Republic, Brazil 12

8 No survey data 13

9 Bolivia, Vietnam 17

10 Poland, Chile, Tunisia, Sri Lanka 25

11 United Kingdom 17

12 Hungary 11

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 Summary of Methodology cont.

Reflecting the limitations of any data driven process, a final set of adjustments was made in limited cases to better account
for state-sanctioned forced labour, conflict and geopolitical concerns. A final, downward adjustment for Small Island
Developing States was applied to ensure the extent of the problem was not over-estimated in these countries (see table 7).

Table 7: Adjustments made to country estimates

Type of adjustment Country

Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Somalia, Afghanistan, Sudan, Syria,
Conflict
South Sudan, Iraq, Pakistan, Yemen, Libya

State-imposed forced labour North Korea, Uzbekistan

China, Israel, Haiti, Timor-Leste, Eritrea, Swaziland, Malawi, Zambia, Lesotho, Madagascar, Sierra Leone,
Geopolitical
Namibia, Kenya, Iceland, Finland, Portugal, Italy

Barbados, Cape Verde, Cuba, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Jamaica, Mauritius, Papua New Guinea, Suriname,
Small Island Developing States
Trinidad and Tobago

A detailed explanation of the computations for countries within each cluster is available on the Global Slavery Index website.

Limitations of the methodology

Surveys represent the most accurate way to estimate the number of people enslaved in countries where we know there is
a significant problem, and when we know that victims of modern slavery are likely to be identified in a random sample of
the national population. Nonetheless, surveys do involve asking people a series of sensitive questions so it is likely that
certain information will be more readily disclosed than other information (particularly in relation to taboo subjects such as
engagement in the sex industry or sexual violence). We are continuing to refine the survey methodology to address these
issues, and are testing different ways of asking the questions. Survey data has to be considered alongside administrative
data and grey literature that provides critical context, and can help identify gaps in survey results.
Random sample surveys are not the best method to apply in every country. While nationally-representative, random sample
surveys are ideal for estimation, in countries where we suspect the number of people in modern slavery is very small, or
individuals too hidden, victims of modern slavery are unlikely to be identified in samples based on a census framework
and unlikely to be picked up through the amended network sampling frame. This also suggests that in countries where
surveying is possible, our estimates are likely to be conservative.
As with surveys, we suspect that multiple system estimation will only work in certain countries. As the technique uses
different lists of victim data, it relies on the existence of these lists and them being fairly well kept. These lists can include
victim data identified by police, NGOs, or other responders, but there is an underpinning assumption that systems are
in place to facilitate data collection and management. The US is currently looking at MSE as an alternative method to
identifying modern slavery.
Extrapolation, particularly one based upon a systematic set of commonly applied algorithmic rules, is the most robust way to
deal with limited data. A comparison with findings for a number of countries based on extrapolation used in 2013 and 2014
with surveys that were subsequently conducted in those countries reveals that our extrapolation was accurate to within one
percent (when considered as a proportion of the population, which is the primary measure for the Global Slavery Index).[38]
However, we are committed to conducting more surveys and promoting multiple systems estimation in order to create more
reliable and representative primary data.
Extrapolation largly depends on the strength of the underlying vulnerability model, the clustering process but also the
available survey data. One of the major challenges to creating a vulnerability model for modern slavery is identifying
regularly published and comprehensive data for all 167 countries covered in the Index. Limited capacity, limited funding,
and few stakeholders dedicated to the task of global data management creates difficulties in identifying vulnerability data
sources that can accurately capture realities on the ground in any given country.
Some of the data in the vulnerability model are stronger and more current than other data. For example, in the Global Slavery
Index 2016, the Walk Free Foundation has included refugees and internal displacement within the overall vulnerability model.
Due to the dynamic environment and unprecedented mass movements of refugees and migrants from the Middle East and
Africa to Europe and beyond, the situation evolves rapidly, making it difficult to track, collect and analyse relevant data.
The Index draws on the most recently published annual UNHCR data, which reflects 2014 results. There will, therefore,
be a lag in current events, and what is reflected in the vulnerability model.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 167

 PART C: GOVERNMENT RESPONSES

The government plays a critical role in developing and implementing the laws, policies and programmes that are needed to
prevent and respond to modern slavery. To complement prevalence estimates, for the second year running, the Index also
includes an assessment of government responses to modern slavery.
As in 2014, governments are assessed against their efforts towards meeting the following five milestones:
1. Survivors of slavery are identified, supported to exit and remain out of slavery;
2. Criminal justice mechanisms function effectively to prevent modern slavery;
3. Coordination occurs at the national and regional level, while governments are held accountable for their response;
4. Risk factors, such as attitudes, social systems and institutions, that enable modern slavery are addressed; and
5. Businesses and governments stop sourcing goods and services that use modern slavery.

Theoretical framework: crime prevention theory

The Index measures the actions governments are taking to end modern slavery. While broad contextual factors like state
stability, discrimination and overall protection of human rights are critical, crime prevention research also confirms that to
reduce the prevalence of crime, including modern slavery, the government needs to:
• reduce the opportunity for offenders to commit the crime
• increase the risks of offending
• decrease the vulnerability of potential victims
• increase the capacity of law enforcement and other guardians
• address the people or factors that stimulate or facilitate slavery.
Further, to prevent crime, governments need to create a climate that induces guilt or shame on those who commit the crime,
and strengthen the moral condemnation of modern slavery by both local and global communities.[39]

Development of the conceptual framework

Using this theoretical framework, and drawing on what has been written about effective government responses to modern
slavery,[40] a conceptual framework was developed to identify the indicators of a strong response to modern slavery.
The conceptual framework is organised around the five milestones outlined above, which, if achieved, would ensure that
governments are taking steps to address modern slavery. The conceptual framework was developed with input from the
Expert Working Group, findings from 2014, and input from experts in fields related to modern slavery, such as harmful
traditional practices, health, social welfare and migration.

Process
Government responses were examined in 161 countries in 2016.[41] Building on work conducted in 2014, the process for
assessing government processes incorporates three stages: conceptual framework development, data collection and analysis.
Underpinning the five milestones are 98 indicators to determine how well a government is responding to modern slavery
(see Table 7: Conceptual Framework), grouped into 28 activities. The 133 indicators used to assess governments in 2014
were reviewed post launch to identify gaps in our conceptual framework, such as the collection of data on labour inspectors,
and data gaps, such as missing information on standard operating procedures for police units. As a result of this review, and
data gaps post data collection for certain indicators, the number of indicators was reduced to 98 core indicators.
These revised indicators include ‘positive indicators’ which cover actions the government is taking to achieve each
milestone. This year, these indicators were supplemented by standardised ‘negative indicators’, which attempt to measure
the implementation of a particular activity. For example, if shelters exist for modern slavery victims, the negative indicator
‘victims are detained and unable to leave the shelter’ would capture whether victims are detained and experience secondary
victimisation despite the existence of these shelters. The negative indicators also cover broader factors which, if conducted
by governments, would increase the risk of modern slavery. These included state-sanctioned forced labour, high levels of
government complicity, criminalisation of victims, deportation of potential victims, and policies which tie migrant workers
to their employers.
Publicly available information was collected through desk-based research for each of these indicators. Governments and
NGOs were also given the opportunity to provide information to inform this process. In April 2014, a survey was sent
to all governments included in the Global Slavery Index requesting information about their response to modern slavery.
Information submitted via these surveys was also included for 38 countries. In October 2015, this was supplemented by a
survey which was sent to NGO partners to obtain an update on government responses in the last 18 months; 32 surveys were
received and written submissions from a further seven NGOs. Finally, in-country experts were consulted where possible
to verify the information and help address any gaps.

168 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Summary of Methodology cont.

Ratings
Each indicator was scored on a 0 to 1 scale. On this scale, 0 meant no information was identified or available, or information
explicitly demonstrated that the government did not meet any indicators; 1 meant that the indicator had been met. For
negative indicators, these were scored on a 0 to –1 scale. On this scale, 0 meant no information was identified or available,
or information explicitly demonstrated that the government did not meet any indicators; –1 meant that the indicator had
been met.
As with last year, we grouped these indicators into activities, as the below conceptual framework describes. Each activity
was weighted evenly to 100 points. Negative indicators, where these tested the implementation of certain activities (marked
as ‘negative implementation’ in bold in the conceptual framework), were incorporated into the individual activities with
the following formula:
= (positive indicators + negative indicators)/ total number of positive indicators * 3.57143[42]
All negative indicators were treated in this way, apart from government corruption and complicity (Milestone 4, indicator
1.4.3) and state sanctioned forced labour (Milestone 4, indicator 1.8.1). These are marked with a bold ‘NEGATIVE’ in the
below table. Due to the importance of these indicators, these were not weighted and were subtracted from the final score.
As each government was rated at the activity level, the simplest way to fairly compare governments was to aggregate these
scores.[43] These scores were then converted to credit ratings, based on ten different categories, and adjusted so that any
countries at the top of the table that either scored a negative on arrest or deportation of victims (Milestone 2, indicator 1.4.5
and Milestone 3, indicator 3.2.4) were unable to achieve above a BBB rating.

Limitations
Collecting data across 98 indicators for 161 countries is a complex undertaking. Access to data for all indicators is limited
in certain countries where information is not publicly available, or not available in languages spoken by the research team.
Information that is publicly available might also distort reality on the ground—it may appear that no services are provided
by governments, but an active civil society ensures that victims are fully supported. As with all policy analyses, it is difficult
to move beyond the existence of policies to assess their active implementation—laws may exist, but be poorly understood
and implemented by local law enforcement, for example. While the inclusion of ‘negative implementation’ indicators this
year goes some way to addressing the issues of measuring implementation, there will still be gaps in our assessment which
gives credit where no action is taking place in reality, or does not give credit where policies do not exist, but there is an
active civil society filling gaps in a government response.

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 169

 Table 8: Conceptual framework for measuring government responses

 urvivors of modern slavery are supported to exit slavery and are empowered
MILESTONE 1: S
to break the cycle of vulnerability

Outcome Intermediate Indicator

outcome

Increase in 1.1  1.1.1 Information is distributed to the public about how to identify and report cases of
reported cases of The public knows modern slavery
modern slavery what modern 1.1.2 This information is distributed systematically and at regular intervals (as distinct
slavery is and how from one-off, isolated)
to report it
1.1.3 There has been an increase in number of members of the public reporting cases of
modern slavery

2.1  2.1.1 A reporting mechanism exists

Comprehensive 2.1.2 Reporting mechanism is available for men, women, and children
reporting
mechanisms 2.1.3 Reporting mechanism is free to access
operate effectively 2.1.4 Reporting mechanism operates 24/7
2.1.5 The reporting mechanism operates in multiple languages or has capacity to provide
immediate access to bring in translators

2.2 2.2.1 Training on basic legal frameworks and victim identification has been carried out
Police know what for front line ‘general duties’ police
modern slavery is
and how to report it NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
2.2.4 There is evidence that police officers have not identified victims of modern slavery
in the last 12 months

2.3  2.3.1 Training on how to identify victims of modern slavery is provided to front line
Government and regulatory bodies likely to be ‘first responders’
non- government 2.3.2 Training on how to identify victims of modern slavery is provided to workers
bodies know what likely to be ‘first responders’
modern slavery is
and how to report it 2.3.3 Training for first responders is delivered systematically and at regular intervals (as
distinct from one-off, isolated)

Victim- 3.1  3.1.1 Victim support services are available for suspected victims of modern slavery
determined Basic victim (men, women and children where relevant) regardless of ethno-cultural or
services are determined support socioeconomic background
available for all is available for all
victims of modern identified victims NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
slavery 3.1.2 Suspected victims have a choice about whether or not to remain in a shelter
3.1.3 Government contributes to the operational costs of the victim support services
3.1.4 Physical and mental health services are provided to victims of modern slavery
NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
3.1.5 Victim support services are not available for all victims of modern slavery
NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
3.1.7 No victims have accessed the services or shelters since 1st June 2014

3.2 3.2.1 Services provide long term reintegration options

Longer term Victim 3.2.2 Measures are in place to address the migration situation of victims who want
determined support to remain or be resettled
is available for all
identified victims 3.2.3 Services are child friendly
3.2.4 Victims are assisted to make contact with their family or contact person
of choice

3.3 3.3.1 Training has been carried out for all staff providing assistance services
Victim determined 3.3.2 Services have been evaluated
services are
high quality and 3.3.3 Evaluations of services have been provided to cooperative framework or
responsive coordination body

170 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Summary of Methodology cont.

Outcome Intermediate Indicator

outcome

Agencies work 4.1  4.1.1 The government has clear guidelines for identifying and screening victims.
together in the Government 4.1.2 The guidelines make provision for a category of 'presumed victims', who can be
interests of victims coordinates the provided with services until a formal determination is made.
identification of
victims 4.1.3 The guidelines clearly set out which organisations have the authority to identify
victims of modern slavery

4.2  4.2.1 A cooperative framework exists (could be a 'National Referral Mechanism' or

Referrals occur at operational working group), which brings together government and civil society
the national level to ensure victims are being referred to services
4.2.2 There is evidence that victims are being referred to services using the cooperative
framework

MILESTONE 2: E
 ffective criminal justice responses are in place in every jurisdiction

Outcome Intermediate Indicator

outcome

Legislation deters 1.1 1.1.1 Slavery Convention, 1926

citizens from Relevant 1.1.2 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and
committing crime international Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery 1956
of modern slavery conventions are
ratified 1.1.3 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially
Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against
Transnational Organized Crime 2000
1.1.4 Abolition of Forced Labour Convention ILO, No. 105, 1957
1.1.5 Domestic Workers Convention ILO No. 189
1.1.6 Worst Forms of Child Labour ILO 182
1.1.7 CRC Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the
involvement of children in armed conflict 2000
1.1.8 CRC Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of
Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography 2000
1.1.9 International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers
and Members of their Families 1990

1.2 1.2.1 Human trafficking,

Domestic 1.2.2 Slavery
legislation is in line
with international 1.2.3 Forced labour
conventions 1.2.4 Children in armed conflict
1.2.5 Child prostitution
1.2.6 Forced marriage
NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
1.2.7 Criminal laws have disproportionate penalties

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 171

 MILESTONE 2: E
 ffective criminal justice responses are in place in every jurisdiction

Outcome Intermediate Indicator

outcome

Victims are able 1.4 1.4.1 National laws allow victims to participate in the legal system, regardless of their
to access justice Victims are able to role as a witness
participate in court 1.4.2 Law recognises that victims should not be treated as criminals for conduct that
to receive justice occurred while under control of criminals
(arrest of trafficker/
compensation/ 1.4.3 Visas to stay in the country are not dependent on victim participation in the court
redress) process
NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
1.4.5 There is evidence that victims of modern slavery have been treated as criminals for
conduct that occurred while under control of criminals

2.1 2.1.1 There are free legal services available for victims of modern slavery
Victims are 2.1.3 Evidence of witness and victim protection mechanisms are in place to ensure that
supported to access neither witnesses nor victims are intimidated, nor interfered with inside the court
justice
2.1.4 Evidence of witness and victim protection mechanisms are in place to ensure that
neither witnesses nor victims are intimidated, nor interfered with outside the court
2.1.5 The legal framework supports restitution or compensation for victims of modern
slavery
2.1.6 Child friendly services are provided during the criminal justice process, from
engagement with police through to court process

3.1 3.1.1 Specialised law enforcement units exist

Increased number
of quality NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
investigations 3.1.3 Units do not have necessary operational resources
3.1.4 Units have Standard Operating Procedures for modern slavery cases

3.2 3.2.1 Training is provided to the judiciary, including in initial training

Increased number 3.2.2 Training is provided to prosecutors, including in initial training (since 2009)
of quality
prosecutions 3.2.4 Training is systematic and recurrent (as distinct from one-off, isolated)
NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
3.2.5 Judicial punishments are NOT proportionate to severity of the crime and
complicity of the offender.

MILESTONE 3: Governments coordinate and are held accountable for their actions

Outcome Intermediate Indicator

outcome

Responses to 1.1 1.1.1 National coordination body exists involving both government and NGOs
modern slavery Mechanisms exist 1.2.1 National Action Plan exists with clear indicators and allocation of responsibilities
are coordinated to coordinate the
response 1.3.2 Government routinely uses the National Action Plan as a framework for reporting
its actions
1.3.5 Activities in the national action plan are fully funded

2.1 2.1.1 Independent entity to monitor the implementation and effectiveness of National
Independent Action Plan exists
mechanisms exist
to monitor the
response

3.1 Cross border 3.1.1 The government participates in regional cooperation

collaboration exists 3.1.3. The government participates in bilateral cooperation on modern slavery issues

3.2 3.2.1 The government cooperates with the government of the home country to facilitate
Cross border return of victims
collaboration NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
exists for victim
protection 3.2.4 Foreign victims are not identified AND/ OR are detained and deported
3.2.6 Bilateral agreements exist between countries on labour migration

172 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Summary of Methodology cont.

MILESTONE 4: L
 aws, policies and programmes address attitudes, social systems and
institutions that create vulnerability and enable slavery

Outcome Intermediate Indicator

outcome

Government 1.1 1.1.1 Government facilitates or funds research on modern slavery

programming Risk factors, 1.1.2 Government facilitates or funds research prevalence or estimation studies of
reflects and drivers, and modern slavery
responds to patterns of
known risk factors exploitation are 1.1.3 Government interventions that aim to address modern slavery are evidence-based
and drivers of understood
modern slavery
and patterns of
exploitation

1.2 1.2.1 Awareness campaigns target specific known risks of modern slavery
Government
interventions are
tailored to risk

Vulnerable 1.3 1.3.2 The government funds labour inspections

populations do not Safety nets exist 1.3.3 Affordable health care for vulnerable populations exists
become enslaved for vulnerable
populations 1.3.4 Public primary education is available for all children regardless of ethno-cultural
or religious background

1.4 1.4.1 National laws criminalises corruption in the public sector

Governments NEGATIVE
respond to
corruption 1.4.3 Complicity in modern slavery cases is widespread and not investigated

1.5 1.5.1. Birth registration systems exist

Social protections 1.5.2 Systems are in place to allow asylum seekers to seek protection
exist

1.6 1.6.3 Private recruitment fees are paid by the employer, not the employee
Safety nets exist for 1.6.5 Labour laws extend to everyone, including migrant workers, domestic workers and
migrant workers those in the fishing and construction sectors
NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
1.6.7 Patterns of abuse of labour migrants are widespread and unchecked
NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
1.6.9 There are laws or policies that prevent or make it difficult for workers to leave
abusive employers without punishment

1.7 1.7.1 Government provides training for its consular staff on modern slavery
Governments 1.7.2 Government provides identification documents and support travel arrangements for
provide support for citizen return
citizens overseas
NEGATIVE IMPLEMENTATION
1.7.5 Diplomatic staff are not investigated or prosecuted for alleged complicity or abuse
in modern slavery cases

NEGATIVE 1.8 NEGATIVE 1.8.1 State-sanctioned forced labour exits

Government action
facilitates slavery

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 173

 Summary of Methodology cont.

MILESTONE 5: G
 overnments stop sourcing goods and services linked to modern slavery

Outcome Intermediate Indicator

outcome

Government 1.1 1.1.2 Public procurement policies and systems exist to minimise the risk of governments
sources goods and Government purchasing products tainted by forced labour
services which are regulates its supply 1.1.3 Annual reports on forced labour in government supply chains are produced and
slavery free chains against publically available
forced labour

Businesses source 1.2 1.2.1 Laws or policies require businesses to report on their actions to implement risk
goods and services Governments minimisation policies
which are slavery regulate businesses 1.2.2 Laws or policies require businesses to have transparent, risk-minimisation
free against use of strategies in place that will identify and respond to a case of modern slavery in
forced labour their supply chains
1.2.3 Governments implement a responsible investment reporting requirement for
investment funds and banks head-quartered in their country to ensure that
investment does not support modern slavery
1.2.4 Laws are in place that make it a criminal offence for Company Directors or
companies who fail to prevent modern slavery being utilised in their business’ first
tier supply chain

Note: Numbering reflects numbering in the government response database available at www.globalslaveryindex.org.

174 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

Children begging and selling flowers and other goods at traffic lights are a common feature of Indian cities. “I was
forced to do begging and still begging with the others….. I can’t say anything to you because I am in constant fear.
I am threatened by my employer not to open my mouth to anybody otherwise I will be punished severely.”
(Survey respondent, 2016)
Photo Credit, Steve McCurry

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 175

ENDNOTES
Woman works at a hand rolled cigarette (locally called a bidi)
factory in Haragach, Bangladesh. Workers labour from dawn
to dusk making bidis filled with tobacco flakes, earning very
little money and in hazardous conditions which can damage
their health.  
Photo Credit, GMB Akash
 ENDNOTES - Introduction and Global Findings
Introduction
1 
The Walk Free Foundation has chosen to use the term IS (Islamic
State) recognising the group are known by different terms, includ-
ing, but not limited to, Daesh, ISIL (Islamic State of Iraq and the
Levant), ISIS (Islamic State in Iraq and Syria), and ISWK (Islamic
State Wilayat Khorasan, also ISIL-K).
2 
Gallup Inc. is an international research-based company:http://
www.gallup.com/home.aspx
3 
An assessment of government responses was not conducted in Af-
ghanistan, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Syria and Yemen due to ongoing
conflict.
4 
Kevin Bales, Olivia Hesketh, Bernard Silverman, 'Modern Slavery
in the UK: How Many Victims?’ Significance (Royal Statistical
Society), June 2015, pp. 16-21.
5 
Van Dijk, J. J.M and P.G.M. Van der Heijden, 'On the potential of
Multiple Systems Estimation for estimating the number of victims
of human trafficking', Research Brief, No 1, Vienna: UNODC, May
2016.
6 
Johnson, K. et al., 'Association of Sexual Violence and Human
Rights Violations With Physical and Mental Health in Territories
of the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo,' Journal of
the American Medical Association, 304, 5, pp.553-62 (2010). 14 
Kevin

Bales, Blood and Earth: Modern Slavery, Ecocide, and the Se-
cret to Saving the World, (Speigel and Grau/Random House, 2016).
7 
Kevin Bales, Blood and Earth: Modern Slavery, Ecocide, and the Se-
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8 
'Islamic State (ISIS) releases pamphlet on female slaves', MEMRI's
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pamphlet-on-female-slaves.html
178 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
Global Findings
9 '
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sion of Inquiry on Human Rights in the Democratic People's
Republic of Korea, (United Nations, 2014), p.6, accessed
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Pages/CommissionInquiryonHRinDPRK.aspx
10 
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11 
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Slavery in the UK: How many victims?,” Significance (Journal of
the Royal Statistical Society), (June, 2015).
12 
These were identified from the Fragile States Index — see method-
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nation.
13 
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dawn raids', Leicester Mercury, November 13, 2015, accessed
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lice-unit-arrests-people-dawn/story-28164533-detail/story.html
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18 
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Trafficking', Bloomberg, November 3, 2014:http://www.bloomberg.
com/news/articles/2014-11-03/singapore-passes-its-first-law-
against-human-trafficking
ENDNOTES - Regional Studies
Asia Pacific Esther Htusan and Margie Mason, 'More than 2,000 Enslaved
17 

Fishermen Rescued in 6 Months', Associated Press, September 17,

1 
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by Child Labour or Forced Labour, (United States Department of
f237e49bf8fe59d47fa3515b0/more-2000-enslaved-fishermen-res-
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cued-6-months
ilab/reports/pdf/tvpra_report2014.pdf
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18 
2 
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c30e3f5a9a0b2/ap-global-supermarkets-selling-shrimp-peeled-
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3 
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19 
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20 
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22 
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workers-in-Hong-Kong.pdf, ; see also: Joe Henley, 'Domestic Kyla Ryan, 'The Women Who Escape From North Korea', The
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es/2015/02/17/2003611746 Ana Anand, 'India's Bride Trafficking Fuelled by Skewed
25 

8 
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9 
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source=leadCarousel Discussion of the Committee on the Rights of the Child: Digital

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10 
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27 

workers-tell-of-abuses-on-malaysian-plantations-1437933321 tion', Philippines Official Gazette, February 18, 2014, last modified
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11 
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28 

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12 
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sionInquiryonHRinDPRK.aspx
ed/documents/countrystudies/othercountries/vietnam/CountryS-
tudyVietnam2015.pdf World Report 2016, (Human Rights Watch, 2016), pp.428-430,
29 

accessed 21/04/2016:https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/
Declan Croucher, 'Solutions: How Patagonia is Addressing Forced
13 
world_report_download/wr2016_web.pdf
Labour in its Supply Chain', Verite, accessed 12/05/2016:http://
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30 

says', The Guardian, October 29, 2015, accessed 20/04/2016:http://

As above.
14 
www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/29/north-korea-workers-
Elaine Pearson et al., The Mekong Challenge - Underpaid, Over-
15 
forced-labour-abroad-un-report
worked and Overlooked: The Realities of Young Migrant Workers in
As above.
31 
Thailand (Volume One) (International Labour Organization, 2006),
p.10, accessed 13/05/2016; http://www.ilo.org/asia/whatwedo/ Holly Falon, 'North Korea turning to human trafficking for foreign
32 

publications/WCMS_BK_PB_67_EN/lang--en/index. see also Ian currency', Market Watch, May 19, 2015, accessed 12/04/2016:http://
Urbina, 'Sea Slaves: The Human Misery That Feeds Pets and Live- www.marketwatch.com/story/north-korea-turning-to-hu-
stock', New York Times, July 27, 2015, accessed 13/05/2016:htm, man-trafficking-for-foreign-currency-2015-05-18
http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/27/world/outlaw-ocean-thai- 'North Korea putting thousands into forced labour abroad, UN
33 

land-fishing-sea-slaves-pets.html,; see also 'Seafood from Slaves: says', The Guardian, October 29, 2015, accessed 20/04/2016:http://
An AP Investigation Helps Free Slaves in the 21st Century', Associ- www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/29/north-korea-workers-
ated Press, last accessed April 5, 2016, http://www.ap.org/explore/ forced-labour-abroad-un-report
seafood-from-slaves/
Esther Htusan and Margie Mason, 'More than 2,000 enslaved
34 

International Labour Office, Caught at Sea: Forced Labour and

16 
fishermen rescued in six months', Associated Press, 17/09/2015,
Trafficking in Fisheries, (International Labour Organization, accessed 19/04/2016:http://bigstory.ap.org/article/ceecf8d-
Special Action Programme to Combat Forced Labour, 2013), pp. f237e49bf8fe59d47fa3515b0/more-2000-enslaved-fishermen-res-
15, 19–20, accessed 12/04/2016:http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/ cued-6-months
forced-labour/publications/WCMS_214472/lang--en/index.html;
"Seafood from Slaves: An AP Investigation Helps Free Slaves in
the 21st Century", Associated Press: http://www.ap.org/explore/
seafood-from-slaves/

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 179

 35 
Paul Dillon, 'Over 500 New Human Trafficking Victims Identified Kevin Bales, Blood and Earth: Modern Slavery, Ecocide, and the Se-
57 

in Indonesia since Benjina 'Slave Fisheries' Exposed', Inter- cret to Saving the World, (Speigel and Grau/Random House, 2016).
national Organisation for Migration, March 8, 2015, accessed As above.
58 
14/04/2016:https://weblog.iom.int/over-500-new-human-traffick-
ing-victims-identified-indonesia-benjina-%E2%80%98slave-fish- "Myanmar floods: Food security and livelihoods still at risk,
59 

eries%E2%80%99-exposed recovery must focus on building resilience for future disasters",

Reliefweb, accessed April 12, 2016,http://reliefweb.int/report/
36 
As above. myanmar/myanmar-floods-food-security-and-livelihoods-still-
37 
Personal communication. risk-recovery-must-focus-building
38 
As above. "Viet Nam: Drought and Saltwater intrusion – Emergency
60 

39 
Paul Dillon, 'Over 500 New Human Trafficking Victims Identified Plan of Action DREF operation no MDRVN013", Reliefweb,
in Indonesia since Benjina 'Slave Fisheries' Exposed', Inter- accessed April 12, 2016,http://reliefweb.int/report/viet-nam/
national Organisation for Migration, March 8, 2015, accessed viet-nam-drought-and-saltwater-intrusion-emergency-plan-ac-
14/04/2016:https://weblog.iom.int/over-500-new-human-traffick- tion-dref-operation-no
ing-victims-identified-indonesia-benjina-%E2%80%98slave-fish- Silvia di Gaetano, 'How to Solve Southeast Asia's Refugee Crisis',
61 

eries%E2%80%99-exposed The Diplomat, September 28, 2015, accessed 12/04/2016:http://

40 
Personal communication. thediplomat.com/2015/09/how-to-solve-southeast-asias-refugee-
crisis/
41 
Paul Dillon, 'Over 500 New Human Trafficking Victims Identified
in Indonesia since Benjina 'Slave Fisheries' Exposed', Inter- Thomas Fuller and Joe Cochrane, 'Rohingya Migrants from
62 

national Organisation for Migration, March 8, 2015, accessed Myanmar, Shunned by Malaysia, are Spotted Adrift in Andaman
14/04/2016:https://weblog.iom.int/over-500-new-human-traffick- Sea', The New York Times, May 14, 2015, accessed 11/04/2015: ; see
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42 
Personal communication. deshi-migrants-andaman-sea.html?_r=0, http://www.bbc.com/
43 

As above. news/world-asia-32740637
44 
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
63 

the Pacific, Economic and Social Survey of Asia and the Pacific 2015, in Persons Report: Philippines Country Narrative, (United States
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unescap.org/sites/default/files/Economic%20and%20Social%20 www.state.gov/documents/organization/243561.pdf
Survey%20of%20Asia%20and%20the%20Pacific%202015.pdf "Freedom Partnership to End Modern Slavery", The Salvation
64 

45 
As above. Army, last accessed April 28, 2016,http://endslavery.salvos.org.au/
46 
"Afghanistan Unemployment Rate", Trading Economics, last ac- about/
cessed April 13, 2016,http://www.tradingeconomics.com/afghani- Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Traf-
65 

stan/unemployment-rate ficking in Persons Report: Papua New Guinea Country Narrative,

47 
"Unemployment, youth total (% of total labour force ages 15–24)", (United States Department of State, 2015), p. 276, accessed
World Bank Data, last accessed April 12, 2016,http://data.world- 04/04/2016:http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/243561.
bank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.1524.ZS pdf
48 
Child Soldiers International, Under the radar: Ongoing recruitment Fiona David and Reginald Ramos, 'The Bali Process: Responding
66 

and use of children by the Myanmar army, (Child Soldiers Interna- to the Challenges of Modern Slavery', The Australian Outlook,
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diers.org/research_report_reader.php?id=804 fairs.org.au/australian_outlook/the-bali-process-responding-to-
the-challenges-of-modern-slavery/
49 
R.W Dellinger, 'Human trafficking account: the Philippines:
Escaping twice from domestic servitude', Angelus News, March "Sixth Regional Ministerial Conference, Bali, Indonesia, 23 March
67 

17, 2016, accessed 04/04/2016:http://www.angelusnews.com/ 2016", The Bali Process, accessed April 20, 2016,http://www.balip-
news/local/human-trafficking-account-the-philippines-escap- rocess.net/ministerial-conferences-and-senior-officials-meetings
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68 

50 
Sarah L. Bhatia, 'Overseas Filipino Workers become economic he-
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51 
Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: Philippines Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), p. 279, accessed 03/04/2016:http://
69 
last accessed 28/04/2016: ; see also: Heather Hamilton, 'South
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Child%20Marriage%20Brochure_20Nov14(final)-2%20(1).pdf
Asian Forum of Parliamenterians on Population and Development

www.state.gov/documents/organization/243561.pdf (AFPPD), South Asia parliamentarians' Meeting on Child Marriage:

Accelerating our Collective Efforts to End Child Marriage, (Asian
52 
'10 trafficking Filipinas rescued in Iraqi Kurdistan', The Inquirer, Forum of Parliamenterians on Population and Development,
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istan ing-on-child-marriage.pdf
53 
Impact of Livelihood Recovery Initiatives on Reducing Vulnera- United Nations Population Fund and United Nations Children's
70 
bility to Human Trafficking and Illegal Recruitment: Lessons from Emergency Fund, Mapping of Child Marriage Initiatives in South
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livelihood.pdf South%20Asia%281%29.pdf
54 
"Training helps Filipino police officer uncover human traffick- As above, pp. 21-25
71 
ing case", United Nations Population Fund, last modified June 18,
2014,http://www.unfpa.org/news/training-helps-filipino-po- As above, p. 27
72 

lice-officer-uncover-human-trafficking-case As above, p. 31.

73 

55 
'Nepal Earthquake: More than 160 trafficked Nepali's rescued 'Bangladesh: Girls Damaged by Child Marriage', Human Rights
74 

by India in aftermath of quake', ABC News, February 15, 2016, Watch, June 9, 2015, accessed 21/04/2016:https://www.hrw.org/
accessed 12/04/2016:http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-02-15/ne- news/2015/06/09/bangladesh-girls-damaged-child-marriage
pal-earthquakes-cause-spike-in-human-trafficking/7168398
56 
Jason Burke, 'Indian gangs found trafficking women from
earthquake-hit Nepal', The Guardian, July 31, 2015, accessed
01/04/2016:http://www.theguardian.com/law/2015/jul/30/indi-
an-gangs-trafficking-women-nepal-earthquake

180 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Regional cont.

United Nations Population Fund and United Nations Children's

75 
Europe
Emergency Fund, Mapping of Child Marriage Initiatives in South
Eurostat, Trafficking in Human Beings, (European Union, 2015), p.
1 
Asia, (United Nations, 2016), p. 21–25, accessed 21/04/2016:http://
39, accessed 16/03/2016: — while published in 2015, this report
asiapacific.unfpa.org/sites/asiapacific/files/pub-pdf/FINAL-
reflects data collected from 2010–2012.https://ec.europa.eu/an-
Mapping%20of%20Child%20Marriage%20Initiatives%20in%20
ti-trafficking/sites/antitrafficking/files/eurostat_report_on_traf-
South%20Asia%281%29.pdf
ficking_in_human_beings_-_2015_edition.pdf
'Thailand: Mass Graves of Rohingya Found in Trafficking Camp',
76 
Eurostat, Trafficking in Human Beings, (European Union, 2015),
2 
Human Rights Watch, May 1, 2015, accessed 27/04/2016: ; see also
p. 39, accessed 16/03/2016:https://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/
M. Bashir Uddin, 'Human Trafficking in South Asia: Issues of Cor-
sites/antitrafficking/files/eurostat_report_on_trafficking_in_hu-
ruption and Human Security', International Journal of Social Work
man_beings_-_2015_edition.pdf, ; see also United Nations Office
and Human Services Practice, 2, 5, pp.18-27 (2014).https://www.
on Drugs and Crime, Trafficking in Persons; Analysis on Europe,
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trafficking-camp, http://www.hrpub.org/download/20140305/
unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking–/Trafficking_in_Per-
IJRH3-19201859.pdf
sons_in_Europe_09.pdf
Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
77 
Eurostat, Trafficking in Human Beings, (European Union, 2015),
3 
in Persons Report: India Country Narrative, (United States Depart-
p. 39, accessed 16/03/2016:https://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/
ment of State, 2015), p. 185, accessed 15/04/2016:http://www.state.
sites/antitrafficking/files/eurostat_report_on_trafficking_in_hu-
gov/documents/organization/243559.pdf
man_beings_-_2015_edition.pdf
Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Traf-
78 
As above
4 
ficking in Persons Report: Papua New Guinea Country Narrative,
(United States Department of State, 2015), p. 275, accessed Charles Sennott, 'Syrian youth come of age through five years of
5 

04/04/2016:http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/243561. war', PBS Newshour, March 2015, accessed 18/03/2016:http://www.

pdf pbs.org/newshour/updates/syrian-youth-come-of-age-through-
five-years-of-war/
As above, p. 110
79 

"Europol estimates 10,000 underage refugee children have gone

6 
World Report 2016, (Human Rights Watch, 2016), p.568, accessed
80 
missing", European Council on Refugees and Exiles, accessed
21/04/2016:https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/world_report_
21/04/2016:http://ecre.org/component/content/article/70-week-
download/wr2016_web.pdf
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"Govt to introduce code of practice for maid industry", Ejinsight,
81 
gee-children-have-gone-missing.html
last modified December 22, 2015, ; see also: Farsight, Modern
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7 
Slavery in East Asia: Protecting the rights and promoting the autono-
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my of domestic migrant workers from Indonesia and the Philippines,
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com/20151221-govt-introduce-code-practice-maid-industry/, Eurostat, Trafficking in Human Beings, (European Union, 2015),
8 

http://seefar.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Farsight-Modern- p. 35, accessed 16/03/2016:https://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/

Slavery-in-East-Asia.pdf sites/antitrafficking/files/eurostat_report_on_trafficking_in_hu-
man_beings_-_2015_edition.pdf
"Employment agency fined for overcharged job-seeker", Gov-
82 

ernment of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, accessed Andrea Bruce, 'Romania’s Disappearing Girls', Al Jazeera America,
9 

21/04/16:http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201601/22/ August 9, 2015, accessed 16/03/2016:http://projects.aljazeera.

P201601220264.htm com/2015/08/sex-trafficking-in-romania/index.html?utm_con-
tent=nobylines
Amir Hussain,'Singaporean couple convicted of starving maid
83 

whose weight dropped from 49kg to 29kg', The Straits Times, Trafficking in Persons to Europe for sexual exploitation, (Unit-
10 

March 23, 2016, accessed 21/04/2016:http://www.straitstimes.com/ ed Nations Office on Drugs and Crime), p. 3, accessed
singapore/courts-crime/singaporean-couple-convicted-of-starv- 21/04/2016:https://www.unodc.org/documents/publications/
ing-maid-whose-weight-dropped-from-49kg TiP_Europe_EN_LORES.pdf
'Abused maid in Singapore says she was punished in bizarre ways',
84  A. Oluwabiyi, 'Legal Response to Women Trafficking in Nige-
11 

The Star Online, accessed 21/04/2016:http://www.thestar.com.my/ ria', Frontiers of Legal Research 3, no.1 (March 2015): 2, doi:
news/regional/2016/04/07/abused-maid-in-singapore-says-she- 10.3968/6078.
was-punished-in-bizarre-ways/ National Referral Mechanism Statistics – End of Year Summary 2015,
12 

Kathy Quiano and Hilary Whiteman, 'Saudi Arabia executes sec-

85  (National Crime Agency, 2016), accessed 21/04/2016:http://www.
ond Indonesian maid in one week', CNN, April 17, 2015, accessed nationalcrimeagency.gov.uk/publications/national-referral-mecha-
12/04/2016:http://edition.cnn.com/2015/04/17/asia/indone- nism-statistics
sia-saudi-arabia-executions/ European Asylum Support Office, Nigeria Sex Trafficking of Wom-
13 

Astrid Zweynert, 'Indonesia's maid ban increases risk of human

86  en, (European Asylum Support Office, 2015), p. 33, accessed
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14 

ban-increases-risk-of-human-trafficking-campaigner-2015- last modified 27/1/2016,http://www.bbc.com/news/maga-

6?IR=T zine-35244148
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87 
Eurostat, Trafficking in Human Beings, (European Union, 2015),
15 

in Indonesia', The Jakarta Globe, March 19, 2016, accessed p. 23, accessed 21/04/2016:https://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/
11/04/2016:http://jakartaglobe.beritasatu.com/news/po- sites/antitrafficking/files/eurostat_report_on_trafficking_in_hu-
lice-bust-major-human-trafficking-syndicate-indonesia/ man_beings_-_2015_edition.pdf
Improving Protections for Migrant Domestic Workers in Australia,
88 
National Crime Agency, National Referral Mechanism Statistics
16 

(Walk Free Foundation and the Salvation Army, 2015), p. 2, – End of Year Summary 2015, (National Crime Agency 2016),
accessed 15/04/2016:http://endslavery.salvos.org.au/wp-content/ p. 4, accessed 28/03/2016:http://www.nationalcrimeagency.
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ers-in-Australia.pdf tics-end-of-year-summary-2015/file
Felicity Lawrence, 'Lithuanian gangmasters jailed in modern slav-
17 

ery and trafficking case', The Guardian, January 23, 2016, accessed
29/03/2016:http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/jan/22/
lithuanian-gangmasters-jailed-in-modern-slavery-and-traffick-
ing-case
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, Severe Labour
18 

Exploitation: workers moving within or into the European Union, (Eu-

ropean Union, 2015), p. 50, accessed 11/04/2016:http://fra.europa.
eu/sites/default/files/fra-2015-severe-labour-exploitation_en.pdf

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 181

 19 
"Improving Living Conditions for Marginalized Roma", The World Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings,
39 

Bank, last modified 18/03/2015:http://www.worldbank.org/en/ Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe
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20 
Kate D’Arcy and Isabelle Brodie, 'Roma Children and Young www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/docs/Reports/GRE-
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Relation to Child Sexual Exploitation', Social Inclusion 3, no.4 (July Andrea Bruce, 'Romania’s Disappearing Girls', Al Jazeera America,
40 

2015): 7,http://dx.doi.org/10.17645/si.v3i4.224 August 9, 2015, accessed 18/03/2016:http://projects.aljazeera.

21 
Centre for the Study of Democracy, Child Trafficking Among Vulner- com/2015/08/sex-trafficking-in-romania/index.html?utm_con-
able Groups, (Centre for the Study of Democracy, 2015), p. 30, tent=nobylines
accessed 20/04/2016:http://childrentrafficking.eu/wp-content/ Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
41 

uploads/2014/04/CONFRONT_Country-Report_Bulgaria.pdf in Persons Report: Lithuania Country Narrative, (United States De-

22 
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ni et al., Forced Marriage from a gender perspective, (European state.gov/documents/organization/243560.pdf
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42 

europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2016/556926/IPOL_ ing in Persons Report: Bosnia and Herzegovina Country Narra-

STU(2016)556926_EN.pdf tive, (United States Department of State, 2015), p. 95, accessed
23 
Alexia Sabbe et al., 'Forced marriage: an analysis of legislation and 29/03/2016:http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/243558.
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43 

Kenan Malik, 'The Failure of Multiculturalism', Foreign Affairs, Rights Resource Centre, accessed March 16, 2016,http://busi-
March/April 2015, accessed 13/04/2016:https://www.foreignaffairs. ness-humanrights.org/en/uk-modern-slavery-act-comes-into-ef-
com/articles/western-europe/failure-multiculturalism fect
24 
As above. Amelia Gentleman, 'UK firms must show proof they have no
44 

25 
Emma Psaila, Vanessa Leigh, Marilena Verbari, Sara Fiorenti- links to slave labour under new rules', The Guardian, October 29,
ni et al., Forced Marriage from a gender perspective, (European 2015,http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/28/uk-compa-
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45 

STU(2016)556926_EN.pdf Human Trafficking', Government of the Netherlands, December

26 
'Forced marriage jail first as Cardiff man sentenced', BBC 3, 2014, accessed 27/04/2016:https://www.government.nl/latest/
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wales-33076323 approach-to-human-trafficking
27 
"Forced Marriage Unit Statistics 2015", Foreign and Commonwealth "Signpost Trafficking", Government of the Netherlands, accessed
46 

Office, last modified 08/03/2016:https://www.gov.uk/government/ 27/04/2016:http://www.wegwijzermensenhandel.nl/

uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/505827/Forced_ 'On-Line Signpost to Help Victims in the Fight Against Human
47 

Marriage_Unit_statistics_2015.pdf Trafficking', Government of the Netherlands, June 18, 2015, accessed

28 
"Further reform efforts needed in Albania and Bosnia and 27/04/2016:https://www.government.nl/latest/news/2015/06/18/
Herzegovina, say MEPs", European Parliament News, accessed on-line-signpost-to-help-victims-in-the-fight-against-human-traf-
20/04/2016:http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/news- ficking
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48 

nia-and-Bosnia-Herzegovina-say-MEPs Roma children', The National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human

29 
"Greek unemployment rate", Trading Economics, accessed Beings and Sexual Violence Against Children, April 14, 2016, ac-
20/04/2016:http://www.tradingeconomics.com/greece/unemploy- cessed 27/04/2016:https://www.dutchrapporteur.nl/current/news/
ment-rate archief/new-report-national-rapporteur-concerned-about-syrian-
child-brides-and-roma-children.aspx?cp=64&cs=69412
30 
"Irregular Migrant, Refugee Arrivals in Europe Top One Million
in 2015: IOM", International Organisation for Migration, accessed 'The Number of Detentions for Human Trafficking Increased in
49 

18/03/2016:https://www.iom.int/news/irregular-migrant-refu- 2015', Government of the Netherlands,Febuary 5, 2016, accessed

gee-arrivals-europe-top-one-million-2015-iom 27/04/2016:https://www.government.nl/latest/news/2016/02/05/
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31 
"Mediterranean Update 20 April, 2016", International Organisation in-2015
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As above.
50 
32 
"Migratory Routes Map", Frontex, accessed 21/04/2016:http://fron-
tex.europa.eu/trends-and-routes/migratory-routes-map/ 'Opstelten: Task Force Strengthens and Broadens Approach to
51 

Human Trafficking', Government of the Netherlands, December

33 
"Refugees/ Migrants Emergency Response – Mediterranean", UN- 3, 2014, accessed 27/04/2016:https://www.government.nl/latest/
HCR, accessed 22/03/2016:http://data.unhcr.org/mediterranean/ news/2014/03/12/opstelten-task-force-strengthens-and-broadens-
regional.php approach-to-human-trafficking
34 
Liz Alderman, 'Smugglers Prey on Migrants Desperate to Find 'Manual for Experts on Multidisciplinary Cooperation Against
52 
Back Doors to Europe', The New York Times, March 11, 2016, Trafficking in Human Beings for Labour Exploitation', Government
accessed 28/03/2016:http://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/12/world/ of the Netherlands, January 18, 2016,accessed 27/04/2016:https://
europe/european-union-migrant-crisis-smuggling.html?_r=0 www.government.nl/documents/publications/2016/01/18/manu-
35 
Federica Marsi, 'Female refugees face sexual exploita- al-for-experts-on-multidisciplinary-cooperation-against-traffick-
tion in Greece', Al Jazeera, December 28, 2015, accessed ing-in-human-beings-for-labour-exploitation
11/04/2016:http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2015/12/fe- 'Registry of Slavery & Human Trafficking Statements Under UK
53 
male-refugees-face-sexual-exploitation-greece-151222191343353. Modern Slavery Act', Business & Human Rights Resource Centre,
html March 1, 2016, accessed 22/04/2016:http://business-humanrights.
36 
Liz Alderman, 'Smugglers Prey on Migrants Desperate to Find org/en/registry-of-slavery-human-trafficking-statements-un-
Back Doors to Europe', The New York Times, March 11, 2016, der-uk-modern-slavery-act
accessed 28/03/2016:http://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/12/world/ 'Reporting on Modern Slavery: The First Hundred Statements',
54 
europe/european-union-migrant-crisis-smuggling.html?_r=0 Ergon, March 2016, accessed 22/04/2016:http://www.ergonassoci-
37 
Nils Muižnieks, 'Human rights of refugee and migrant women ates.net/images/stories/articles/ergonmsastatement1.pdf
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38 
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Europe, accessed April 13, 2016,https://www.coe.int/t/dghl/moni-
toring/trafficking/Flags-sos_en.asp

182 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Regional cont.

Russia and Eurasia Ana Maria Buller, Hanni Stoklosa and Cathy Zimmerman, Labour
18 

Exploitation, Trafficking and Migrant Health: Multi-Country Findings

The Conditions of the North Korean Overseas Labor, (International
1 
on the Health Risks and Consequences of Migrant and Trafficked
Network for the Human Rights of North Korean Overseas Labor,
Workers, (International Labor Organisation, 2015), p. 108, ac-
2012), p. 19, accessed 19/04/2016:http://en.nksc.co.kr/wp-content/
cessed 11/04/2016:https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/
uploads/2014/08/INHL.pdf
labour_exploitation_trafficking_en.pdf
As above, p. 39.
2 
Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
19 

As above, p. 25.
3 
in Persons Report: Kazakhstan Country Narrative, (United States
Alternative Turkmenistan News, Spotlight on Turkmenistan: Wide-
4  Department of State, 2015), accessed 11/04/2016:http://www.state.
spread State-Orchestrated Forced Labour in Turkmenistan’s 2014 Cot- gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2015/243465.htm
ton Harvest, (Cotton Campaign, 2015), accessed 07/04/2016:http:// As above.
20 

www.cottoncampaign.org/uploads/3/9/4/7/39474145/stateforced-
Ana Maria Buller, Hanni Stoklosa and Cathy Zimmerman, Labour
21 
laborinturkmenistan2014_report_atn.pdf
Exploitation, Trafficking and Migrant Health: Multi-Country Findings
Uzbek-German Forum for Human Rights, The Coverup: White-
5 
on the Health Risks and Consequences of Migrant and Trafficked
washing Uzbekistan’s White Gold, (Cotton Campaign, 2015), p. 5, Workers, (International Labor Organisation, 2015), p. 107, ac-
accessed 11/04/2016:http://harvestreport2015.uzbekgermanforum. cessed 11/04/2016:https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/
org/pdf/harvestreport-2015.pdf labour_exploitation_trafficking_en.pdf
Alternative Turkmenistan News, Spotlight on Turkmenistan:
6 
As above.
22 

Widespread State-Orchestrated Forced Labour in Turkmeni-

As above.
23 
stan’s 2014 Cotton Harvest, (Cotton Campaign, 2015), p. 2,
accessed 07/04/2016:http://www.cottoncampaign.org/up- Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
24 

loads/3/9/4/7/39474145/stateforcedlaborinturkmenistan2014_re- in Persons Report: Armenia country narrative, (US Department of

port_atn.pdf, ; see also Uzbek-German Forum for Human Rights, State, 2015), accessed 20/04/2016:http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/
The Coverup: Whitewashing Uzbekistan’s White Gold, (Cotton Cam- tiprpt/countries/2015/243385.htm
paign, 2015), p. 41, accessed 11/04/2016:http://harvestreport2015. Organization for Security and Co-Operation in Europe, Forced
25 

uzbekgermanforum.org/pdf/harvestreport-2015.pdf, ; see also Uz- Labor and Labor Trafficking in Armenia: Pilot Study, (Organization
bek-German Forum for Human Rights, Silk Loop for Uzbek Farm- for Security and Co-Operation in Europe, 2015), p. 21, accessed
ers, (Cotton Campaign, 2015), p. 6, accessed 11/04/2016:http:// 11/04/2015:http://www.osce.org/yerevan/212571?download=true
www.cottoncampaign.org/uploads/3/9/4/7/39474145/silk-loop-
As above.
26 
for-uzbek-farmers.pdf
As above.
27 
As above.
7 

'Bride Kidnapping in Kyrgyzstan', Radio Free Europe, accessed

28 
Uzbek-German Forum for Human Rights, The Coverup: White-
8 
11/04/2016:http://www.rferl.org/content/bride-kidnapping-in-kyr-
washing Uzbekistan’s White Gold, (Cotton Campaign, 2015), p. 58,
gyzstan/25403604.html
accessed 11/04/2016:http://harvestreport2015.uzbekgermanforum.
org/pdf/harvestreport-2015.pdf,; see also Uzbek-German Forum Trafficking in Human Beings 2015 Edition, (Eurostat, 2015), Table 3,
29 

for Human Rights, Silk Loop for Uzbek Farmers, (Cotton Cam- p. 36, accessed 19/04/2016:https://ec.europa.eu/anti-trafficking/
paign, 2015), p. 9, pp. 14–15, accessed 11/04/2016: http://www. sites/antitrafficking/files/eurostat_report_on_trafficking_in_hu-
cottoncampaign.org/uploads/3/9/4/7/39474145/silk-loop-for-uz- man_beings_-_2015_edition.pdf
bek-farmers.pdf As above.
30 

As above, p.4.
9 
'Ukraine: Situation report No.28 as of 20 February 2015', Relief-
31 

Alternative Turkmenistan News, Spotlight on Turkmenistan:

10  Web, February 20, 2015, accessed 22/03/2016:http://reliefweb.int/
Widespread State-Orchestrated Forced Labour in Turkmeni- report/ukraine/ukraine-situation-report-no28-20-february-2015
stan’s 2014 Cotton Harvest, (Cotton Campaign, 2015), p. 8, Nadine Walicki and Vsevolod Kritskiy, Time to Act: Internal
32 

accessed 07/04/2016:http://www.cottoncampaign.org/up- Displacement on the Rise in Ukraine - Briefing Paper, (Internal Dis-
loads/3/9/4/7/39474145/stateforcedlaborinturkmenistan2014_re- placement Monitoring Centre, 2014), accessed: 17/03/2016:http://
port_atn.pdf, ; see also Uzbek-German Forum for Human Rights, www.internal-displacement.org/europe-the-caucasus-and-central-
The Coverup: Whitewashing Uzbekistan’s White Gold, (Cotton Cam- asia/ukraine/2014/time-to-act-internal-displacement-on-the-rise-
paign, 2015), p. 17, accessed 11/04/2016:http://harvestreport2015. in-ukraine
uzbekgermanforum.org/pdf/harvestreport-2015.pdf, ; see also
As above.
33 
Uzbek-German Forum for Human Rights, Silk Loop for Uzbek
Farmers, (Cotton Campaign, 2015), p. 9, accessed 11/04/2016 As above.
34 

http://www.cottoncampaign.org/uploads/3/9/4/7/39474145/silk- As above.
35 

loop-for-uzbek-farmers.pdf
'Ukraine: Rebels Subject Civilians to Forced Labor', Human Rights
36 

International Labour Organisation, Third Party Monitoring,

11 
Watch, September 4, 2016, accessed 17/03/2016:https://www.hrw.
of the use of child labour and forced labour during the Uzbeki- org/news/2014/09/04/ukraine-rebels-subject-civilians-forced-la-
stan 2015 Cotton Harvest: An assessment submitted to the World bor
Bank by the International Labour Office (ILO, 20 November
Ana Maria Buller, Hanni Stoklosa and Cathy Zimmerman, Labour
37 
2015), p. 3,http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/pubdocs/public-
Exploitation, Trafficking and Migrant Health: Multi-Country Findings
doc/2015/11/307241448038866033/Uzbek-2015-TPM-Re-
on the Health Risks and Consequences of Migrant and Trafficked
port-20112015.pdf
Workers, (International Labor Organisation, 2015), p. 94, accessed
Decent Work Country Programme of the Republic of Uzbekistan for
12 
11/04/2016:https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/labour_
2014–2016, (ILO, 2014), p. 4, accessed 19/04/2016:http://www.ilo. exploitation_trafficking_en.pdf
org/public/english/bureau/program/dwcp/download/uzbekistan.
As above.
38 
pdf
Migration Facts and Trends: South Eastern Europe, Eastern Europe
39 
'Ukraine: Rebels Subject Civilians to Forced Labour', Human Rights
13 
and Central Asia, (International Organisation for Migration, 2015)
Watch, September 4, 2014, accessed 11/04/2016:https://www.hrw.
p. 14, accessed 19/04/2016:https://publications.iom.int/system/
org/news/2014/09/04/ukraine-rebels-subject-civilians-forced-la-
files/pdf/migration_facts_and_trends_seeeca.pdf
bor
Eurasian Development Bank, Labour Migration, Remittances and
40 
As above.
14 
Human Development in Central Asia, (United Nations Development
Vitaly Shevchenko, 'Ukraine Conflict: Child Soldiers Join the
15 
Programme, 2015), p. 43, accessed 11/02/2016:http://www.eurasia.
Fight', BBC news November 26, 2014, accessed 11/04/2016:http:// undp.org/content/dam/rbec/docs/CA%20M&R%20HD%20
www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30134421 paper%20frozen%20ENG%20Layout.pdf
As above.
16 
As above, p. 17.
41 

As above.
17 
As above, pp. 11-12.
42 

As above, p.9.
43 

As above, p. 44.
44 

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 183

 45 
As above, p. 22. Sub Saharan Africa
46 
As above, p. 42. Lewis Slimelane, 'Swaziland is a trafficking hub – report', IOL
1 

47 
As above. News, November 18, 2014, accessed 21/04/2016:http://www.iol.co.
za/news/africa/swaziland-is-a-trafficking-hub---report-1782123
48 
Anti-Discrimination Centre, From Tajikistan to Russia: Vulner-
ability and Abuse of Migrant Workers and their Families, (Inter- 'Swaziland: Swazi Govt Misleads On Child Labour', All Africa,
2 

national Federation for Human Rights, 2014), p. 11, accessed January 20, 2015, accessed 21/04/2016:http://allafrica.com/sto-
17/03/2016:https://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/russie641uk2014hd.pdf ries/201501201394.html
49 
As above, pp. 17-22. Human Rights Council, Report of the Commission of Inquiry on
3 

Human Rights in Eritrea, (United Nations General Assembly, 2015),

50 
As above, p. 18.
pp. 13–14, accessed 21/04/2016:https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/
51 
As above, pp. 19-21. doc/UNDOC/GEN/G15/114/50/PDF/G1511450.pdf ?OpenEle-
52 
As above, pp. 19-20. ment
53 
As above, p. 20. As above. P. 12.
4 

54 
Eurasian Development Bank, Labour Migration, Remittances and United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, UNHCR Eligibil-
5 

Human Development in Central Asia, (United Nations Development ity Guidelines for Assessing the International Protection Needs of
Programme, 2015), p. 25, accessed 11/02/2016:http://www.eurasia. Asylum Seekers from Eritrea, (United Nations High Commissioner
undp.org/content/dam/rbec/docs/CA%20M&R%20HD%20 for Refugees, 2011), pp. 14–16, accessed 21/04/2016:http://www.
paper%20frozen%20ENG%20Layout.pdf refworld.org/docid/4dafe0ec2.html
55 
As above, p. 26. UK Border Agency, Operational Guidance Note: Eritrea, (Home
6 

Office, 2009), p. 9, accessed 21/04/2016:http://www.refworld.org/

56 
As above, p. 19.
docid/49c39c212.html
57 
Council of Europe, Reply from the Republic of Moldova to the Ques-
United Kingdom Home Office, Country and Information Guidance
7 
tionnaire for the evaluation of the implementation of the Council of
Eritrea: Illegal Exit, (Government of the United Kingdom, 2015),
Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by
pp. 7–8, accessed 21/04/2016:https://www.gov.uk/government/up-
the Parties Second evaluation round (Reply submitted on 11 Febru-
loads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/459486/Eritrea_-_Ille-
ary 2015), p. 9,https://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/
gal_Exit_-_v2_0e.pdf
Source/Public_R_Q/GRETA_2015_4_RQ_MDA_en.pdf
Hannah McNeish, 'South Sudan: women and girls raped as 'wages'
8 
58 
Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings,
for government-allied fighters', The Guardian, September 28,
Report submitted by the Georgian authorities on measures taken to
2015, accessed 21/04/2016: ; see also Tristan McConnell, 'The
comply with Committee of the Parties Recommendation CP(2012)5
rape camps of South Sudan,' AFP Correspondent, October 7, 2015,
on the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action
accessed 21/04/2016: ; see also Hannah McNeish, 'Reliving the
against Trafficking in Human Beings, (Council of Europe, 2014),
rape camps of South Sudan's civil war', Al Jazeera, September 29,
accessed 11/04/2016:https://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/
2015, accessed 21/04/2016:http://www.theguardian.com/glob-
trafficking/Docs/CommitteeParties/Reply_REC/CP_2014_20_RR_
al-development/2015/sep/28/south-sudan-women-girls-raped-
GEO_en.pdf
as-wages-for-government-allied-fighters, http://blogs.afp.com/
59 
"Armenia", Protection Project, accessed 11/04/2016:http://www. correspondent/?post/the-rape-camps-of-south-sudan, http://www.
protectionproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/Armenia.pdf aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2015/09/reliving-rape-camps-
60 
Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings, south-sudan-civil-war-150929121909936.html
Report submitted by the Georgian authorities on measures taken to Hannah McNeish, 'South Sudan: women and girls raped as 'wages'
9 

comply with Committee of the Parties Recommendation CP(2012)5 for government-allied fighters,' The Guardian, September 28,
on the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action 2015, accessed 21/04/16: ; see also Tristan McConnell, 'The rape
against Trafficking in Human Beings, (Council of Europe, 2014), camps of South Sudan,' AFP Correspondent, October 7, 2015,
accessed 11/04/2016:https://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/ accessed 21/04/2016:http://www.theguardian.com/global-devel-
trafficking/Docs/CommitteeParties/Reply_REC/CP_2014_20_RR_ opment/2015/sep/28/south-sudan-women-girls-raped-as-wages-
GEO_en.pdf for-government-allied-fighters, http://blogs.afp.com/correspon-
61 
As above. dent/?post/the-rape-camps-of-south-sudan
62 
As above. Hannah McNeish, 'Reliving the rape camps of South Sudan's civil
10 

war,' Al Jazeera, September 29, 2015, accessed 21/04/2016:http://

63 
As above.
www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2015/09/reliving-rape-
64 
This constitutes one of the three punishment options, along with camps-south-sudan-civil-war-150929121909936.html
imprisonment and exclusion from business, in Article 143 on
Hannah McNeish, 'South Sudan: women and girls raped as 'wages'
11 
Human Trafficking: Government of Georgia, 'Criminal Code of
for government-allied fighters,' The Guardian, September 28,
Georgia', 98, accessed 11/04/2016: ; see also Government of Ka-
2015, accessed 21/04/16: ; see also Tristan McConnell, 'The rape
zakhstan. Public Law No 167, 'The Criminal Code of the Republic
camps of South Sudan,' AFP Correspondent, October 7, 2015,
of Kazakhstan'. September 16, 1997, accessed 11/04/2016:http://
accessed 21/04/2016:http://www.theguardian.com/global-devel-
www.legislationline.org/download/action/download/id/4262/file/
opment/2015/sep/28/south-sudan-women-girls-raped-as-wages-
GE_CriminalCode_amDec2011_En.pdf, http://www.legisla-
for-government-allied-fighters, http://blogs.afp.com/correspon-
tionline.org/download/action/download/id/1681/file/ca1cfb8a-
dent/?post/the-rape-camps-of-south-sudan
67f8a1c2ffe8de6554a3.htm/preview
Neftalem Fikre Hailemeskel, 'Ethiopia: Human Traffick-
12 
65 
Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons, Traffick-
ing or Human Slavery,' All Africa, January 10, 2015, accessed
ing in Persons Report: Moldova Country Narrative, (United States
21/04/2016: ; see also Harriet Grant, 'Sinai slavery and torture
Department of State, 2015), accessed 11/04/2016:http://www.state.
survivors share their experiences', The Guardian, February 21,
gov/documents/organization/243560.pdf
2014, 21/04/16:http://allafrica.com/stories/201501120064.html,
66 
As above. http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/feb/20/
67 
As above. sinai-slavery-and-torture-survivors-share-their-experiences-israe-
li-ethiopian
International Labour Organisation/International Programme on
13 

Elimination of Child Labour (ILO/IPEC), Analytical Study on Child

Labour In Lake Volta Fishing in Ghana: as cited by Made in a Free
World:http://www.madeinafreeworld.com/ghana
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Global Report on
14 

Trafficking in Persons, (United Nations, 2014), p. 7, accessed

21/04/2016:https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/
glotip/GLOTIP_2014_full_report.pdf
As above.
15 

As above.
16 

184 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Regional cont.

'Documentary: Togo's Real Cinderellas', Jane La Bous, March 31,

17 
Child Marriage, Adolescent Pregnancy and Family Formation in
44 

2015, accessed 29/03/2016:http://janelabous.com/2015/03/docu- Central and West Africa, (United Nations Children's Fund, 2015),
mentary-togos-trafficked-cinderellas-tell-tales-of-modern-slav- pp. 14–28, accessed 03/02/2016:http://www.unicef.org/wcaro/
ery/ english/Child_Mariage_Adolescent_Pregnancy_and_Family_For-
'Benin/Togo: protecting migrating children, Tdh brings the
18  mation_in_WCA.pdf
media on board', Terre des Hommes, October 21, 2015, accessed As above.
45 

29/03/2016:http://www.tdh.ch/en/news/benin-togo-protect- A Profile of Child Marriage in Africa, (United Nations Children's

46 
ing-migrating-children-tdh-brings-media Fund, 2015), accessed 03/02/2016:http://www.unicef.org/wcaro/
'Documentary: Togo's Real Cinderellas', Jane La Bous, March 31,
19 
english/UNICEF-Child-Marriage-Brochure-low-Single%281%29.
2015, accessed 29/03/2016:http://janelabous.com/2015/03/docu- pdf
mentary-togos-trafficked-cinderellas-tell-tales-of-modern-slav- Global Emergency Overview: April 2016, (Assessment Capacities
47 
ery/ Project, 2016), pp. 3–96, accessed 14/04/2016:http://reliefweb.int/
As above.
20 
sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/geo%2012042016.pdf
As above.
21 
'Boko Haram: children among villagers burned to death in
48 

'Documentary: Togo's Real Cinderellas', Jane La Bous, March 31,

22  Nigeria attack', The Guardian, February 1, 2016, accessed
2015, accessed 29/03/2016:http://janelabous.com/2015/03/docu- 21/04/2016:http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/01/
mentary-togos-trafficked-cinderellas-tell-tales-of-modern-slav- boko-haram-attack-children-among-villagers-burned-to-death-
ery/ in-nigeria

Agence-France Presse, 'Burundi's child sex slaves: 'I feel like I have
23  Moki Edwin Kindzeka, 'Refugees Fleeing Boko Haram Spark
49 

been used and tossed away'', The Guardian, February 20, 2014,
accessed 07/04/2016:http://www.theguardian.com/global-develop-
ment/2014/feb/20/burundi-child-sex-slaves-prostitution
'Senegal: Decade of Abuse in Quranic Schools', Human Rights
24 
Humanitarian Crisis in Cameroon', Voice of America, December
17, 2015, accessed 21/04/2016:http://www.voanews.com/content/
humanitarian-crisis-as-boko-haram-refugees-stream-into-camer-
oon/3106733.html

Watch, April 20, 2015, accessed 07/04/2016:https://www.hrw.org/ 'Boko Haram: children among villagers burned to death in
50 

news/2015/04/20/senegal-decade-abuse-quranic-schools Nigeria attack', The Guardian, February 1, 2016, accessed

21/04/2016:http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/01/
As above.
25 
boko-haram-attack-children-among-villagers-burned-to-death-
As above.
26 
in-nigeria
As above.
27 
Radina Gigova, 'Boko Haram luring young people with
51 

"Democratic Republic of Congo", Office of the Special Representa-

28  loans, Nigerian military says', CNN, April 21, 2016, accessed
tive of the Secretary-General for Children in Armed Conflict, accessed 21/04/16:http://edition.cnn.com/2016/04/21/africa/nige-
April 7, 2016,https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/countries/ ria-boko-haram-loans-entrepreneurs/
democratic-republic-of-the-congo/ "HC statement at Security Council briefing on The Situation In
52 

As above.
29  Burundi 9 July", United Nations Office of the High Commissioner
for Human Rights, accessed 21/04/2016:http://www.ohchr.org/EN/
As above.
30 
NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=16221&LangID=E
Ludovica Iaccino, 'DRC child soldiers: Children grow up 'more
31 
Connor Gaffey, 'Watch: The Rise of Al-Shabaab in Somalia', News-
53 
comfortable with weapons than with books'', International Business week, March 30, 2016, accessed 11/04/2016:http://www.newsweek.
Times, October 30, 2016, accessed 07/04/2016:http://www.ibtimes. com/watch-rise-al-shabab-somalia-442173
co.uk/drc-child-soldiers-children-grow-more-comfortable-weap-
ons-books-video-1526518 Emma Graham-Harrison, 'The World Looks Away as Blood
54 

Flows in Burundi', The Guardian, April 10, 2016, accessed

'Hundreds of Children Released by Armed Groups in the Central
32 
11/04/2016:http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/apr/10/bu-
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55 

May 12, 2016, accessed 13/05/2016:http://www.cfr.org/global/

As above.
33 
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Ludovica Iaccino, 'Central African Republic child soldiers:
34 
tral-african-republic
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56 
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ment-1523775 tries/2015/243412.htm
Child Soldiers International, CHAD: Concerns about Chad's Child
35 
Global Overview 2015: People internally displaced by conflict and
57 
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As above, p. 2.
36 
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37 
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As above.
39 
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As above.
40  09/02/2016:https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/reo/2015/afr/
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As above.
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43 
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news%5D=345&cHash=be8f0df5525e2408606820daf1bac8b1

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 185

 63 
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69 
As above.
70 
As above.
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"Regional Mixed Migration 1st Quarter Trend Analysis 2015",
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72 
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74 
As above.
75 
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76 
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77 
As above, p. 22.
78 
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79 
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tries/2015/243418.htm
186 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
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80 
dracunculiasis', World Health Organisation, January 24, 2014, ac-
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'Chad: At War With Boko Haram', Al Jazeera, May 20, 2015, ac-
81 
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82 
accessed 21/04/2016:https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/africa/
somalia/report-somalia/
Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
83 
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84 
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85 
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Benin, Cape Verde, Djibouti, Eritrea, Gabon, Gambia, Lesotho,
86 
Malawi, Namibia, Senegal, South Africa, Sudan, Zimbabwe.
Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
87 
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88 
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The Middle East And North Africa
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1 
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2 
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4 
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5 
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Personal communication.
6 
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7 
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8 
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 Regional cont.

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9 
Samantha McCormack, Jacqueline Joudo Larsen, Hana Abul
28 

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29 

14/04/2016:http://www.savethechildren.org/atf/cf/%7B9def2e- See UNICEF Regional Gender Equality profiles:http://www.unicef.

30 
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31 
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11 
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'Hundreds of Mauritanian Women Trafficked to Saudi Ara-
12 
Samantha McCormack, Jacqueline Joudo Larsen, Hana Abul
32 
bia Trapped in 'Slavery'', Middle East Eye, September 30, 2015, Husn, The Other Migrant Crisis: Protecting Migrant Workers Against
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33 

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34 

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35 
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36 

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files/pdf/other_migrant_crisis.pdf, http://www.bbc.com/ Exploitation in the Middle East and North Africa, (IOM and the Walk
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37 

The Ugly Side of the Beautiful Game: Exploitation of Migrant Workers

13  Rights Watch, June 30, 2015, accessed 15/05/2016:https://www.
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38 

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14  November 1, 2015, accessed 14/04/2016:https://www.hrw.org/
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39 

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40 

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18 
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41 
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As above.
19 
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42 

Specifically Jordan, Lebanon and Egypt.

20 
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43 

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Samantha McCormack, Jacqueline Joudo Larsen, Hana Abul
25 

Husn, The Other Migrant Crisis: Protecting Migrant Workers Against

Exploitation in the Middle East and North Africa, (IOM and the Walk
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As above.
26 

Human Rights Watch World Report, (Human Rights Watch, 2015),

27 

accessed 14/04/2016:https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2015/
country-chapters/saudi-arabia

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 187

 The Americas Anastasia Moloney, 'Sex Trafficking 'Staggering’ in Illegal Latin
18 

American Gold Mines: Researchers', Reuters, March 30, 2016,

1 
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accessed 14/04/2016:http://www.reuters.com/article/us-latam-traf-
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accessed 12/04/2016:https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33200.pdf
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19 
2 
Richard Marosi, 'Hardship on Mexico’s Farms, a Bounty for U.S.
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Bradley Myles, 'The Town Where Boys are 'Groomed to Become
20 
3 
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21 
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5 
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Personal communication.
22 
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23 

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24 
7 
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25 
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12 
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29 
21/04/2016:http://www.coha.org/forced-prostitution-and-mod-
tions Children's Emergency Fund, 2013), p.4, accessed
ern-slavery-brazils-response/
21/03/2016:http://www.unicef.org/media/files/Child_Marriage_
13 
Verité, Research on Indicators of Forced Labor in the Supply Report_7_17_LR..pdf
Chain of Sugar in the Dominican Republic, (Verité, 2011), p. 9,
Anastasia Moloney, 'Child Marriage accepted in Brazil to escape
30 
accessed 21/04/2016: ; see also Amy Bracken, 'Blood, sweat and
abuse at home: researchers', Reuters, July 15, 2015, accessed
sugar: Trade deal fails Haitian workers on DR plantations', Al
21/04/2016:http://www.reuters.com/article/us-brazil-chil-
Jazeera America, July 16, 2015, accessed 12/04/2016; see also
dren-marriage-idUSKCN0PO2F520150715
Public Report of Review of U.S. Submission 2011–03 (Dominican
Republic), (United States Department of State, 2013), accessed "Child Marriage in Latin America and the Caribbean," Girls Not
31 

12/04/2016:http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent. Brides, accessed 21/04/16:http://www.girlsnotbrides.org/region/

cgi?article=2782&context=globaldocs;, http://america.aljazeera. latin-america-and-caribbean/
com/multimedia/2015/7/blood-sweat-and-sugar-trade-deal-fails- As above.
32 

haitian-workers-in-dr.htm, http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/pd-
Fernando Murillo, Migration and Urbanization Paths: Reshap-
33 
f/20130926DR.pdf
ing the Human Geography of Latin America and the Caribbean,
14 
Walk Free Foundation and Gallup, 2015 surveys. (International Organization for Migration, 2014), p. 5, accessed
15 
Colleen Owens et al., Understanding the Organization, Operation, 21/04/2016:https://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/our_work/ICP/
and Victimization Process of Labor Trafficking in the United States, MPR/WMR-2015-Background-Paper-FMurillo.pdf
(Urban Institute, 2014), p.xi, accessed 21/04/2016: ; see also Clare Ribando Seelke, Trafficking in Persons in Latin America
34 

"Home Page", Polaris, last accessed April 21, 2016,http://www. and the Caribbean, (Congressional Research Service, 2015), p. 4,
urban.org/research/publication/understanding-organization-op- accessed 12/04/2016:https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33200.pdf
eration-and-victimization-process-labor-trafficking-united-states,
Sheldon Zhang, Sex Trafficking in a Border Community: A Field
35 
http://polarisproject.org/
Study of Sex Trafficking in Tijuana, Mexico, (San Diego State Univ-
16 
Organised Crime and Illegally Mined Gold In Latin America, (Global eristy, 2011), accessed 21/04/2016:https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/
Alliance Against Transnational Organised Crime, 2016), pp. nij/grants/234472.pdf
28–29, accessed 13/05/2016: ; see also Risk Analysis of Indicators of
Personal communication.
36 
Forced Labour and Human Trafficking in Illegal Gold Mining in Peru
(Verité, 2013), last accessed 13/05/2016 ; see also International Clare Ribando Seelke, Trafficking in Persons in Latin America
37 

Labour Organization, 'Etude transfrontalière sur le travail des and the Caribbean, (Congressional Research Service, 2015), p.4,
enfants dans l’orpaillage.' As cited in A Poisonous Mix: Child Labor, accessed 12/04/2016:https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33200.pdf
Mercury, and Artisanal Gold Mining in Mali, (Human Rights Watch, Jasmine Garsd, 'In Central America, Human Smugglers
38 

2011). Entrap Women In Sex Trafficking', National Public Ra-

17 
As above, pp. 27, 29. dio, January 28, 2016, accessed 21/04/2016:http://www.npr.
org/2016/01/28/464744474/in-central-america-human-smug-
glers-entrap-women-in-sex-trafficking

188 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Regional cont.

Clare Ribando Seelke, Trafficking in Persons in Latin America

39 
Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
53 

and the Caribbean, (Congressional Research Service, 2015), p.4, in Persons Report: United States Country Narrative, (United States
accessed 12/04/2016: ; see also Fact Sheet: Children on the move Department of State, 2015), accessed 03/04/2016:http://www.state.
in Peru, (Terre des Hommes Suisse, 2012), accessed 13/04/2016: gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2015/index.htm
; see also Risk Analysis of Indicators of Forced Labor and Human Kate Swanson, 'Begging as a path to progress: Indigenous women
54 
Trafficking in Illegal Gold Mining in Peru, (Verité, 2014), accessed and children and the struggle for Ecuador's urban spaces'. (Ath-
21/04/2016:https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33200.pdf, http:// ens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2010). As cited in Puck,
destination-unknown.org/wp-content/uploads/DU-fact-sheets- G., 'The 'street children' of Latin America,' The Psychologist 28,
South-America-Peru.pdf, http://www.Verité.org/sites/default/files/ (2015), pp. 20–23:https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-28/
images/Indicators%20of%20Forced%20Labor%20in%20Gold%20 january-2015/street-children-latin-america
Mining%20in%20Peru_0.pdf
Personal communication.
55 
Bradley Myles, 'The town where boys are 'groomed to become
40 

pimps'', CNN, December 2, 2015, accessed 21/04/2016: ; see also Smuggling of migrants from the Northern Triangle to the United
56 

Nina Lakhani, 'Tenancingo: the small town at the dark heart of States, (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2012),
Mexico’s sex-slave trade', The Guardian, April 5, 2015, accessed accessed 21/04/2016:https://www.unodc.org/documents/toc/
21/04/2016:http://edition.cnn.com/2015/12/01/opinions/sex-traf- Reports/TOCTASouthAmerica/English/TOCTA_CACaribb_mi-
ficking-tenancingo-polaris/index.html, http://www.theguardian. grantsmuggling_to_US.pdf
com/world/2015/apr/05/tenancingo-mexico-sex-slave-trade-amer- Chen Jiang, 'Forced Prostitution and Modern Slavery: Brazil’s
57 

ica Response', Council on Hemispheric Affairs, April 6, 2015, accessed

"Paraguay", Transparency International, last accessed April 21,
41  21/04/2016: ; see also Eileen Mckinney, Argentina: Conditions,
2016,https://www.transparency.org/country/#PRY Issues and US Relations, (Nova Science Publishers, 2015).http://
www.coha.org/forced-prostitution-and-modern-slavery-bra-
Ioan Grillo, 'Why billionaire drug warlords in Latin America owe
42 
zils-response/
their power to white-collar crooks from the US', The Independent,
February 10, 2016, accessed 21/04/2016:http://www.independent. 'About 800 children from Central America to be housed in
58 

co.uk/news/world/americas/why-billionaire-drug-warlords-in- Dallas area', Al Jazeera America, December 10, 2015, accessed

latin-america-owe-their-power-to-white-collar-crooks-from-the- 21/04/2016:http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/12/10/hun-
us-a6863621.html dreds-of-immigrant-children-to-be-housed-in-dallas-area.html
'Highest Female Murder Stats in the World Logged in Latin Amer-
43  Sonia Nazario, 'The Refugees At Our Door', The New York Times,
59 

ica', Latin Post, February 15, 2016, accessed 21/04/2016: ; see also October 10, 2015, accessed 21/04/2016: ; see also Sonia Nazario,
Melissa Fleming, 'The other refugee crisis – women on the run 'Outsourcing a Refugee Crisis: U.S. Paid Mexico Millions to Target
from Central America', The Guardian, January 16, 2016, accessed Central Americans Fleeing Violence' Democracy Now, October 13,
21/04/2016:http://www.latinpost.com/articles/115102/20160215/ 2015, accessed 21/04/2016:http://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/11/
highest-female-murder-stats-world-logged-latin-america.htm, opinion/sunday/the-refugees-at-our-door.html?_r=0, http://www.
http://www.theguardian.com/global-development-profession- democracynow.org/2015/10/13/outsourcing_a_refugee_crisis_us_
als-network/2016/jan/16/the-other-refugee-crisis-women-on-the- paid
run-from-central-america As above.
60 

'Press Release - UNHCR warns of looming refugee crisis as women

44 
'Rights trampled for Indigenous Peoples across the Americas',
61 

flee Central America and Mexico', United Nations High Commis-
sioner for Refugees, 28 October, 2015, accessed 21/04/16:http://
www.unhcr.org/5630c2046.html
Pamela Constable, ''He forced me many times. I ran away, but he
45 
always found me again'', The Washington Post, January 31, 2016,
accessed 21/04/2016:https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/
social-issues/he-forced-me-many-times-i-ran-away-but-he-al-
ways-found-me-again/2016/01/31/78209ce2-bafa-11e5-99f3-
62 
Human Rights Watch, August 8 2015, accessed 21/04/2016: ; see
also Americas: indigenous people’s long struggle to defend their
rights in the Americas, (Amnesty International, 2014), accessed
21/04/2016:https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2014/08/
rights-trampled-indigenous-peoples-across-americas/, https://
www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/4000/amr010022014en.
pdf
Americas: indigenous people’s long struggle to defend their rights

184bc379b12d_story.html in the Americas, (Amnesty International, 2014), accessed

"Street-Based Commercial Sex," Polaris, accessed 21/04/16: ; see
46  21/04/2016:https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/4000/
also "Hotel and Motel-Based Commercial Sex", Polaris, accessed amr010022014en.pdf
21/04/16:https://traffickingresourcecenter.org/what-human-traf- '200 Indigenous People Rescued from Modern-Day Slavery in
63 

ficking/sex-trafficking/street-based-commercial-sex, https:// Mexico', teleSUR, March 17, 2015, accessed 21/04/2016:http://

traffickingresourcecenter.org/what-human-trafficking/sex-traf- www.telesurtv.net/english/news/200-Indigenous-People-Res-
ficking/hotelmotel-based-commercial-sex cued-from-Modern-Day-Slavery-in-Mexico-20150317-0021.html
Omar Martinez and Guadalupe Kelle, 'Sex Trafficking of LGBT
47 
As above.
64 

Individuals', Int Law News, 42, 4 (2014):http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih. Annie Kelly, 'The Faces of Modern Day Slavery', The Guardian,
65 
gov/pmc/articles/PMC4204396/ April 13, 2013, accessed 21/04/2016:http://www.theguardian.com/
Cynthia English and Johanna Godoy, 'Respect and Dignity for
48 
global-development/gallery/2013/apr/03/faces-modern-day-slav-
Women Lacking in Latin America', October 14, 2014, accessed ery-in-pictures
21/04/2014:http://www.gallup.com/poll/178427/respect-digni- Victoria Sweet, 'Trafficking in Native Communities', Indian
66 
ty-women-lacking-latin-america.aspx Country, May 24, 2015, accessed 21/04/2016:http://indiancountry-
Clare Ribando Seelke, Trafficking in Persons in Latin America and
49 
todaymedianetwork.com/2015/05/24/trafficking-native-communi-
the Caribbean, (Congressional Research Service, 2015), p. 4, ac- ties-160475
cessed 12/04/2016:https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33200.pdf 'Campaigners: Colombia's Displaced 'Highly Vulnerable' to
67 

Clare Ribando Seelke, Trafficking in Persons in Latin America

50 
Human Trafficking', Voice of America, October 30, 2015, accessed
and the Caribbean, (Congressional Research Service, 2015), p. 21/04/2016:http://www.voanews.com/content/colombia-displad-
4, accessed 12/04/2016: ; see also Amy Stillman, 'Transgender ed-highly-vulnerable-to-human-trafficking/3030845.html
migrants headed to the U.S. from Central America are especially 'Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women in Canada Could
68 
vulnerable', Salon, February 23, 2016, accessed 21/04/2016:https:// Number 4,000', The Guardian, February 17, 2016, accessed
www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33200.pdf, http://www.salon. 28/04/2016:http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/17/miss-
com/2016/02/23/migrating_to_the_us_is_already_risky_try_be- ing-and-murdered-indigenous-women-in-canada-could-num-
ing_a_transgender_migrant_partner/ ber-4000
Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
51 
Personal communication.
69 
in Persons Report: United States Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), accessed 03/04/2016:http://www.state. United States Congress, Public Law No 114–22, 'Justice for Victims
70 

gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2015/index.htm of Trafficking Act', May 29, 2015, accessed 12/04/2016:https://

www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/senate-bill/178/text/pl
'US failed to protect Central American kids', Al Jazeera America,
52 

January 29, 2016, accessed 21/04/2016:http://america.aljazeera.

com/articles/2016/1/29/us-failed-to-protect-refugee-children-
from-Central-America.html

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 189

 Regional cont.

71 
Government of Haiti, Public Law No CL/2014–103, 'La Loi Sur Argentina, Barbados, Brazil, Costa Rica, Haiti, Mexico, Nicaragua,
78 

la Lutte Contre la Traite de Personnes', June 2, 2014, accessed Panama, United States.http://www.theguardian.com/global-de-
12/04/2016:http://www.healthpolicyproject.com/pubs/740_Hai- velopment/2016/mar/02/brazil-loss-dirty-list-sparks-fears-work-
tiAntiTraffickingLawFINAL.pdf er-exploitation-olympic-games-international-labour-organisation
72 
Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
79 

in Persons Report: Argentina Country Narrative, (United States in Persons Report: Brazil Country Narrative, (United States Depart-
Department of State, 2015), accessed 12/04/2016:http://www.state. ment of State, 2015), accessed 21/04/2016:http://www.state.gov/
gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2015/243384.htm documents/organization/243558.pdf
73 
Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons, Traf-
80 

in Persons Report: Paraguay Country Narrative, (United States ficking in Persons Report: United States of America Country
Department of State, 2015), accessed 12/04/2016:http://www.state. Narrative, (United States Department of State, 2015), ac-
gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2015/243512.htm cessed 21/04/2016:http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/coun-
74 
Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking tries/2015/243559.htm
in Persons Report: Cuba Country Narrative, (United States Depart- State of California, Bill No 657, 'Transparency in Supply Chains
81 

ment of State, 2015), accessed 21/04/2016:http://www.state.gov/ Act', September 30, 2010, accessed 21/04/2016:http://www.leginfo.
documents/organization/243558.pdf ca.gov/pub/09-10/bill/sen/sb_0651-0700/sb_657_bill_20100930_
75 
As above. chaptered.pdf
76 
As above.
77 
Bruce Douglas, 'Brazil: Loss of dirty list sparks fears of worker
exploitation as Olympics near', The Guardian, March 2, 2016,
accessed 12/04/2016:http://www.theguardian.com/global-develop-
ment/2016/mar/02/brazil-loss-dirty-list-sparks-fears-worker-ex-
ploitation-olympic-games-international-labour-organisation

190 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

ENDNOTES - Selected Country Studies
Cambodia May Titthara and Alice Cuddy, 'The Shackles Of Abuse', The
20 

Phnom Penh Post, September 26, 2015, accessed 10/10/15:http://

State of the World’s Children in Numbers: Every Child Counts,
1 
www.phnompenhpost.com/post-weekend/shackles-abuse
(UNICEF, 2014), p. 78, accessed 08/10/15:http://www.unicef.org/
publications/index_71829.html As above.
21 

Just Married, Just a Child: Child Marriage in the Indo-Pacif-

2  Chhay Channyda, 'Abuse Fears Holding Up Workers Pact for
22 

ic Region, (Plan International Australia, July 2014), accessed Qatar', The Phnom Penh Post, September 19, 2015, accessed
07/10/15:https://www.plan.org.au/~/media/plan/documents/ 11/10/15:http://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/abuse-fears-
resources/plan_child_marriage_report_july_2014.pdf ?la=en holding-workers-pact-qatar
Personal communication.
3  Kristi Eaton, 'Maid in Cambodia’ Highlights Skills, Better Wages,'
23 

Women's Enews, January 27, 2015, accessed 12/10/15:http://wom-

Chab Dai, 'Coordinating Our Efforts Against Forced Marriage
4 
ensenews.org/story/equal-payfair-wage/150124/maid-in-cambo-
in China', Along the Paths of Justice, August 5, 2015, accessed
dia-highlights-skills-better-wages
07/05/16:http://chabdai.blogspot.com.au/2015/08/coordinat-
ing-our-efforts-against-forced.html Victim Identification Procedures in Cambodia: A Brief Study of Human
24 

Trafficking Victim Identification in the Cambodian Context, (United

Personal communication.
5 
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2013, pp. 41- 43, accessed
Khuon Narim and Simon Henderson, 'Nine Cambodian Women
6 
08/10/15:http://www.unodc.org/documents/southeastasiaandpa-
Seek Refuge in China', The Cambodia Daily, November 29, 2014, cific/Publications/2013/NRM/FINAL_Draft_UNODC_report_
accessed 09/10/15:https://www.cambodiadaily.com/news/nine- Cambodia_NRM.pdf
more-cambodian-women-seek-refuge-in-china-73318/
Donald J. Brewster, 'The Fight Against Child Sex Trafficking
25 

Personal communication.
7 
Strategic Information Response Network, Mekong Region: Country
8 
Datasheets: Human Trafficking, (United Nations Inter-Agency Proj-
ect on Human Trafficking, 2010), accessed 10/10/15:http://www.
no-trafficking.org/reports_docs/siren/uniap_2010ht_datasheets.
pdf
26 
in Cambodia is Far from Over,' Washington Post, May 21, 2015,
accessed 09/10/15:https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/
the-fight-against-child-sex-trafficking-in-cambodia-is-far-from-
over/2015/05/21/743c8e44-ff19-11e4-805c-c3f407e5a9e9_story.
html
Glenn Miles and Heather Blanch, What About Boys? An Initial

Victim Identification Procedures in Cambodia: A Brief Study of Human

9  Exploration of Sexually Exploited Boys in Cambodia September,
Trafficking Victim Identification in the Cambodian Context, (United (Love146, Chab Dai, First Step and The Hard Places Community,
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2013, pp. 41- 43, accessed 2011), accessed 08/10/16:http://love146.org/wp-content/uploads/
08/10/15:http://www.unodc.org/documents/southeastasiaandpa- drupal_migrated/What%20About%20Boys_Miles%26Blanch.pdf
cific/Publications/2013/NRM/FINAL_Draft_UNODC_report_ Glenn Miles and Heather Blanch, What About Boys? An Initial
27 

Cambodia_NRM.pdf Exploration of Sexually Exploited Boys in Cambodia September,

Kate Day, (Re)integration of Cambodian Trafficked Men: Trends in
10 
Trafficking and Available Aftercare Services, (Hagar International,
2015), p. 4, accessed 08/10/16:https://hagarinternational.org/inter-
national/files/Reintegration-of-Cambodian-trafficked-men-2015.
pdf
International Labour Organisation, Employment Practices and
11 
(Love146, Chab Dai, First Step and The Hard Places Communi-
ty, 2011), accessed 08/10/16: ; Sex, Abuse and Childhood, (World
Vision, 2014), p. 18, accessed 30/03/2016:http://love146.org/
wp-content/uploads/drupal_migrated/What%20About%20Boys_
Miles%26Blanch.pdf, http://www.worldvision.at/sites/default/files/
Sex-Abuse-Childhood-Report.pdf

Working Conditions in Thailand’s Fishing Sector, (ILO Tripartite Chaiyot Yongcharoenchai, 'Young Lives for Sale', Bangkok Post,
28 

Action to Protect the Rights of Migrant Workers within and from June 29, 2014, accessed 07/10/15:http://www.bangkokpost.com/
the Greater Mekong Subregion, 2013), accessed 07/05/16:http:// print/417880/
www.ilo.org/dyn/migpractice/docs/184/Fishing.pdf "Residential Care in Cambodia", UNICEF, 2011, accessed
29 

Ethan Harfenist and Taing Vida, '59 Trafficked Fishermen Finally

12  07/10/15:http://www.unicef.org/cambodia/Fact_sheet_-_residen-
Back in Kingdom', The Phnom Penh Post, May 12, 2015, accessed tial_care_Cambodia.pdf
09/10/15:http://www.phnompenhpost.com/national/59-traf- The Ministry of Social Affairs, Veterans and Youth Rehabilitation,
30 

ficked-fishermen-finally-back-kingdom With the Best Intentions – A Study of Attitudes Towards Residential

Better Factories Cambodia, Better Factories Cambodia: Garment
13  Care in Cambodia, (Royal Government of Cambodia and UNICEF,
Industry 32nd Compliance Synthesis Report, (International Labour 2011), accessed 08/10/15:http://www.unicef.org/cambodia/Study_
Organisation and International Finance Corporation, 2015), ac- Attitudes_towards_RC-English.pdf
cessed 09/10/15:http://betterfactories.org/cambodia/wp-content/ Personal communication.
31 

uploads/2015/07/SR32-BFC-Final-after-PAC_Eng.pdf
"The World Factbook: Cambodia", Central Intelligence Agency,
32 

Cambodian Ministry of Industry and Handicrafts; Department of

14 
accessed 07/10/15:https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-
Labor Inspectorate, Ministry of Labor and Vocational Training; world-factbook/geos/cb.html
Better Factories Cambodia, Thirty-first Synthesis Report on Working
Victim Identification Procedures in Cambodia: A Brief Study of Human
33 
Conditions in Cambodia’s Garment Sector, (International Labour
Trafficking Victim Identification in the Cambodian Context, (United
Organisation, 2014); see also: Better Factories Cambodia: Garment
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2013, pp. 41- 43, accessed
Industry 32nd Compliance Synthesis Report, (nternational Labour
08/10/15:http://www.unodc.org/documents/southeastasiaandpa-
Organisation and International Financial Cooperation, June
cific/Publications/2013/NRM/FINAL_Draft_UNODC_report_
2015), accessed 09/10/16:http://betterfactories.org/cambodia/
Cambodia_NRM.pdf
wp-content/uploads/2015/07/SR32-BFC-Final-after-PAC_Eng.pdf
"Poverty Head Count Ratio at $2 a day (PPP) (% of Population)
34 
Aphichoke Kotikula, Milad Pournik, Raymond Robertson,
15 
2014", World Bank, accessed 07/10/15:http://data.worldbank.org/
Interwoven: How the Better Work Program Improves Job and
indicator/SI.POV.2DAY/countries/1W-KH?display=graph
Life Quality in the Apparel Sector, (World Bank, 2015), p. 13,
accessed 10/10/15:https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/han- "Rural Population % of Population", World Bank, accessed
35 

dle/10986/22699 07/10/15:http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.RUR.TOTL.ZS/
countries/1W-KH?display=graph
Better Factories Cambodia, Better Factories Cambodia: Garment
16 

Industry 32nd Compliance Synthesis Report (International Labour "Children’s Rights Monitoring Office", LICADHO, accessed
36 

Organisation and International Finance Corporation, 2015), ac- 07/10/15:https://www.licadho-cambodia.org/programs/childrenof-

cessed 10/10/15:http://betterfactories.org/cambodia/wp-content/ fice.php
uploads/2015/07/SR32-BFC-Final-after-PAC_Eng.pdf Ministry of Tourism, "Tourisms Statistics Report," (Kingdom of
37 

Work Faster or Get Out: Labour Rights Abuses in Cambodia’s

17  Cambodia, 2015), accessed 07/10/15:http://www.nagacorp.com/
Garment Industry, (Human Rights Watch, 2015), accessed eng/ir/tourism/tourism_statistics_201508.pdf
08/10/15:http://features.hrw.org/features/HRW_2015_reports/ Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking In Perso,s ,Trafficking
38 

Cambodia_Garment_Workers/index.html In Persons Report: Cambodia Country Narrative,"(United States

As above.
18  Department of State, 2015),http://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/ti-
prpt/2015/index.htm
Sen David, 'Six Maids Back from Malaysia', The Phnom Penh Post,
19 

August 17, 2015, accessed 09/10/15:http://www.phnompenhpost.

com/national/six-maids-back-malaysia

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 191

 39 
Cambodian: Corruption Concerns Amid Hopes for the Future Dominican Republic
(Transparency International, 2015), accessed 07/10/15:http://www.
'Busting Sex Tourists in Dominican Republic', Reuters, January
1 
transparency.org/news/feature/cambodia_corruption_concerns_
4, 2015, accessed 10/03/2016:http://www.newsweek.com/bust-
amid_hopes_for_the_future
ing-sex-tourists-dominican-republic-318735
40 
World Report 2015: Cambodia(Human Rights Watch, 2015),
As above.
2 
accessed 07/10/15:https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2015/coun-
try-chapters/cambodia Travel & Tourism: Economic Impact 2015 Dominican Re-
3 

public, (World Travel & Tourism Council, 2015), accessed

41 
Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking In Persons, Trafficking
10/03/2016:http://www.wttc.org/-/media/files/reports/econom-
In Persons Report: Cambodia Country Narrative, (United States
ic%20impact%20research/countries%202015/dominicanrepub-
Department of State, 2015), acccessed 07/10/15:http://www.state.
lic2015.pdf
gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2015/index.htm
International Justice Mission, Commercial Sexual Exploitation of
4 
42 
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192 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016


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83 

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ana/story-6G8b4S4QHqngAEGIeXge2J.html

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 195

 94 
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102 
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111 
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113 
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196 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
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114 
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115 
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116 
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117 
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118 
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119 
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120 
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121 
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122 
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123 
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124 
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1 
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2 
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3 
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gov.iq/trash/assets/investmentoverview.pdf
4 
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5 
As above.
6 
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7 
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8 
As above.
9 
'Iraq: ISIS Escapees Describe Systematic Rape, Yezidi Survivors
in Need of Urgent Care', Human Rights Watch, April 14, 2015, ac-
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'Islamic State (ISIS) Releases Pamphlet on Female Slaves', MEMRI's
10 
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pamphlet-on-female-slaves.html
Personal communication.
11 
 Country cont.

Christoph Wilcke, 'No Child's Play: Kids Fighting One An-

12 
Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights, Convention
28 

other in Iraq Conflict', Human Rights Watch, October 30, 2015, on the Rights of the Child, Committee on the Rights of the Child: Con-
accessed 12/01/16: ; see also, Office of the High Commissioner cluding observations on the report submitted by Iraq under article 8,
on Human Rights, Convention on the Rights of the Child, Committee paragraph 1, of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights
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29 
no-childs-play-kids-fighting-one-another-iraq-conflict, https://
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G1504349.pdf ?OpenElement State', The Guardian, February 5, 2015, accessed 21/07/15:http://

www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/05/jihadist-girl-marry-lib-
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13 
eration-failed-islamic-state
fatwa issued by Sistani for Iraqis to join the fight against IS, a Pop-
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31 

of Ministers' Decision in April 2015 instructed ministries and Walk Free have chosen to use the term IS (Islamic State) recog-
32 

state institutions that the PMC should be considered a formal in- nising the group are known by different terms, including, but not
stitution under the Prime Minister's Office (PMO). PMF are often limited to, Daesh, ISIL (Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant), ISIS
referred to as pro-government militias, despite their formalisation. (Islamic State in Iraq and Syria), and ISWK (Islamic State Wilayat
International Organizations have questioned the control PMO has Khorasan, also ISIL-K).
over the PMF. There are also many groups fighting under the PMF "Displacement Tracking Matrix, Round XXVIII", International
33 
label. Organization for Migration, 2015, accessed 21/02/16:
Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights, Convention
14 
Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 2015 Iraq
34 
on the Rights of the Child, Committee on the Rights of the Child: Con- Humanitarian Response Plan Overview: Iraq on the Brink, (United
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35 

un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G15/043/49/PDF/G1504349.pd- 2015, accessed 21/02/16:http://www.newyorker.com/maga-

f ?OpenElement zine/2015/10/05/out-of-sight-letter-from-baghdad-rania-abouzeid
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15  Julia St. Thomas King and Dennis Ardis, 'Identity Crisis? Doc-
36 

as Suicide Bombers and Child Soldiers', The Independent, 1 June, umentation for the Displaced in Iraq', Humanitarian Practice
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world/middle-east/isis-kidnaps-up-to-500-children-in-iraq-to- identity-crisis-documentation-for-the-displaced-in-iraq
use-as-suicide-bombers-and-child-soldiers-10288989.html Special Feature: The Crisis in Iraq Number 65, (Humanitarian
37 

Personal communication.
16  Exchange, Humanitarian Practice Network), p. 5, November 2015.
Personal communication.
17  2014 Global Slavery Index, (Walk Free Foundation, 2014), p. 27, ac-
38 

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Personal communication.
18 
Laura Lungarotti, Sarah Craggs, Agnes Tillinac, 'Trafficking in
39 
Omar Jaffal, "Underage Marriage of Iraqi Girls Rises", Al-Monitor,
19 
Persons in Times of Crises – A Neglected Protection Concern: The
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Personal communication.
20 
zine/human-trafficking-in-crises-a-neglected-protection-concern/
Miriam Puttick, The Lost Women of Iraq: Family-based violence
21 
As above.
40 

during armed conflict, (Ceasefire Centre for Civilian Rights and Julia St. Thomas King and Dennis Ardis, 'Identity Crisis? Doc-
41 
Minority Rights Group International, 2015) p. 25, accessed umentation for the Displaced in Iraq', Humanitarian Practice
22/07/15:http://minorityrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/ Network, October 2015, accessed 21/02/16:http://odihpn.org/mag-
MRG-report-A4_OCTOBER-2015_WEB.pdf azine/identity-crisis-documentation-for-the-displaced-in-iraq/
As above, p. 21.
22 
As above.
42 

Personal communication.
23 
As above.
43 

Miriam Puttick, The Lost Women of Iraq: Family-based violence

24 
Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights, Convention
44 
during armed conflict, (Ceasefire Centre for Civilian Rights and on the Rights of the Child, Committee on the Rights of the Child: Con-
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25 
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45 
2015) p. 23, accessed 22/07/15:http://minorityrights.org/wp-con-
tent/uploads/2015/11/MRG-report-A4_OCTOBER-2015_WEB. As above, p. 6.
46 

pdf Iraqi Penal Code (1969) Act No. 111, Article 398, accessed
47 

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26  21/07/15:http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain/open-
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48 

paragraph 1, of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights, Convention
49 
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27 
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50 
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GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 197

 51 
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22/07/15:http://minorityrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/
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53 
As above, p. 25.
54 
Constitution of the Republic of Iraq (2005) Article 37, accessed
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55 
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57 
Personal communication.
58 
The shelter is located in a relatively unsafe area and requires
concrete barriers for protection. MOLSA has requested further
protection from MOI but as of February 2016 no further informa-
tion was found.
59 
The Ministry of Justice must approve an internal work system for
the operation of the shelter. Only victims referred by judge orders
will be able to access the shelter.
60 
Samantha McCormack, Jacqueline Joudo Larsen, and Hana
Abul Husn, The Other Migrant Crisis: Protecting Migrant Workers
against Exploitation in the Middle East, (International Organisa-
tion for Migration and Walk Free Foundation, 2015), accessed
17/02/16:https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/other_mi-
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61 
Personal communication.
62 
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63 
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1 
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3 
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4 
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6 
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7 
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As above.
9 
Anti-Slavery International, Thematic report on slavery in Mauritania
10 
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As above.
11 
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12 
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13 
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14 
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teur/docs/A.HRC.15.20.Add.2_en.pdf
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16 
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17 
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18 
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19 
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20 
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As above.
21 

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22 
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23 
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24 
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25 
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26 
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27 
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28 
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29 
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30 
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31 
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32 
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33 
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34 
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35 
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36 
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37 
ect, March 17, 2012:http://edition.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/
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Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons Trafficking
38 
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39 
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40 
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Country cont.
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41 
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42 
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43 
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44 
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45 
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46 
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47 
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48 
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tania
As above.
49 
Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on
50 
Contemporary Forms of Slavery, Including its Causes and Con-
sequences (United Nations General Assembly, 2010), accessed
10/09/14:http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/slavery/rappor-
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51 
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index.html
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52 
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53 
country report, information retrieved through personal communi-
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54 
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1 
Mexico, (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2014),
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centralamerica/Diagnostico_trata_de_personas.pdf
Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Traffick-
2 
ing in Persons Report: Mexico Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), p. 244, accessed 02/02/16:http://www.
state.gov/documents/organization/243560.pdf
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3 
ficking', Time Magazine, July 31, 2013: accessed 03/02/16:http://
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ness-sex-trafficking/
Currently, the most active cartels include the Zetas, the Knights
4 
Templar, Barrio Azteca, BLO, Tijuana, Juarez, Sinaloa, Gulf, and
EPR.
Mexico’s Disappeared: The Enduring Cost of a Crisis Ignored,
5 
(Human Rights Watch, 2013), pp. 20–30, accessed 03/02/16:http://
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6 
ing in Persons Report: Mexico Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), pp. 243-244, accessed 02/02/16:http://
www.state.gov/documents/organization/243560.pdf
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 199
 7 
Miriam Wells, 'Criminal Groups Enslaving Mexicans in ‘Forced 'Mexico Rescues 129 Workers, Including Children, ‘Abused’
27 

Labor Camps', Insight Crime, July 15, 2013: and Mexico’s at Garment Factory', ABC News, February 6, 2015, accessed
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Rights Watch, 2013), pp. 20–30, acessed 03/02/16:http://www. cues-129-workers-from-factory/6075492
insightcrime.org/news-briefs/criminal-groups-enslaving-mexi- Personal communication.
28 
cans-in-forced-labor-camps, http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/
files/reports/mexico0213_ForUpload_0_0_0.pdf Katy Watson, 'Maids in Mexico: Defending the Rights of Domestic
29 

Workers', BBC News, December 23, 2015, accessed 06/02/16:http://

8 
Nina Lakhani, 'Teancingo: The Small Town at the Dark Heart of www.bbc.com/news/business-35113707
Mexico’s Sex-Slave Trade', The Guardian, April 5, 2015, see also:
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30 

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world/2015/apr/05/tenancingo-mexico-sex-slave-trade-america, Erin Siegal, 'Mexico Adoption Bust Reveals Vast Child Trafficking
31 

http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/06/30/actuali- Ring', The Huffington Post, February 29, 2012: ; See also: 'Women
dad/1372556638_992102.html Held in Mexico-to-Ireland’ Adoption Racket', MSNBC, July 17,
9 
Anel Hortensia and Gomes San Luis, 'Prostitution of Young Girls 2012, accessed 01/04/16:http://www.huffingtonpost.com/erin-sie-
and Adolescents: an Approach to Their Social Representation gal/mexico-adoption-child-trafficking_b_1311404.html, http://
Among Traders o' ʻLa Merced'', Peninsula 9, no.2, (August 2014), www.nbcnews.com/id/46020446/ns/world_news-americas/t/wom-
accessed 04/03/16:http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=S1870 en-held-mexico-to-ireland-adoption-racket/#.U_NnCvmSyAV
-57662014000200006&script=sci_arttext Carolin Schurr and Laura Perler, ''Trafficked’ into a Better
32 

10 
Christina Sterbenz, 'City-to-Farm Sex Pipelines Expose a Disturb-
ing Trend in America', Business Insider, February 7, 2015, accessed
04/02/16:http://www.businessinsider.com.au/city-to-farm-sex-
pipeline-2015-2
11 
Judith Matloff, 'Brothel State in Mexico is Conduit for Human
Trafficking in New York', Al Jazeera America, June 1, 2015, ac-
33 
Future? Why Mexico Needs to Regulate its Surrogacy Industry
(and Not Ban It)', Open Democracy, December 17, 2015, accessed
03/03/16:https://www.opendemocracy.net/beyondslavery/car-
olin-schurr-laura-perler/trafficked-into-better-future-why-mexi-
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'Tabasco lawmakers end foreign surrogacy', Mexico News Daily,

cessed 04/02/16:http://america.aljazeera.com/multimedia/2015/6/ December 15, 2015, accessed 03/03/16;http://mexiconewsdaily.

sex-slavery-links-mexico-with-new-york-city.html com/news/tabasco-lawmakers-end-foreign-surrogacy/
12 
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34 

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13 
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14 
Goldenberg et al., 'Exploring the Impact of Underage Sex Work Edson Servan-Mori et al, 'Migrants Suffering Violence While in
35 
Among Female Sex Workers in Two Mexico–US Border Cities', Transit through Mexico: Factors Associated with the Decision to
AIDS and Behavior 16(4) (2012): pp. 969–981, accessed 04/02/16 Continue or Turn Back;, Journal of Immigrant Minority Health 16,
15 
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16 
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04/02/16:http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/06/12/mexi- centralamerica/Diagnostico_trata_de_personas.pdf
co-workers-slavery-toliman_n_3427120.html?ir=Australia Arun Kumar Acharya, 'Sexual Exploitation and Trafficking of
37 

17 
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U.S. Tables', Los Angeles Times, December 7, 2014, accessed on Health Status', Journal of Intercultural Studies 35 no.1 (March
04/02/16:http://graphics.latimes.com/product-of-mexico-camps/ 2014), p. 189, accessed 02/03/16:http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/
18 
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Chihuahua, Guanajuato, Zacatecas, Jalisco, Nayarit, Colima, San 'Mexico’s Disappeared: The Enduring Cost of a Crisis Ignored',
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19 
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39 

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20 
As above. Department of State, 2015), p. 244: accessed 02/03/16:http://www.
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21 
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Labor Mobilization', Americas Program, July 16, 2015, accessed Personal communication.
40 

04/02/16:http://www.cipamericas.org/archives/15532 Clare Ribando Seelke and Kristin Finklea, U.S.-Mexican Security

41 

22 
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42 

workeralliance.org/about-guestworkers/ 'PGJDF Rescued 27 Trafficking Victims in Cuauhtemoc Colony',

43 

23 
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44 
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24 
Sheldon Zhang, Looking for a Hidden Population: Trafficking of 04/02/16:http://www.milenio.com/estados/explotacion_lab-
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45 

25 
As above, p. 12. Programa Nacional para Prevenir, Sancionar y Erradicar los Delitos
46 

26 
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wp-content/uploads/2014/05/PROGRAMANacionalPrevenirSan-
cionarErradicarDelitosTrataPersonas2014-2018.pdf

200 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

 Country cont.

Mexico’s Disappeared: The Enduring Cost of a Crisis Ignored,

47 
Nobody's Children Foundation, Trafficking in Children: The Prob-
21 

(Human Rights Watch, 2013), p. 3, accessed 04/02/16: ; see also lem in Poland and in the World, (Nobody's Children Foundation,
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22 
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org/sites/default/files/reports/mexico0213_ForUpload_0_0_0.pdf, ; see also Country Strategy Report: Modern Slavery Landscape in
http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/243560.pdf Poland 2014, (Walk Free, 2014), p.16, accessed 24/01/2016.
'IOM Works with Puerto Vallarta, Mexico to Combat Child Traf-
48 
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23 
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Personal communication.
49 
W. A. Kusek and N. Wise, 'Artistic Perceptions of Poles in
24 

London', Scottish Geographical Journal, 130, 2, p.99, (2014), cited

Poland in Weronika A. Kusak, 'Transnational Identities and Immigrant
Katie Harris, 'Forced Labour in the UK: ‘There was No Escape.
1 
Spaces of Polish professionals in London, UK', Journal of Cultural
I Lived Every Day in Fear', The Guardian, November 21, 2013, Geography 32, 1, 102 (2015).
accessed 24/02/16:http://www.theguardian.com/global-develop- Unemployment rate as a percentage of the labour force. Labour
25 
ment/2013/nov/20/forced-labour-uk-escape-fear-polish-migrant force is the total number of people unemployed and employed
Interview with Human Trafficking Studies Centre, February 4th,
2 
aged 15 to 74. Seasonally adjusted. "Harmonised Unemployment
2016. Rate by Sex", Eurostat, last modified September 28, 2015,http://
As above.
3  epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/table.do?tab=table&lan-
guage=en&pcode=teilm020&tableSelection=1&plugin=1.
Maxim Tucker, 'Sex, Lies and Psychological Scars: Inside Ukraine's
4 

Human Trafficking Crisis', The Guardian, February 4, 2016 20.9% in 2015. Youth unemployment rate is the number of
26 

accessed 05/02/2016:http://www.theguardian.com/global-devel- unemployed people aged 15 to 24 as a percentage of the active

opment/2016/feb/04/sex-lies-psychological-scars-ukraine-hu- population of the same age. "Youth Unemployment Rate — % of
man-trafficking-crisis Active Population in the Same Age Group", Eurostat, last modified
September 28, 2016,http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/table.
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5 
do?tab=table&init=1&language=en&pcode=tipslm80&plugin=0
2016.
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27 
Unit Against Trafficking in Human Beings, Trafficking in
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January 22, 2016,https://www.iom.int/countries/poland/gener-
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25/01/2016:http://www.handelludzmi.eu/hle/database/other-docu-
ments/6826,Trafficking-Human-Beings-2014-report.html The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Develop-
28 

ment (OECD), 'Country Notes: Recent Changes in Migration

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7 
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korea/11901507/Poland-and-Malta-accused-of-using-North-Kore- national-migration-outlook-2015_migr_outlook-2015-en
an-forced-labour.html
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29 
Anti-Slavery International and International Trade Union Confed-
8 
Labour in Poland: Research Report' in Trafficking for Forced La-
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30 

As above.
10 
Successful European Union Citizens and Disadvantaged Labour
As above.
11  Migrants?', Work, Employment and Society, 25, 540 (2011) cited in
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The cost of accommodation and transport is then deducted from
12 
Migrants as Workers or as Migrant Workers? Intersectionality,
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31 

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14 
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32 
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15 
Academic Press, 2016).
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33 
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16 
Cooperation and Exchange of Information in Estonia, Finland and
Ukraine's Human Trafficking Crisis", The Guardian, February 4, Poland, eds. Anniina Jokinen, Natalia Ollus and Kauko Aromaa
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17 
Discrimination tests conducted by the Institute of Public Affairs
34 

Human Beings, (Ministry of the Interior, 2015), p. 6, accessed indicated that five out of 100 foreigners faced unequal in Warsaw
25/01/2016:http://www.handelludzmi.eu/hle/database/other-docu- but that figure was up to four times that in other cities. Joanna
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As above.
18  Eastern Europe, July 15, 2015, accessed 22/01/2016:http://newea-
sterneurope.eu/articles-and-commentary/1815-ukrainians-in-po-
As above.
19 
land-in-pursuit-of-a-better-life
As above.
20 

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 201

 35 
Luciana T. Hakaka and Akram A. Ariss, 'Vulnerable Work and Ministry of the Interior and KCIK, Report on the Implementation
53 

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36 
Adam Leszczyński, 'Poles Don't Want Immigrants. They Don't national-action-plan/6366,The-National-Action-Plan-against-
Understand Them, Don't Like Them', The Guardian, July 2, 2015, Trafficking-in-Human-Beings-for-2013-2015.html
accessed 22/01/2016:http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/ Zbigniew Lasocik et al., "Country Strategy Report: Modern Slav-
54 

jul/02/poles-dont-want-immigrants-they-dont-understand-them- ery Landscape in Poland 2014," (Walk Free, 2014), 30.

dont-like-them Interview with Human Trafficking Studies Centre, February 4th,
55 

37 
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56 
Policies', in International Migration Outlook 2015, (OECD Publish- Report Concerning the Implementation of the Council of Europe
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tion-outlook-2015_migr_outlook-2015-en www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/Docs/Reports/GRE-
38 
Matthew Luxmoore, "In Poland, a Challenge to Integrate ‘Invisible' TA_2013_6_FGR_POL_with_comments_en.pdf
Ukrainian Refugees", Aljazeera America, August 23, 2015, ac- Interview with Human Trafficking Studies Centre, February 4th,
57 
cessed 21/01/16:http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/8/23/ 2016
poland-integrates-invisible-refugees-east-ukraine.html
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58 
39 
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Policies', in International Migration Outlook 2015, (OECD Publish-
ing, 2015), 236,http://www.keepeek.com/Digital-Asset-Manage- The penal code was amended with the addition of "at work or in
59 

ment/oecd/social-issues-migration-health/international-migra- service of a compulsory nature, begging, slavery… Zbigniew Laso-

tion-outlook-2015_migr_outlook-2015-en cik & Łukasz Wieczorek, Trafficking for Forced Labour in Poland:
Research Report, (Human Trafficking Studies Centre, Warsaw
40 
Joanna Fomina, 'Ukrainians in Poland: In Pursuit of a Better Life?', University, 2010), p. 22.
New Eastern Europe, July 15, 2015, accessed 05/02/2016:http://
neweasterneurope.eu/articles-and-commentary/1815-ukrainians- Field sources.
60 

in-poland-in-pursuit-of-a-better-life Unit Against Trafficking in Human Beings, "Trafficking in

61 

41 
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42 
Joanna Fomina, 'Ukrainians in Poland: In Pursuit of a Better Life?',
New Eastern Europe, July 15, 2015, accessed 05/02/2016:http:// Zbigniew Lasocik, Emilia Rekosz-Cebula, Łukasz Wieczorek, "Hu-
62 

neweasterneurope.eu/articles-and-commentary/1815-ukrainians- man Trafficking for Forced Labour in Poland: Effective Prevention

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43 
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Labour and Labour Exploitation (FLEX): Towards Increased According to the report prosecutors have demonstrated a pref-
63 

Knowledge, Cooperation and Exchange of Information in Estonia,
Finland and Poland, eds. Anniina Jokinen, Natalia Ollus and Kau-
ko Aromaa (Warsaw: Heuni, 2011), 172, accessed 06/03/14:http://
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44 
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Human Trafficking from Moldova and Ukraine through Labour Market
Based Measures, (International Labour Organisation, 2008), 1.
45 
Maxim Tucker, 'Sex, Lies and Psychological Scars: Inside Ukraine's
64 
Human Trafficking Crisis', The Guardian, February 4, 2016,
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opment/2016/feb/04/sex-lies-psychological-scars-ukraine-hu-
man-trafficking-crisis
46 
Field sources.
47 
Ministry of the Interior and KCIK, Report on the Implementation
of the 'National Action Plan Against Trafficking in Human Beings
for 2013–2015' for 2014, (Ministry of the Interior, 2015), p. 14,
65 
erence for charging defendants with crimes such as deprivation
of liberty or falsifying documents rather than human traffick-
ing. Reasons for this include the complexity of trafficking cases
and the reduced chance of a success. Zbigniew Lasocik, Emilia
Rekosz-Cebula, Łukasz Wieczorek, Human Trafficking for Forced
Labour in Poland: Effective Prevention and Diagnostics of Mech-
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22/01/2016:http://www.cbss.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/
raport_polish_english_ONLINE.pdf
A representative of the labour inspectorate reported that only five
cases of suspected forced labour had been referred to the public
prosecutor's office in recent years. Zbigniew Lasocik, Emilia
Rekosz-Cebula, Łukasz Wieczorek, Human Trafficking for Forced
Labour in Poland: Effective Prevention and Diagnostics of Mech-
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22/01/2016:http://www.cbss.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/
raport_polish_english_ONLINE.pdf
As part of the NAP (2013-2015) the government of Poland in-

accessed 27/01/2016:http://www.handelludzmi.eu/hle/database/ creased its efforts to train officials in the identification of victims
national-action-plan/6366,The-National-Action-Plan-against- and human trafficking in general. However it is unclear if this
Trafficking-in-Human-Beings-for-2013-2015.html included adequate information on forced labour. Ministry of the
48 
As above. Interior and KCIK, Report on the Implementation of the 'National
Action Plan Against Trafficking in Human Beings for 2013–2015'
49 
As above. for 2014, (Ministry of the Interior, 2015), pp. 23–26, accessed
50 
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of the 'National Action Plan Against Trafficking in Human Beings for action-plan/6366,The-National-Action-Plan-against-Trafficking-
2013–2015' for 2014, (Ministry of the Interior, 2015), p. 26-29, in-Human-Beings-for-2013-2015.html
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66 
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Trafficking-in-Human-Beings-for-2013-2015.html Centre, Warsaw University, 2010), 68–72.
51 
National Consulting and Intervention Centre for the Victims of Ministry of the Interior and KCIK, "Report on the implementation
67 
Trafficking, National Action Plan Against Trafficking in Human Be- of the 'National Action Plan Against Trafficking in Human Beings
ings 2013–2015, (KCIK, 2013), pp. 6–7, accessed 11/03/2014,http:// for 2013–2015' for 2014," (Ministry of the Interior, 2015), 28–29,
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52 
Zbigniew Lasocik et al., Country Strategy Report: Modern Slavery national-action-plan/6366,The-National-Action-Plan-against-
Landscape in Poland 2014, (Walk Free, 2014), 54. Trafficking-in-Human-Beings-for-2013-2015.html
Government of Poland, Law No. 99. "Promotion of Employment
68 

and Labour Market Institutions ['ustawy z dnia 20 kwietnia 2004

r. o promocji zatrudnienia i instytucjach rynku pracy']", 2004,
Journal of Laws, 20/04/2004, Article 85/2 item 7 and Article 121/2.

202 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016


Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
69 
in Persons Report: Poland Country Narrative, (United States Depart-
ment of State, 2015), p. 282, accessed 21/01/2016:http://www.state.
gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/2015/
Interview with Human Trafficking Studies Centre, February 4th,
70 
2016.
Zbigniew Lasocik, E. Rekosz-Cebula, Łukasz Wieczorek, Handel
71 
ludźmi do pracy przymusowej: mechanizmy powstawania i efektywne
zapobieganie, (Council of the Baltic Sea States, 2014), pp. 45–47.
Polish law requires all employment agencies to be registered.
72 
Government of Poland, 'Law No. 99, "Promotion of Employment
and Labour Market Institutions ['ustawy z dnia 20 kwietnia 2004 r.
o promocji zatrudnienia i instytucjach rynku pracy']"', Journal of
Laws, 20/04/2004, Article 121/1.
For example, in collaboration with the NGO Nobody's Children
73 
the Orbis Hotel Group established a Code of Conduct which
aims to prevent commercial sexual exploitation of children in its'
hotels. Zbigniew Lasocik et al., Country Strategy Report: Modern
Slavery Landscape in Poland 2014,, (Walk Free, 2014), p. 59.
Qatar
"Economically Active Population (15 years and above) by Nation-
1 
ality, Sex & Economic Activity", Qatar Information Exchange, last
accessed February 12, 2016,http://www.qix.gov.qa/discoverer/
viewer?cn=cf_a101&wb=LABOUR_FORCE1&wsk=249&sub-
ject_area=183
Ray Jureidini, Migrant Labour Recruitment to Qatar, (Qatar Foun-
2 
dation, July 2014) p. 43, accessed 12/02/16:http://www.qscience.
com/userimages/ContentEditor/1404811243939/Migrant_Labour_
Recruitment_to_Qatar_Web_Final.pdf
Personal communication.
3 
See also Decree No.8 of 2005 which covers some minimum protec-
4 
tions for workers and requirements for employers.
Amnesty International, My sleep is my break: Exploitation of
5 
Migrant Domestic Workers in Qatar, (Amnesty International, 2014),
p. 9, accessed 25/06/14:http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/
MDE22/004/2014/en/7b7121b8-37c1-4e49-b1a1-2d8a005450a3/
mde220042014en.pdf
Personal communication.
6 
'Migrant Fishermen Hit by a Double Whammy: Regional Politics
7 
and Stifling Kafala System', Migrant-Rights, p. 26, November, 2014,
last accessed 24/06/2015:http://www.migrant-rights.org/2014/11/
migrant-fishermen-hit-by-a-double-whammy-regional-poli-
tics-and-stifling-kafala-system/
As above.
8 
"Vital Statistics, Annual Bulletin: Marriages and Divorces", Min-
9 
istry of Development Planning and Statistics, last accessed February
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AnalyticalSummaryMarriage_Divorce_En.pdf
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10 
National Vision 2013, (Ministry of Development Planning and
Statistics, 2015), p. 40, accessed 10/07/15:http://www.gsdp.gov.qa/
portal/page/portal/gsdp_en/knowledge_center/Tab2/NHDR4%20
Complete%20Report%20English%20LowResolution%20
28May2015.pdf
As above.
11 
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12 
Planning and Statistics, last accessed February 21, 2016,http://www.
gsdp.gov.qa/portal/page/portal/gsdp_en/statistics_en/latest_statis-
tics_en/statistical_updates_detail_en?item_id=2425176
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13 
dation, July 2014), p. 43, accessed 12/02/16:http://www.qscience.
com/userimages/ContentEditor/1404811243939/Migrant_Labour_
Recruitment_to_Qatar_Web_Final.pdf
As above.
14 
ITUC Special Report - The Case Against Qatar, (International Trade
15 
Union Confederation, 2014), accessed 21/07/15:http://www.ituc-
csi.org/ituc-special-report-the-case
Personal communication.
16 
'My sleep is my break': Exploitation of Migrant Domestic
17 
Workers in Qatar, (Amnesty International, 2014), p. 37, ac-
cessed 25/06/14:http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/
MDE22/004/2014/en/7b7121b8-37c1-4e49-b1a1-2d8a005450a3/
mde220042014en.pdf
Personal communication.
18 
Country cont.
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19 
Turbulent World of Middle East Soccer, October, 2015, accessed
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labour-law-too-little-too.html
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20 
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21 
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port/2013/country-chapters/qatar
As above.
22 
Personal communication.
23 
"Qatar: Renaming Kafala is not Ending Kafala", Migrant Rights, 9
24 
November, 2015, accessed 21/02/16:http://www.migrant-rights.
org/2015/11/qatar-renaming-kafala-is-not-ending-kafala/?mc_ci-
d=a50a5d768e&mc_eid=4c6fb43a80
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25 
Confederation, 28 October, 2015, accessed 21/02/16:http://www.
ituc-csi.org/qatar-s-labour-law-reforms-a-sham
Peter Kovessy, Riham Sheble and Heba Fahmy 'Qatar's Emir signs
26 
into law kafala changes (updated)', Doha News, 27 October, 2015,
accessed 21/02/16:http://dohanews.co/qatars-emir-approves-kafa-
la-reforms-changes-more-than-one-year-away/
Russia
Elena Maltseva, Lauren McCarthy, Maria Mokhova, Dmitry Pole-
1 
taev and Caress Schenk, Country Strategy Report: Modern Slavery
Landscape in Russia, (draft), (Walk Free Foundation, 2014).
Rebecca Surtees, Trafficked at Sea. The Exploitation of Ukrainian
2 
Seafarers and Fishers, (International Organisation for Migration,
2013), pp. 15–18, accessed 28/02/14:http://lastradainternational.
org/doc-center/2981/trafficked-at-sea-the-exploitation-of-
ukrainian-seafarers-and-fishers-2012
Maxim Tucker, 'Sex, Lies and Psychological Scars: Inside Ukraine’s
3 
Human Trafficking Crisis', The Guardian, February 4, 2016,
accessed 07/02/2016:http://www.theguardian.com/global-devel-
opment/2016/feb/04/sex-lies-psychological-scars-ukraine-hu-
man-trafficking-crisis
Elena Platonova, 'In the New Year Without Turks', Gazeta, Jan-
4 
uary 11, 2016, accessed 10/03/2016:http://www.gazeta.ru/busi-
ness/2016/01/10/8014499.shtml
Lin Jenkins, 'Vladimir Putin Announces Russian Sanctions
5 
Against Turkey', The Guardian, November 29, 2015, accessed
10/03/2016:http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/28/vlad-
imir-putin-calls-for-greater-sanctions-against-turkey
Personal communication.
6 
"Where We’re From", International Organisation for Migration,
7 
accessed 9/08/14:http://www.iom.int/cms/en/sites/iom/home/
about-migration/world-migration.html
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8 
on Drugs and Crime, 2012), p. 99, accessed 08/09/14:http://www.
unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glotip/Country_Pro-
files_Europe_Central_Asia.pdf
Sharon Shpurer, 'Biggest Trafficker of Women in Israeli
9 
History Finally Exposed', Haaretz, February 4, 2013, accessed
11/07/14:http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/biggest-traf-
ficker-of-women-in-israeli-history-finally-exposed.premi-
um-1.501461
Elena Maltseva, Lauren McCarthy, Maria Mokhova, Dmitry Pole-
10 
taev and Caress Schenk, Country Strategy Report: Modern Slavery
Landscape in Russia, (draft), (Walk Free Foundation, 2014)
As above.
11 
Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
12 
in Persons Report 2015: Russia Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015) accessed 10/03/2016:http://www.state.
gov/documents/organization/243561.pdf
Elena Maltseva, Lauren McCarthy, Maria Mokhova, Dmitry Pole-
13 
taev and Caress Schenk, Country Strategy Report: Modern Slavery
Landscape in Russia, (draft), (Walk Free Foundation, 2014)
As above.
14 
As above.
15 
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 203
 16 
However the law specifically prohibits benefitting from the
proceeds of child prostitution. See: Government of the Rus-
sian Federation, Public Law No 63 of 1996, 'Criminal Code of
the Russian Federation', February 29, 2012, Art242.1, accessed
10/03/2016:https://www.consultant.ru/document/cons_doc_
LAW_10699/23ac064057d5bca235050872f65b23a1a1db092a/
17 
Bureau of International Labor Affairs, Findings on the Worst Forms
of Child Labor: Russia, (United States Department of Labor, 2014),
accessed 05/01/2016:http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/
findings/2014TDA/russia.pdf
18 
Elena Maltseva, Lauren McCarthy, Maria Mokhova, Dmitry Pole-
taev and Caress Schenk, Country Strategy Report: Modern Slavery
Landscape in Russia, (draft), (Walk Free Foundation, 2014)
19 
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Fight', BBC News, November 26, 2016, accessed 10/03/2016:http://
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20 
Bureau of International Labor Affairs, Findings on the Worst Forms
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accessed 05/01/2016:http://www.dol.gov/ilab/reports/child-labor/
findings/2014TDA/russia.pdf
21 
Elena Maltseva, Lauren McCarthy, Maria Mokhova, Dmitry Pole-
taev and Caress Schenk, Country Strategy Report: Modern Slavery
Landscape in Russia, (draft), (Walk Free Foundation, 2014)
22 
As above.
23 
Personal communication
24 
Steven Eke, 'Russia: new rules hit foreign workers', BBC World
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25 
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worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD
26 
GFK Ukraine, Human Trafficking Survey: Ukraine, (International
Labour Organisation, 2015), accessed 07/02/2016
27 
It is necessary to differentiate between West and Eastern Ukraine.
Eastern Ukraine, being predominantly Russian speaking, saw
many flee to Russia during the conflict and considered 'refugees'
although they were not necessarily given such official status.
28 
GFK Ukraine, Human Trafficking Survey: Ukraine, (International
Labour Organization, 2015), accessed 07/02/2016:http://www.
iom.org.ua/sites/default/files/pres_gfk_iom2015_ukraine_eng_
fin_3_2.pdf
29 
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com/2016/01/20/norway-sends-syrian-refugees-back-to-russia/
30 
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sharply-in-2015-as-europe-and-russia-stay-weak-pick-up-expect-
ed-next-year
31 
As above.
32 
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World Bank', Central Asia Today, May 26, 2015, accessed
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33 
Karoun Demirjian, 'New Russian Migration Law Boosts Islamic
State Recruitment in Tajikistan', The Guardian, July 14, 2015,
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jul/14/russian-migration-law-tajikistan-islamic-state-recruits
34 
As above.
35 
Kommersant, 'Russia Toughens Migration Policy for CIS Citizens',
Russia Beyond the Headlines, June 24, 2014, available at:http://rbth.
com/news/2014/06/24/russia_toughens_migration_policy_for_
cis_citizens_37673.html
36 
Personal communication.
37 
Matthew Luxmoore, 'Ruble Ripple: New Russian Laws Make
Life Difficult for Migrant Workers', Al Jazeera, February 27,
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cles/2015/2/27/new-russian-laws-make-life-difficult-for-migrant-
workers.html
38 
World Report 2016: Russia Narrative, (Human Rights Watch, 2016),
accessed 10/03/2016:https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2016/
country-chapters/russia
39 
Elena Maltseva, Lauren McCarthy, Maria Mokhova, Dmitry Pole-
taev and Caress Schenk, Country Strategy Report: Modern Slavery
Landscape in Russia, (draft), (Walk Free Foundation, 2014)
204 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
40 
in Persons Report 2015: Russia Country Narrative, (United States
Department of State, 2015), accessed 10/03/2016:http://www.state.
gov/documents/organization/243561.pdf
As above.
41 
'Putin Allowed to Expel From Russia Are Not Working in
42 
the Specialty of Migrants', Rosbalt, July 1, 2015, accessed
10/03/2016:http://m.rosbalt.ru/main/2015/07/01/1414422.html
As above.
43 
Catherine Chevalier, 'What is Contingent Labor and Why It Was
44 
Banned?', AIF.RU, accessed 10/03/2016:http://www.aif.ru/dont-
knows/eternal/1163702
Russia’s deportation procedure can be reviewed here (in Russian):
45 
Postanovlenie RF ot 30.12.2013 No. 1306 "Ob Utverzhdenii Pravil
Soderzhaniia (Prebyvaniia) v Spetsialnykh Uchrezhdeniiakh
Federalnoi Migratsionnoi Sluzhby Inostrannyh Grazhdan" [Decree
of the Russian Federation No. 1306 passed on 30 December 2013
'On Approval of the Rules of (stay) in Institutions of the Federal
Migration Service of Foreign Citizens']http://www.consultant.ru/
document/cons_doc_LAW_157232/?frame=1
Personal communication.
46 
South Africa
1 
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2 
Government of South Africa, 'Criminal Law (Sexual Offenses and
Related Matters) Amendment Act 32 of 2007', accessed 10/02/16: ;
note: the purchasing of sex was criminalised long before this Act –
in the Sexual Offences Act 23 of 1857 (of which many sections are
now replaced/repealed by the 2007 Act)https://www.issafrica.org/
crimehub/uploads/sexual_offences_act32_2007_eng.pdf
3 
Chandre Gould, 'Sex Trafficking and Prostitution in South
Africa', The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and
Social Science 653 no.1 (May 2014), accessed 09/02/16: doi:
10.1177/0002716214521557, see also; Office to Monitor and Com-
bat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking in Persons Report: South Af-
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pp. 308–309, accessed 11/02/16:http://www.state.gov/documents/
organization/243561.pdf
4 
Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, Trafficking
in Persons Report: South Africa Country Narrative, (United States
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state.gov/documents/organization/243561.pdf
5 
Lenyaro Sello, 'Combating Human Trafficking: Working the law',
eNews Channel Africa, July 28, 2015, accessed 09/02/16:http://www.
enca.com/south-africa/combating-human-trafficking-working-law
6 
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loaded_pdfs/corecode/UNICEF-Child-Marriage-Brochure-High-
Single_246.pdf
7 
Marcel van der Watt, 'Human trafficking in South Africa: an
elusive statistical nightmare', eNews Channel Africa, July 17, 2015,
accessed 10/02/16:http://www.enca.com/life/human-traffick-
ing-south-africa-elusive-statistical-nightmare
8 
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9 
Evaluation of Stepping Stones: A Gender Transformative HIV Preven-
tion Intervention' (Medical Research Centre, Gender and Health
Research Unit, 2011)http://www.justice.gov.za/brochure/ukuthwa-
la/ukuthwala.html#sthash.ZIxgFjNf.dpuf
Luso Mnthali, 'South Africa's Domestic Workers Gains a Mini-
10 
mum Wage', Equal Times, August 4, 2015, accessed 12/02/16:http://
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Bfl97IV
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Sidloyi, 'A New Form of Bonded Labour: A Comparative Study
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 Country cont.

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12 
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domesticwages_dec2015.pdf David Smith, 'South African Girl’s Gang-Rape and Murder Trig-
36 

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13 
gers Political Outrage', The Guardian, Februray 8, 2013, accessed
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Emma Thelwell and Corli van der Merwe, 'Don’t look away: SA’s
14 
Annie Kelly, 'Raped and Killed for Being a Lesbian: South Africa
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dirty slavery secret in 2014', News24, November 10, 2014, accessed Ignores ‘Corrective’ Attacks', The Guardian, March 13, 2009, ac-
11/02/16:http://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/Dont-look- cessed 06/02/16:http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/mar/12/
away-SAs-dirty-slavery-secret-in-2014-20141110 eudy-simelane-corrective-rape-south-africa
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Bureau of International Labor Affairs, Findings on the Worst Forms
18  accessed 06/02/16:http://www.iranti-org.co.za/content/Africa_
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As abovee.
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As above
21 
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Personal communication.
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25  As above, Article 8.
47 

Year High', The Wall Street Journal, May 26, 2015, accessed Personal communication.
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06/02/16:http://www.wsj.com/articles/south-africa-unemploy- Lenyaro Sello, 'Combating Human Trafficking: Working the Law',

49 
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As above.
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27 
As above.
50 

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Quarter2015.pdf www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/36715_gon544.pdf
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28 
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52 
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29 
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32 
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33 
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34 
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GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 205

 58 
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60 
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Migration Report 2011 – Migration for Development in Thailand:
Overview and Tools for Policymakers, (International Labour Orga-
nization, 2011), pp.39–48, accessed 10/01/16:http://publications.
iom.int/system/files/pdf/tmr_2011.pdf

206 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016


Review of the Effectiveness of the MOUs in Managing Labour Migra-
33 
tion Between Thailand and Neighbouring Countries, (ILO Tripartite
Action to Protect the Rights of Migrant Workers within and from
the Greater Mekong Subregion, 2015), accessed 16/03/16:http://
www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/docu-
ments/publication/wcms_356542.pdf
As above.
34 
Personal communication; please note migrant workers in the
35 
seafood sector can change employers and districts, as noted in:
Trafficking in Persons Report 2015: The Royal Thai Government’s
Response, (The Royal Thai Government, 2015), p. 48, accessed
12/03/2016:
Personal communication.
36 
Jerrold W. Huguet, ed., Thailand Migration Report 2014, (United
37 
Nations Thematic Working Group on Migration in Thailand,
2014), accessed 16/02/16:http://th.iom.int/images/report/
TMR_2014.pdf
"2015 UNHCR Country Operations Profile – Thailand", UNHCR,
38 
accessed 08/02/16:http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e489646.html
Personal communication.
39 
Personal communication.
40 
"Situational Analysis of the Commercial Sexual Exploitation
41 
of Children in Thailand', (ECPAT International, 2015), p. 21,
accessed 04/01/16:
Gay Alcorn, Keryn Reynolds & Margaret Simons, 'Revealed:
42 
Thailand’s Most Senior Human Trafficking Investigator to Seek
Political Asylum in Australia', The Guardian, December 10, 2015,
accessed 20/01/16:http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/
dec/10/thailands-most-senior-human-trafficking-investiga-
tor-to-seek-political-asylum-in-australia
Personal communication.
43 
'Thailand: Interim Constitution Provides Sweeping Powers',
44 
Human Rights Watch, July 24, 2014, accessed 04/02/16: ; 'Thai
Junta to replace martial law but retain key powers', Al Jazeera
America, March 31, 2015, accessed 07/01/16:https://www.hrw.org/
news/2014/07/24/thailand-interim-constitution-provides-sweep-
ing-powers, http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/3/31/
prayuth-to-replace-martial-law-but-retain-powers.html
World Report 2016: Thailand, (Human Rights Watch, 2016),
45 
accessed 24/04/16:https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2016/coun-
try-chapters/thailand
'Thailand constitution: Military’s council rejects draft', BBC News,
46 
September 6, 2015; World Report 2016: Thailand, (Human Rights
Watch, 2016), accessed 24/04/16:http://www.bbc.com/news/
world-asia-34149523, https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2016/
country-chapters/thailand
Personal communication.
47 
'EU Warns Thailand on Illegal Fishing', International Centre
48 
for Trade and Sustainable Development, May 8, 2015, accessed
14/01/16:http://www.ictsd.org/bridges-news/biores/news/eu-
warns-thailand-on-illegal-fishing
Emanuel Stoakes, Chris Kelly & Annie Kelly, 'Revealed: How the
49 
Thai Fishing Industry Trafficks, Imprisons and Enslaves', The
Guardian, July 20, 2015, accessed 15/02/16:http://www.theguard-
ian.com/global-development/2015/jul/20/thai-fishing-indus-
try-implicated-enslavement-deaths-rohingya
'Press releases: Thailand’s Progress in Combating IUU Fishing',
50 
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of Thailand, January
14, 2016, accessed 10/02/16:http://www.mfa.go.th/main/en/
media-center/14/63733-Thailand%E2%80%99s-Progress-in-Com-
bating-IUU-Fishing.html
'Thai Authorities Say Fishing Industry Crackdown In-
51 
tensified', Associated Press The Big Story, February 1,
2016, accessed 09/02/16:http://bigstory.ap.org/arti-
cle/94b4719b851b46039127e1d24f8f2ca4/thai-authori-
ties-say-fishing-industry-crackdown-intensified
'Press releases: Thailand’s Progress in Combating IUU Fishing',
52 
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of Thailand, January
14, 2016, accessed 08/02/16:http://www.mfa.go.th/main/en/
media-center/14/63733-Thailand%E2%80%99s-Progress-in-Com-
bating-IUU-Fishing.html
Country cont.
Emanuel Stoakes, Chris Kelly & Annie Kelly, ‘Revealed: How the
53 
Thai fishing Industry Trafficks, Imprisons and Enslaves', The
Guardian, July 20, 2015, accessed 07/02/16:http://www.theguard-
ian.com/global-development/2015/jul/20/thai-fishing-indus-
try-implicated-enslavement-deaths-rohingya
Jerrold W. Huguet, ed., Thailand Migration Report 2014, (United
54 
Nations Thematic Working Group on Migration in Thailand,
2014), accessed 09/02/16:http://th.iom.int/images/report/
TMR_2014.pdf
Personal communication.
55 
'UNODC Assists Thailand to Criminalise Possession of Child Sex
56 
Abuse Material', United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime South-
east Asia and the Pacific, May 18, 2015, accessed 07/01/16:https://
www.unodc.org/southeastasiaandpacific/en/2015/05/child-
hood-sex-abuse-material/story.html
Situational Analysis of the Commercial Sexual Exploitation of
57 
Children in Thailand, (ECPAT International, 2015), p. 7, accessed
06/01/16
'Trafficking Ring Run by Thai Monk Crumbles with Leader
58 
Behind Bars', International Justice Mission, June 2, 2015, accessed
06/01/16:https://www.ijm.org/articles/trafficking-ring-run-thai-
monk-crumbles-leader-behind-bars
Personal communication.
59 
'Human Trafficking Court Opens, More Traffickers Arrested',
60 
Thai Anti-Human Trafficking Action, August 10, 2015, accessed
06/01/16:http://www.thaianti-humantraffickingaction.org/
Home/?p=1577
As above.
61 
Situational Analysis of the Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Chil-
62 
dren in Thailand, (ECPAT International, 2015), p. 8.
As above.
63 
United Kingdom
Kevin Bales, Olivia Hesketh and Bernard Silverman, 'Modern
1 
Slavery in the UK: How Many Victims?', Significance, 12, 3, p. 25
(2015).
Lindsay Fortado, 'FT Seasonal Appeal: trapped and trafficked in
2 
the UK', Financial Times, 10 December, 2015, accessed 21/02/16:
Inter-Departmental Ministerial Group, 2015 Report of the Inter-De-
3 
partmental Ministerial Group on Modern Slavery, (Department of
Justice, 2015), p. 14, accessed 10/02/16:https://www.gov.uk/gov-
ernment/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/469968/
IDMG_Report_Final.pdf
National Crime Agency, National Referral Mechanism Statistics
4 
– End of Year Summary 2014, (National Crime Agency, January
2015), p. 2, accessed 22/07/15:http://www.nationalcrimeagency.
gov.uk/publications/502-national-referral-mechanism-statis-
tics-end-of-year-summary-2014/file
As above.
5 
As above.
6 
Personal communication; see also The APPG for Runaway and
7 
Missing Children and Adults and the APPG for Looked After
Children and Care Leavers, Report from the Joint Inquiry into
Children Who Go Missing From Care, (The APPG for Runaway
and Missing Children and Adults and the APPG for Looked After
Children and Care Leavers, 2012), accessed 10/02/16:https://www.
gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
file/175563/Report_-_children_who_go_missing_from_care.pdf
Inter-Departmental Ministerial Group, "2015 Report of the
8 
Inter-Departmental Ministerial Group on Modern Slavery",
(Department of Justice, 2015), 15, accessed 10/02/16:https://www.
gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
file/469968/IDMG_Report_Final.pdf
Alastair Sloan, 'UK tied visa system 'turning domestic workers
9 
into modern-day slaves', The Guardian, 17 March 2015, accessed
21/07/15:http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/mar/17/uk-
tied-visa-system-turning-domestic-workers-into-modern-day-
slaves
Kalayaan, Britain's forgotten slaves: migrant domestic workers in the
10 
United Kingdom and the introduction of the tied Overseas Domestic
Worker visa (Kalayaan, 2015), p. 1, accessed 17/07/15:http://www.
kalayaan.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Kalayaan-3-year-
briefing.pdf
As above.
11 
GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 207
 Country cont.

12 
"Statistics January to December 2014," Forced Married Unit, ac- In 2015, Walk Free, in conjunction with ECPAT ran a campaign
28 

cessed 21/07/15:https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/ gathering 80,000 signatures, following a previous ECPAT cam-

uploads/attachment_data/file/412667/FMU_Stats_2014.pdf paign with The Body Shop that got 735,000 signatures. GRETA
13 
As above. has previously criticised the UK for lack of child advocates, see:
Group of Experts on Action Against Trafficking in Human Beings,
14 
Shaheen Hashmat, 'Forced marriage in Britain: It nearly Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe Con-
happened to me', The Telegraph, 30 September 2015, ac- vention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings by the United
cessed 12/02/16:http://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/wom- Kingdom, (Council of Europe, 2012), accessed 17/07/15:https://
ens-life/11899171/Forced-marriage-in-Britain-It-nearly-hap- www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/trafficking/Docs/Reports/GRE-
pened-to-me.html TA_2012_6_FGR_GBR_en.pdf
15 
Personal communication; see also Sue Berelowitz, Jenny Clifton, Personal communication.
29 
Carlene Firimin, Sandra Gulyurtlu and Gareth Edwards, If Only
Someone Had Listened, (Office of the Children's Commissioner's Review of the National Referral Mechanism for Victims of Hu-
30 

Inquiry into Child Sexual Exploitation in Gangs and Groups, man Trafficking, (Home Office, November 2014), accessed
2013), accessed 16/07/15:https://www.childrenscommissioner.gov. 15/07/15:https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/up-
uk/sites/default/files/publications/If_only_someone_had_listened. loads/attachment_data/file/467434/Review_of_the_National_Re-
pdf ferral_Mechanism_for_victims_of_human_trafficking.pdf
16 
Inter-Departmental Ministerial Group, "2015 Report of the Personal communication.
31 

Inter-Departmental Ministerial Group on Modern Slavery," Personal communication.

32 

(Department of Justice, 2015), 21, accessed 10/02/16:https://www. Human Trafficking and Exploitation (Scotland) Bill, (Human Traf-
33 
gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/ ficking Foundation, October 2015) ,accessed 12/02/16:http://www.
file/469968/IDMG_Report_Final.pdf humantraffickingfoundation.org/blog/2015/10/human-traffick-
17 
As above. ing-and-exploitation-scotland-bill
18 
"Big step in the right direction but deficiencies leave us – and Graeme Demianyk, 'Government Launches Helpline To Tackle
34 

victims of modern slavery – wholly unsatisfied", Anti-Slavery Modern Slavery Which Home Secretary Theresa May Calls An
International, accessed 14/12/2015:http://www.antislavery.org/ 'Affront To Humanity', Huffington Post UK, December 9, 2015,
english/press_and_news/news_and_press_releases_2009/analy- accessed 12/02/16:http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2015/12/09/
sis_of_modern_slavery_act.aspx theresa-may-modern-slavery-helpline_n_8760642.html
19 
Ms C Reyes and Ms T Suryadi v Mr J Al-Malki and Mrs Al-Malki Personal communication.
35 

and Others [2015] EWCA Civ 32 Press Association, 'Businessman is the First Person Jailed Under
36 

20 
Benkharbouche/Janah v Sudan Embassy/Libya [2015] EWCA Civ Forced Marriage Laws,' The Guardian, 11 June, 2015, accessed
33 27/07/15:http://www.theguardian.com/society/2015/jun/10/34-
21 
Jorge Bustamante, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Human year-old-man-first-person-to-be-convicted-under-forced-mar-
Rights of Migrants, (United Nations General Assembly, March riage-laws
2010), p. 15, accessed 22/07/2016:http://www2.ohchr.org/english/ Shaheen Hashmat, 'Forced Marriage in Britain: It Nearly
37 

bodies/hrcouncil/docs/14session/A.HRC.14.30.Add.3_en.pdf Happened to Me', The Telegraph, 30 September, 2015, ac-

22 
"Release Migrant Workers from Tied-Visas", London Assembly, last cessed 12/02/16:http://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/wom-
modified December 2, 2015,https://www.london.gov.uk/press-re- ens-life/11899171/Forced-marriage-in-Britain-It-nearly-hap-
leases/assembly/release-migrant-workers-from-tied-visas pened-to-me.html
23 
"Overseas Domestic Workers Visa: Independent Review," "Law and the Justice System – Guidance: Forced Marriage",
38 

(Home Office and UK Visas and Immigration, 2015) accessed Foreign and Commonwealth Office and Home Office, last modified
17/07/15:https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/over- March 8, 2016,https://www.gov.uk/guidance/forced-marriage
seas-domestic-workers-visa-independent-review
24 
As above.
25 
Inter-Departmental Ministerial Group, 2015 Report of the Inter-De-
partmental Ministerial Group on Modern Slavery, (Department of
Justice, 2015), p.9, accessed 10/02/16:https://www.gov.uk/gov-
ernment/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/469968/
IDMG_Report_Final.pdf
26 
"Historic Law To End Modern Slavery Passed", Home Office, 26
March, 2015, accessed 12/07/15:https://www.gov.uk/government/
news/historic-law-to-end-modern-slavery-passed
27 
As above.

208 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

ENDNOTES - Appendices
Jacqueline Joudo Larsen, Monti Narayan Datta, and Kevin Bales,
1 
Percentage of respondents who stated their region is not a good
20 

'Modern Slavery: A global reckoning', Significance (Royal Statistical place for gay or lesbian people to live. Taken from "Gallup Analyt-
Society October 2015. Available for download from:http://onlineli- ics", Gallup Analytics, accessed 24/03/2016:http://www.gallup.com/
brary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1740-9713.2015.00854.x/pdf products/170987/gallup-analytics.aspx
The theoretical concept of human security builds on the United
2 
"Table 3: Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index", United
21 

Nations Development Programme's 1994 Report on Human Se- Nations Development Program, accessed 24/03/2016:http://hdr.
curity that identifies the seven major areas of security as political undp.org/en/composite/IHDI
security, community security, personal security, environmental Percentage of respondents who stated their region is not a good
22 
security, food security, economic security, and health security. place for people with intellectual disabilities to live. Taken from
VIF references the Variance Inflation Factor, which assesses the
3 
"Gallup Analytics", Gallup Analytics, accessed 24/03/2016:http://
severity of multicollinearity by estimating the inflation of regres- www.gallup.com/products/170987/gallup-analytics.aspx
sion coefficients as compared to when the predictor variables are Percentage of respondents who stated their region is not a good
23 
not linearly related. While VIF scores between 1 and 5 indicate place for immigrants to live. Taken from "Gallup Analytics",
moderate correlation, we established our threshold at any variable Gallup Analytics, accessed 24/03/2016:http://www.gallup.com/
over a VIF score of 10, which indicates very high correlation. products/170987/gallup-analytics.aspx
In statistics, tolerance is used as an indicator of multicollinearity
4 
Percentage of respondents who stated their region is not a good
24 
and is estimated by subtracting the R-squared value from 1, where place for racial and ethnic minorities to live. Taken from "Gallup
the R-squared value is calculated by regressing the independent Analytics", Gallup Analytics, accessed 24/03/2016:http://www.
variable of interest onto the remaining independent variables. gallup.com/products/170987/gallup-analytics.aspx
Researchers generally desire higher levels of tolerance, because
when the tolerance levels are too low, or below 0.1, the results The total number of refugees (including refugee-like situations)
25 

from multiple regression analysis can be affected. by country/territory of asylum/residence. Taken from "Population
Statistics," United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, accessed
From series 'Borrowed any money, past year (% aged 15+)' in
5 
24/03/2016:http://popstats.unhcr.org/PSQ_TMS.aspx
"Global Findex (Global Financial Inclusion Database)", The World
Bank, accessed: 24/03/2016:http://databank.worldbank.org/data/ Total number of displaced persons from "Population Statis-
26 

reports.aspx?source=1228 tics", United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, accessed:

24/03/2015http://popstats.unhcr.org/PSQ_TMS.aspx
From series 'Coming up with emergency funds, not at all possible
6 

(% aged 15+)' in "Global Findex (Global Financial Inclusion 'POLITY2' variable in "The Polity Project", Center for Systemic
27 

Database)", The World Bank, accessed: 24/03/2016:http://databank. Peace, accessed 24/03/2016:http://www.systemicpeace.org/poli-

worldbank.org/data/reports.aspx?source=1228 typroject.html
From series 'Received wages in the past year (% aged 15+)' in"-
7  The Global Slavery Index, (Walk Free Foundation, 2016),
28 

Global Findex (Global Financial Inclusion Database)", The World A survey was also conducted in Thailand in Thai language but the
29 

Bank, accessed: 24/03/2016:http://databank.worldbank.org/data/
reports.aspx?source=1228
"Mobile cellular subscriptions (per 100 people)", The World Bank,
8 
accessed 24/03/2016:http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.CEL.
SETS.P2
World Social Protection Report 2014/15, (International Labour Or-
9 
ganization, 2015), pp. 186-194, accessed 24/03/2016:http://www.
ilo.org/global/research/global-reports/world-social-security-re-
port/2014/WCMS_245201/lang--en/index.htm
"Food Security", Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
10 
Nations, accessed 24/03/2016:http://faostat3.fao.org/down-
load/D/*/E
"Incidence of tuberculosis (per 100,000 people)", The World Bank,
11 
accessed 24/03/2016:http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.TBS.
INCD/countries
Percentage of respondents who stated 'yes' in response to whether
12 
or not they had confidence in the judicial system and courts.
Taken from: "Gallup Analytics", Gallup Analytics, accessed
24/03/2016:http://www.gallup.com/products/170987/gallup-ana-
lytics.aspx
30 
'Improved water source (% of TOTAL population with access)' in
13 
"Data & estimates", WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme
for Water Supply and Sanitation, accessed 24/03/2016:http://www.
wssinfo.org/data-estimates/tables/
31 
Indicator 'Political Instability' in "Global Peace Index 2015: Global
14 
Rankings", Vision of Humanity, accessed 24/03/2015:http://www.
visionofhumanity.org/#page/indexes/global-peace-index/2015
32 
results are not being used for estimation purposes in this Global
Slavery Index. Research confirms that migrant workers from
Cambodia and Myanmar are subject to high levels of exploitation
(see Simon Baker, Human Trafficking Trends in Asia: Migration
Experiences of Cambodia Workers deported from Thailand in 2009,
2010 and 2012, (UNDP & UN ACT, 2015) and UNIAP Trafficking
Estimates, Estimating Labor Trafficking: A Study of Burmese Migrant
Workers in Samut Sakhon, (UNDP, 2011), Given the known lim-
itations of the Thai survey, we also undertook surveys in source
countries, Vietnam, Cambodia and Myanmar, partly to test out
whether this would give us a sufficient sample of returned migrant
workers to estimate prevalence in Thailand. However, on further
consideration this method of estimation was rejected. We have
therefore used our extrapolation methodology for Thailand for
this year. Consultations prior to the launch of the Index confirmed
this was the best approach. We continue to seek alternative ap-
proaches for estimating prevalence in Thailand.http://un-act.org/
publication/view/human-trafficking-trends-asia-migration-expe-
riences-cambodian-workers-deported-thailand-2009-2010-2012/
http://www.no-trafficking.org/reports_docs/estimates/uniap_esti-
mating_labor_trafficking_report.pdf
Initially this was 14 States but Andrha Pradesh state was split into
two in June 2014, with creation of the new state Telangana. As
the survey was already on foot in Andrha Pradesh, a decision was
made to split the sample of 1000 across both States.
See also the work of the Human Rights Data Analysis
Group.https://hrdag.org/2013/03/11/mse-the-basics/
Kevin Bales, Olivia Hesketh, Bernard Silverman, 'Modern Slavery

in the UK: How Many Victims?' Significance (Royal Statistical

Institute for Economics and Peace, Global Terrorism Index, (Vision
15 
Society), June 2015, pp. 16-21.
of Humanity, 2015), pp. 90-92, accessed 24/03.2016:http://static.
visionofhumanity.org/sites/default/files/2015%20Global%20Ter- UK Human Trafficking Centre NCA Strategic Assessment: The
33 

rorism%20Index%20Report_2.pdf Nature and Scale of Human Trafficking in 2013, (National Crime

Agency, 2014, Ref. 0093-UKHTC.http://bit.ly/10j5pql
Indicator 'Internal conflicts fought' in "Global Peace Index 2015:
16 

Global Rankings", Vision of Humanity, accessed 24/03/2015:http:// Kevin Bales, Olivia Hesketh, Bernard Silverman, 'Modern Slavery
34 

www.visionofhumanity.org/#page/indexes/global-peace-in- in the UK: How Many Victims?' Significance (Royal Statistical

dex/2015 Society), June 2015, pp. 16-21.

Indicator 'Violent crime' in "Global Peace Index 2015: Global

17  Jan Van Dijk and Peter GM van der Heijden, 'On the potential of
35 

Rankings", Vision of Humanity, accessed 24/03/2015:http://www.
visionofhumanity.org/#page/indexes/global-peace-index/2015
"Data", WomanSTATS Project, accessed 24/03/2016:http://www.
18 
Multiple Systems Estimation for estimating the number of victims
of human trafficking across the world', Paper presented at the UN
Crime Commission, Vienna, May 2016.

womanstats.org/data.html
Indicator 'Weapons access' in "Global Peace Index 2015: Global
19 

Rankings", Vision of Humanity, accessed 24/03/2015:http://www.

visionofhumanity.org/#page/indexes/global-peace-index/2015

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 209

 Appendices cont.

36 
Small Island Developing States (SIDS), United Nations, There Ronald Clarke and Ross Homel, 'A Revised Classification of
39 

were three diversions from this general rule: (1) a similar ad-
justment was made for Madagascar as it has a socio-economic
environment similar to SIDS. (2) While the UN lists Singapore
as a SIDS, it is markedly different to other nations in this list
due largely to stronger economic conditions, which is a strong
pull factor. (3) No adjustment was made for Haiti. Although it is
recognised as a SIDS, there was high confidence in the existing
data point for Haiti which was based on random sample survey
data.http://www.un.org/en/events/islands2014/smallislands.shtml
40 
Situational Crime Prevention Techniques', in Crime Prevention
at a Crossroads, ed. Cincinnati, OH and Andersen, (1997), p. 17
-27.; Paul Ekblom & Nick Tilley, 'Going equipped: criminology,
situational crime prevention and the resourceful offender', British
Journal of Criminology, 40, 3: (Summer 2000): 376; Klaus Von
Lampe, 'The application of the framework of Situational Crime
Prevention to 'organized crime'', Criminology and Criminal Justice,
11 (2011): pp. 145-163.
Kevin Bales, Ending Slavery: How we Free Today's Slaves, (Universi-

37 
In simple terms, K-means is a statistical method which groups
similar items into clusters, ensuring that items not in the same
cluster are as different as possible. This is achieved by allocating
an item to the cluster with the nearest centroid, or the mean of
the cluster. The cluster's mean is then recalculated and the process
of allocating items to clusters begins again until no items change
groups, or those changes do not make a substantial difference in
the definition of clusters.
38 
Jacqueline Joudo Larsen, Monti Narayan Datta, and Kevin Bales,
41 
ty of California Press, 2007); Anne Gallagher & Paul Holmes,
'Developing an Effective Criminal Justice Response to Human
Trafficking: Lessons from the Frontline', International Criminal
Justice Review, 18, 3, (September 2008), pp. 318-348; Office to
Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, The 3Ps: Prevention,
Protection, Prosecution, (Democracy and Global Affairs, 2011),
accessed 17/09/14:http://www.state.gov/documents/organiza-
tion/167334.pdf
Due to the ongoing conflict and extreme disruption to govern-

'Modern Slavery: A global reckoning', Significance (Royal Statistical ment function, we have not included ratings for Afghanistan, Iraq,
Society October 2015. Available for download from:http://onlineli- Libya, Somalia, Syria and Yemen.
brary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1740-9713.2015.00854.x/pdf Calculated to equal a total of 100 points (so 100/28)
42 

A more detailed discussion of the limitations of not weighting

43 

certain activities is included in the detailed methodology paper,

available for download on the Global Slavery Index website.

210 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016

"Whenever I go back to my village I
feel so ashamed,"says Phany, who
lives in the Cambodian capital,
Phnom Penh, after escaping life
as a trafficked bride in China.
Photo credit, Charlotte Per

GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016 | 211

212 | GLOBAL SLAVERY INDEX 2016
A talibe (boy studying in a Qur’anic school) is bound by chains in an isolation area
of a daara (Qur’anic school) in Senegal, 2015. In this daara the youngest talibes are
shackled by their ankles to stop them from trying to run away. The chain’s length only
allows them to use an improvised bathroom in a separate area of the daara. These
children can stay like this for days, weeks, even months until they gain the marabout’s
(Qur’anic teacher) trust. Their guardian explains, “When I release them, I give them
the freedom to beg like the rest of the talibes.”
Photo credit, Mario Cruz

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