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INTRODUCTION
552 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 24, NO. 5 SEPTEMBER 1988
where BER" is the relative joint displacement vector {x
= [eT eTIT€R2"},A ( B ) € R " " is the generalized
inertia matrix, -f = - F ( B , e ) e € R n represents the
Fig. I . Block diagram representation of adaptive control system. inertia torques due to centrifugal and Coriolis
accelerations, - g = -C(B)B€R" is the gravity loads
The STR design procedure may be divided into three as seen at the joints where C(B)€R" " is nonunique,
steps: 1) selection of a parametric structure to represent and uER" is the control. In state-space representation,
the robotic system via discrete-time modeling, 2) on-line (1) can be given by
estimation of system parameters using the least squares,
extended least squares or maximum likelihood methods,
and 3 ) on-line controller design based on the estimated x = [Ao,G ,f,] x + [ A O , ] U.
system parameters via extended minimum variance or
pole-zero placement techniques. Note that functional dependencies are dropped for clarity.
Block diagrams of MRAS and STR are illustrated in If each actuator (dc motor) is modeled as a second-order,
Figs. 2 and 3 . Note that the dotted boxes in these figures linear, time-invariant subsystem (neglecting the armature
may be reduced to the regulator block in Fig. 1. After a inductance), and is coupled with the manipulator
brief review of system dynamics, the related background dynamics, the previously defined state vector x is
work is presented below. preserved and the control is the actuator input voltage. In
this case, (2) takes the following form
Adjustment
Mechanism
I I I. MRAS-BASED CONTROLLERS
Fig. 3. Block diagram of self-tuning regulator. In MRAS design, usually a second-order, linear,
time-invariant, continuous-time reference model is
selected for each link of the serial robot. Then a control
11. SYSTEM DYNAMICS law is derived to force the robot to behave like the
selected model. As mentioned earlier, local parametric
Dynamic equations of an n-link, n degree of freedom, optimization [5, 91, Lyapunov's second method (often
spatial, serial robot arm with rigid links are given by called Lyapunov's direct method) [lo], hyperstability
554 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 24, NO. 5 SEPTEMBER 1988
TABLE I
Summary Of MRAS Controllers In Literature
I I CONTROLLER CHARACTERISTICS
I I IurnoonoAru
ASSUMED SYS.
PARAMETERS
I I I I
Dubowsky and Deaforgar
1979 [SI 1 I J
Horowitz and Tomlruka
I980 1221
b v t o Remark%
1 : Calculates complete or partial nonlinear dynamics on-llne.
2 : Robot link lengths. mass contents. actuator parameters. etc.. If not othemiso specified.
3 : If "yes", stability analysis based on this assumption.
G : Gravity load compensated; also requires on-line Jacobian caiculation.
A : Requires only the on-line caiculallon of the inertia matrix.
0 : Nonlinear-gain feedback using local parametric optimization.
C : Constant-gain feedback.
L : Nonlinear-gain leedback using Lyapunov's second method.
H : Nonlinear-gain feedback using hyperstability theory.
S : Nonlinear-gain feedback using sliding control theory.
N : Structure of nonlinear system parameters (functions of state variables) are expiicilly assumed
known and are adaptively estimated; stability analysis based on hyperstability theory.
J : Yes.
- : No.
analysis is given by Popov's hyperstability theory. Later, assured if the manipulator hand velocity is sufficiently
Anex and Hubbard [28] have experimentally implemented slow, i.e., nonlinear system parameters change slowly.
this algorithm with some modifications. System response Nicosia and Tomei [30] derive control laws using the
to high speed movements is not tested, but practical hyperstability theory to follow a linear, time-invariant
problems encountered during the implementation are reference model. The plant (manipulator) parameters and
addressed in detail. Recently, Horowitz, et al. have the payload are assumed known and are not identified.
digitally implemented this control scheme on a 2-link Their controller does not produce chattering and is
direct-drive arm [29]. However, Sadegh and Horowitz relatively easy to implement. Singh develops a similar
have significantly improved the early work [22] in [26] adaptive controller [31]. Lim and Eslami [20] propose
by compensating nonlinearities and estimating constant controller designs based on Lyapunov's second method.
manipulator parameters on-line. Hence, they have been The authors choose to compensate nonlinearities along
able to remove the slowly time-varying system parameter with adaptively controlling the perturbed system equations
requirement. [20, 321 and show that the proposed controller has
Takegaki and Arimoto [7] propose an adaptive improved transient response. Lim and Eslami have later
method to track desired trajectories which are described extended their design to the control of robots in hand
in the task-oriented coordinates. The suggested controller coordinates [33]. Whyte also designs an adaptive
compensates gravity terms, calculates the Jacobian and controller via Lyapunov's second method [34]. The
the variable gains, but does not compensate the algorithm does not require any knowledge of the
manipulator dynamics completely. System stability is manipulator dynamics and selects nonlinear gains in the
556 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 24, NO. 5 SEPTEMBER 1988
discretized. The discretized model gives the structure of reported is the fact that the model and the controller
the parametric model whose parameters need to be parameter identifications may not converge fast enough
estimated on-line. The parametric model is given by the while the robot motion takes place. The authors have
following multivariable difference equation later presented experimental results conducted on the
y ( k ) = e T + ( k - 1) + e ( k ) Stanford arm via modified PUMA 600 controller and the
(5)
DEC LSI-11/30 interface [62]. The results have
where y ( k ) E R " is the system output, k is the sampling confirmed the computer simulations.
time counter, 0 E R " ( 2 n m f 1 ) contains the parameters to Houshangi and Koivo design a hybrid (force/position)
+
be identified, E R ( 2 n m f 1represents
) the combined self-tuning controller expressed in the hand coordinates
system input and output vector, e E R " is zero-mean using both the extended minimum variance and the pole
Gaussian white noise with a finite variance, and m is the placement techniques [63]. Pole placement technique
order of the estimation model. produces less overshoot in the numerical simulations but
Parameter estimation is based on the system is more demanding computationally. The developed
identification techniques using the sampled input-output controllers cannot eliminate the steady-state errors
data. Although such techniques include the least squares, completely, but the simulations show less than 2 percent
extended least squares and maximum likelihood methods, stead-state error.
the recursive least squares method is extensively used Lee [8] derives the perturbation equations, discretizes
because of its lower computational requirements [8, 36, them, and estimates the system parameters using the
38, 54-69]. The recursive least squares estimation is recursive least squares method. Then an adaptive
given by controller is designed using the extended minimum
variance technique. The parameter identification requires
6 ; ( k ) = 6 ; ( k - 1) + P ( k ) + ( k - l)[y,(k) the estimation of 6n2 parameters on-line (216 for a 6-link
manipulator). Lee provides a detailed breakdown of the
- @ ( k - I)+(k - l)] (6) computational requirements and concludes that for a 6-
where link manipulator the control scheme can be updated at
about 56 Hz on a PDP-11/45. Lee and Chung propose to
decouple the manipulator dynamics with a feedforward
torque component and construct a feedback signal via
-
1
P ( k - l)+(k - I ) + T ( k - 1 ) P ( k - 1)
A + +T(k - 1)P(k - l ) + ( k - 1)
and i i ( k ) represents the estimate of the ith row of 0
optimal STR design [64]. The authors also implement the
approach in robot hand coordinates [57].
Sundareshan and Koenig present three linear,
discretized model structures for a 3-link arm and develop
defined in (3,P ( k ) is a square symmetric matrix of order an STR, but, unfortunately, do not present simulation
+
(2nm l), and 0 < A < 1 is an exponential forgetting results [65]. Zaghlool establishes the parameter
factor (usually set to 0.95). identification by recursive adaptation and studies the
Once the parameters are identified at each sampling effect of the sampling period on the system stability [66].
time, regulator parameters are estimated using the Li discusses the computational requirements of the
extended minimum variance or pole-zero placement method [67]. In [68], desilva and Winssen essentially
techniques. The method described above is known as offer an STR, but emphasize the recursive calculation of
explicit or indirect STR. If the regulator parameters are linearized system dynamics which is in general more
estimated directly by a reparameterization of the process computationally intensive than the nonlinearized
model, the model is called implicit or direct STR. manipulator dynamics. Das and Loh neglect the dynamic
Usually implicit STR algorithms cancel all process zeros interactions between the links and treat the system as
making them suitable only for minimum phase systems. linear and time-invariant. Then, they assign the system
Koivo and Guo [55] assume an autoregressive model poles with a scheme which does not require matrix
and identify system parameters using the recursive least inversion [69]. Abrishamkar and Chassiakos employ the
squares technique. They design an extended minimum maximum likelihood method to estimate system
variance controller for the estimated model. The method parameters, and then minimize a linear quadratic cost
chooses a quadratic performance index in terms of the function to derive the optimal control expression [70].
state error vector and the system control vector and Hsia [36] reviews the STR formulation on a
minimizes it relative to admissible controls while decoupled model. Karnik and Sinha [58] develop an STR
satisfying (5). Their simulations include decoupled and based on a nonminimum phase model which assigns the
partially coupled parametric model structures. They report system poles while retaining all the zeros. This algorithm
that the parameter convergence is faster in the decoupled is developed for a UNIMATE-2000 robot. Landau [9, 591
case, and that no significant improvement in the system and Vukobratovic, et al. [38] review various STR designs
response is observed for the coupled model. This is rather in detail.
interesting, because the amount of on-line calculations is In general, discrete-time formulation is especially
considerably reduced for the decoupled case. Also suitable for computer control. However, on-line
558 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 24, NO. 5 SEPTEMBER 1988
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560 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS VOL. 24, NO. 5 SEPTEMBER 1988