ECG303 BASIC SOIL MECHANICS SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS 1 / 16

MODULE 2: SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After going through this module, students will be able to:
 Calculate the total and effective stresses in soils
 Define shear strength parameters of soils
 Discuss Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion for soils
 Describe laboratory test methods used in the determination of shear strength of soils.
 Explain the importance of shear strength in the analysis and design of foundations and
retaining wall and the stability of slopes.

1.0 NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESSES

Definitions:
N A normal stress is the load per unit area on a plane
normal to the direction of the normal load, N.

 Force N
T   (1)
Area A

A A shear stress is the load per unit area on a plane
parallet to the direction of the shear force, T

Shear Force T
Fig 1.1 : Normal and shear   (2)
stresses Area A

A is the cross-sectional area of the plane.

x
z
Ground surface
zx
z

soil
z xz  

x
A xz

 zx
(a) Soil profile z
(b) Soil element A
Figure 1.2 Stresses acting on an element of soil taken at a depth z below ground level.

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Figure 1.2 above shows a two-dimensional case for a soil element in a soil mass being
subjected to normal stresses (z and x) and shear stresses (zx and xz) acting on horizontal
and vertical planes.

Where z, is a normal vertical stress also known as overburden stress and x is a normal
horizontal stress or lateral stress.

The normal and shear stresses acting on any other plane can then be found as follows,

z  x z  x
Normal stress,     cos 2   xz sin 2 (3)
2 2

z  x
Shear stress,   sin 2   xz cos 2 (4)
2

Where  is the angle made by the plane with the horizontal.

1.2 PRINCIPAL STRESSES

From Eq. (3) we can choose the value of  in such a way that the shear stress,  will be equal
to zero. Letting  = 0

2  xz
tan 2  (5)
z  x

For given values of xz, x and z, will give two values of  which are 90 degrees apart. This
means that there are two planes that are at right angles to each other on which the shear stress
is equal to zero. Such planes are called principal planes. The normal stresses acting on the
principal planes are referred to as principal stresses.

The value of principal stresses can be found by substituting Eq. 5 into Eq. 3:

z  x     x 
2

Major Principal stress; 1    z    2xz (6)

2  2 

z  x     x 
2

Minor Principal stress; 3    z    xz

2
(7)
2  2 

1 z NOTE :
zx Sign Conventions
3  Compressive forces and stresses are taken as positive
 Positive shear stresses produce clockwise moments
about a point just outside the element.

xz x

x xz
3
zx 1
z
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MOHR’S CIRCLE

Mohr’s circle of stress is a graphical representation of the state of stress (shear and normal) at
a point at equilibrium. The state of stress for the soil element given before can be presented as
a Mohr’s circle as shown in the figure below.

Shear stress,  


(x,xz)
xz
(,)

 
Normal stress, 

 
zx
P (z,zx)

If a line is drawn from a point on the circle parallel to the plane on which the stress state exists it
will intersect the circle at another point on the circle which is known as the pole, or origin of
planes.

Any line drawn through the pole will intersect the circle at a point which represents the state of
stress on a plane inclined at the same orientation in spaces as the line.

Once the pole is known, the stresses on any plane can be readily determined by drawing a line
through the pole parallel to the plane in question; the stress on the plane will be the
coordinates where the lines intersects the circle.

How to find the pole:

a) Start from a known magnitude and orientation of stress.

b) Draw a line through the point of known stress with the same orientation in space as the
plane on which those stresses act.
c) The pole is where this line intersects the Mohr’s circle.

CALCULATION OF VERTICAL OVERBURDEN STRESS

A vertical overburden stress at any point in a soil mass is due to the weight of soil above that
point. The vertical overburden stress at a depth, z from the ground surface can be calculated
as follows:
z   z (8)

where  is the unit weight of the soil layer.

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 1 h1
z
z 2
z
h2

z
3 h3

Fig. 3

For multi-layered soil as shown in the figure below, the vertical overburden stress at any depth z
can be calculated as follows;

 z  1 h1   2 h2  3 h3  ... or  z   hi i (9)

THE PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS

The principle of effective stress was first recognized by Terzaghi in the 1920’s during his
research into soil consolidation. The principle of effective stress is the most important principle
in soil mechanics.
a) Deformations of soils are a function of effective stresses not total stresses.
b) The principle of effective stress applies only to normal stresses and not to shear
stresses.

Consider and element of a saturated soil subjected to a normal stress , applied on a horizontal
boundary;

 External stress or
 Total stress, 

At contact point

Internal resistance due to

u pore water pressure, u
'
Internal resistance from soil
 grains or effective stress, ’

Effective stress  '    u

Pore-water pressure u   w z w

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SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS

The shear strength of a soil is the maximum value of shear stress that may be induced within its
mass before soil yields (fails).
It is its ability to sustain shear stress that provides strength for the soil.
In brittle soil, yielding may lead to the formation of shear slip surface, over which sliding
movement can take place. In softer more plastic soils yielding occurs as a result of internal
particle flow.
Measures of shear strength are required in the analyses and design of geotechnical structures,
such as foundations, retaining walls, earth slopes and road bases.

The Frictional Model

The shear strength within a soil mass is due to the development of frictional resistance between
adjacent soil particles, and the analyses are based on the friction model.

N
N
s
T
T

r s
T

T
r
N
N

T3

Tlimit =  N

T2

T1


N
N1 N2 N3

The coefficient of friction,  is a function of the roughness of the slip surface and may be
assumed to be constant for a given material. The limiting value of the tangential force T can be
written as;
T  N tan 
where  is defined as the angle of friction as shown in the graph above

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STRENGTH ENVELOPE
A strength envelope is a graphical representation of a particular limiting condition. For example
in a shear stress vs. normal stress graph, the shear strength is the stress ratio / at failure or
ff  f ff 

Shear stress, 
Strength ff  f (ff )
envelope
Impossible state

Possible state

Normal stress, 

Strength Envelope

Points below the strength envelope represents possible stress state or stress ratio before failure
and points on the strength envelope represent a stress ratio at failure. Points above the
envelope are impossible stress state and therefore cannot exist.

THE MOHR COULOMB FAILURE CRITERIA

Mohr (1900) presented a theory that said that a material fails in shear through a critical
combination of normal stress and shear stress, or
ff  f ff 
whereff is the shear strength of the soil which is the shear stress on a failure plane during
failure and ff is the normal stress on a failure plane at failure. The failure envelope
represented by the above equation is a curve line. see figure xx.
For most soil mechanics problems, the failure envelope can be approximated as a straight line
(Coulomb, 1776) and can be written as;
ff  c  ff tan 
where c and  are the shear strength parameters of soil
c = apparent cohesion
 = angle of internal friction
ff = Shear strength or the maximum shear stress on a failure plane at failure.
ff = the normal stress on a failure plane at failure.

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Shear stress,  Mohr’s failure

ff  f (ff )
envelope

Impossible state
Mohr-Coulomb
failure envelope

 ff  c   ff tan '

Normal stress, 

Mohr-Coulomb Failure Envelope



ff

’1

’
c ’3  ’3
’3f ’
’3 ’1 ’ff ’1f

’1

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CRITICAL STRENGTH AND PEAK STRENGTH

' h ’
v
   v
h
peak

ultimate ’

h Initially dense sample

v dilation Initially loose sample

h

contraction

Stress-strain and volume change behaviour of loose and dense soil.

 
CSL

f ultimate
Failure
point

’c
’ h
’f

e e

CSL

ef ef

CSL

’ Log ’
’f Log ’f

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DETERMINATION OF THE SHEAR STRENGTH PARAMETERS OF SOILS

SHEAR BOX TEST

60 mm

60 mm

N N
Loading plate
v
h
T

Soil sample


Shear box Porous stones

Sample under normal load, N Sample under constant normal load, N

before shearing and increasing shear load, T

Shear stress, Shear stress,

Peak strength
envelope

Peak Ultimate strength

envelope

ultimate
3
2

1

peak ult

Horizontal displacement, h 1 2 3
Normal stress,

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TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST

The triaxial shear test is one of the most reliable methods available for the determination of the
shear strength parameters of soils.
It is widely used for research and conventional testing.

LVDT
For Axial
displacement

Load Cell

Triaxial
Cell

Membrane
stretcher
Soil sample
38mm x 76mm

Top
platen
Porous Rubber
stone membrane
Filter
O ring paper

Sample preparation
kit
Pressure Pressure Pressure
Transducer Transducer Transducer
(cell pressure) (pore pressure) (back pressure)

Axial Axial load, P

Displacement,
L

Load Cell

u l Volume change
unit, V
Cell pressure, c

Pore pressure, u
Drainage
Back pressure, ub
Valve

Schematic of a triaxial test set-up showing the measurement transducers

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CALCULATIONS

c 
c

L c c c c
u u

strains c c
Sample under cell Sample during
pressure only shearing

L
Axial strain  a 
LO
where L is the change in sample length and LO is the initial length of sample before shearing.
V
Volumetric strain,  v 
VO
where V is the volume change and VO is the initial volume of sample before shearing.
The deviator stress,  from the applied axial load, P can be obtained by dividing with the
effective cross-sectional area of the sample;
P
 
A
 1  v 
The cross-sectional area, A  A O  
 1  a 
In a conventional triaxial test, during the shearing stage, the cell pressure remains constant
while the deviator stress is increased by increasing the axial load, then:
The radial stress,  r  c and
The axial stress, a  c   

The effective radial stress or cell pressure, 'r  'c  c  u

The effective axial stress, 'a  a  u

Since there is no shear stresses developed on the sides of the specimen, therefore
'a  '1 the major principal stress, and

'r  '3 the minor principla stress

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Conventional Triaxial Compression Tests

The three stages in conducting triaxial compression tests are shown in the table below:

Stages in Conducting Triaxial compression tests

Stage Description Cell Pore Deviator Drainage
pressure pressure stress valve
c u 
Saturation To saturate the soil sample
Stage by increasing the cell Increases Increases zero open
pressure and the back
pressure and maintaining a ’c constant Ub
constant low effective increases
confining stress.
u = ub
Check the saturation using
the skempton pore pressure
coefficient, B, where
u
B


Consolidation CONSOLIDATED (C)

stage To consolidate the sample, Increases Constant Zero Open
the effective cell pressure u = ub
will be increased by ’c
increasing the cell pressure increases no u
and maintaining the pore- develops
pressure. The drainage
valve open

UNCONSOLIDATED (U) Increases zero Close

The drainage valve is u
closed while cell pressure is increases
increased. The pore-water with
pressure will also increased increases in
corresponding to the excess
increase in cell pressure. pore-
The sample will not undergo pressure
consolidation u
Shearing DRAINED SHEARING (D)
stage The drainage valve is open Constant Constant  = P/A Open
during the shearing stage. increases
The axial force is applied to ’c u = ub
the sample at a cosntant constant ’a
rate of strain until the increases
sample fails.
The pore-pressure and cell
pressure remain constant
with increasing axial stress.

UNDRAINED SHEARING
(U)
The drainage valve is Constant u  = P/A Close
closed during the shearing increases increases
stage. The axial force is with
applied to the sample at a increases in
cosntant rate of strain until excess
the sample fails. The cell pore-
pressure remains constant. pressure
Pore-pressure in the sample u
increases.

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From the above description of triaxial test, there are three possible types of conventional triaxial
compression tests that can be conducted to determine the shear strength parameters of soils.

a) Consolidated-Drained Triaxial Test (CD-test)

CD conditions are most critical for the long term steady state seepage of embankment dams
and long term stability of excavations and slopes.
Figure below shows the typical deviator stress vs. axial strain curves and volumetric strain. vs.
axial strain curves for overconsolidated and normally consolidated soils.

'

Overconsolidated soil

Normally consolidated
soil

a

v

a

CD tests on overconsolidated and normally consolidated

Soils at the same cell pressure



3A 3B 3C 1A 1B 1C 

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b) Consolidated-Undrained Test (CU)

c) Unconsolidated-Undrained Test (UU)

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STRESS PATHS
1. Half sum versus Half difference plot
The states of stress at a point in equilibrium can be presented by a Mohr circle in a shear stress
vs. normal stress plot.
Sometimes it is convenient to present that state of stress by a stress point with the coordinates
of 1  3  / 2 and 1  3  / 2 as shown in the figure below.



stress point

1  3  / 2

3 1 
1  3  / 2

where :

q p  1  2 / 2
stress path
q  1  2 / 2


3 1 p

Stress paths of drained test:

q, q’ ’

Failure envelope,
Kf line

ESP TSP

p, p’

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Stress Paths for Undrained tests:

q, q’ ’

Kf line

uf = uo + uf

ESP

TSP

uo p, p’

q, q’ ’
Kf line

uf = uo + uf

ESP TSP

uo p, p’

Relationships between c and ’ and the equation for the Kf line

a'
c'  and sin '  tan '
cos '

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