CH 3

LECTURE MECHANICS OF
MATERIALS
2 Stress and Strain
– Axial Loading
© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Edition
Sixth
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf • Mazurek
Stress & Strain: Axial Loading
• Suitability of a structure or machine may depend on the

deformations in the structure as well as the stresses induced
under loading. Statics analyses alone are not sufficient.
• Considering structures as deformable materials allows

determination of internal forces and reactions which are
statically indeterminate.
• Determination of the stress distribution within a member
also requires consideration of deformations in the member.
• This chapter is concerned with deformation of a structural

member under axial loading. Later chapters will deal with
torsional and pure bending loads.
© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2- 2

Edition
Sixth
Strain

Edition
Sixth
Stress-Strain Test
Fig 2.7 This machine is used to test tensile test specimens, Fig 2.8 Test specimen with tensile load.
such as those shown in this chapter.

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Sixth
Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials
Ultimate Strength Breaking Strength

Yield Strength
Yield (屈服）
Hardening (硬化)
Necking (頸縮)

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Sixth
Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials
Fig 2.1 Stress-strain diagram for a typical brittle material.

Edition
Sixth
Hooke’s Law: Modulus of Elasticity

• Below the yield stress (or strength)
s = Ee
E = Youngs Modulus or
Modulus of Elasticity
• Yield stress or yield strength is the
largest value of the stress below
which Hooke’s law can be used
• For a given material, yield strength
is known as the proportional limit
of that material. Strength is affected
by alloying, heat treating, and
manufacturing process but stiffness
(Modulus of Elasticity) is not.
Fig 2.16 Stress-strain diagrams for iron and
different grades of steel.

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Sixth
Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior
• If the strain disappears when the

stress is removed, the material is
said to behave elastically.
• The largest stress for which this

occurs is called the elastic limit.
• When the strain does not return

to zero after the stress is
removed, the material is said to
behave plastically.

Edition
Sixth
Deformations Under Axial Loading
• From Hooke’s Law:

s P
s = Ee e= =
E AE
• From the definition of strain:


L
• Equating and solving for the deformation,
PL

AE

• With variations in loading, cross-section or
material properties,
Pi Li
Fig. 2.22  
i Ai Ei

Edition
Sixth
Example 2.01
SOLUTION:
• Divide the rod into components at
the load application points.
• Apply a free-body analysis on each

component to determine the
internal force
• Evaluate the total of the component

Determine the deformation of deflections.
the steel rod shown under the
given loads.

Edition
Sixth
SOLUTION: • Apply free-body analysis to each

• Divide the rod into three component to determine internal forces,
components: P1  240 103 N
P2  60 103 N
P3  120 103 N
• Evaluate total deflection,
Pi Li 1  P1 L1 P2 L2 P3 L3 
      
i Ai Ei E  A1 A2 A3 

1     
 240 103 0.3  60 103 0.3 120 103 0.4 
 

 
200 109  581106 581106 194 106 
 1.73 103 m
L1  L2  0.3m L3  0.4m   1.73 mm

A1  A2  58110-6 m 2 A3  194 10-6 m 2

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Sixth
Example 2.1
The rigid bar BDE is supported by two links AB and CD.
Link AB is made of aluminum (E = 70 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 500
mm2. Link CD is made of steel (E = 200 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of (600
mm2).
For the 30-kN force shown, determine the SOLUTION:
deflection a) of B, b) of D, and c) of E.
• Apply a free-body analysis to the bar
BDE to find the forces exerted by
links AB and DC.
• Evaluate the deformation of links AB
and DC or the displacements of B
and D.
• Work out the geometry to find the
deflection at E given the deflections
at B and D.

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Sixth
Example 2.1
Displacement of B:
SOLUTION:
PL
B 
Free body: Bar BDE AE
 60 103 N 0.3 m 

500 10-6 m2 70 109 Pa 
 514 10 6 m
 B  0.514 mm 
åMB = 0
Displacement of D:
0 = -(30 kN ´ 0.6 m )+ FCD ´ 0.2 m
PL
FCD = +90 kN tension D 
AE
å MD = 0 90  103 N 0.4 m 
0 = -(30 kN ´ 0.4 m )- FAB ´ 0.2 m

600 10-6 m2 200 109 Pa 
FAB = -60 kN compression  300 10 6 m
 D  0.300 mm 
Edition
Sixth
Example 2.1
Displacement of D:
BB BH

DD HD
0.514 mm 200 mm   x

0.300 mm x
x  73.7 mm
EE  HE

DD HD
E

400  73.7 mm
0.300 mm 73.7 mm
 E  1.928 mm
 E  1.928 mm 

Edition
Sixth
Static Indeterminacy
• Structures for which internal forces and
reactions cannot be determined from statics
alone are said to be statically indeterminate(静
不定).
• A structure will be statically indeterminate
whenever it is held by more supports than
are required to maintain its equilibrium.
• Redundant reactions are replaced with

unknown loads which along with the other
loads must produce compatible deformations.
• Deformations due to actual loads and redundant

reactions are determined separately and then
added or superposed.
  L R  0

Edition
Sixth
Example 2.04
Determine the reactions at A and B for the steel
bar and loading shown, assuming a close fit at
both supports before the loads are applied.
SOLUTION:
• Consider the reaction at B as redundant,
release the bar from that support, and solve for
the displacement at B due to the applied loads.
• Solve for the displacement at B due to the

redundant reaction at B.
• Require that the displacements sum due to the

loads and due to the redundant reaction be
compatible, i.e., require that their sum be zero.
• Solve for the reaction at A due to applied loads

and the reaction found at B.
2- 16
Edition
Sixth
Example 2.04
SOLUTION:
• Solve for the displacement at B due to the applied loads with
the redundant constraint released,
P1  0 P2  P3  600 103 N P4  900 103 N
A1  A2  400 10 6 m 2 A3  A4  250 10 6 m 2

L1  L2  L3  L4  0.150 m
Pi Li 1.125 109
L   
A
i i iE E
• Solve for the displacement at B due to the redundant
constraint,
P1  P2   RB
A1  400  10 6 m 2 A2  250  10 6 m 2

L1  L2  0.300 m
δR  
Pi Li


1.95  103 RB 
A
i i iE E
Edition
Sixth
Example 2.04
• Require that the displacements due to the loads and due to
the redundant reaction be compatible,
  L R  0
  

1.125 109 1.95  103 RB 
0
E E
RB  577  103 N  577 kN
• Find the reaction at A due to the loads and the reaction at B

 Fy  0  R A  300 kN  600 kN  577 kN
R A  323 kN
R A  323 kN
RB  577 kN

Edition
Sixth
Thermal Stresses（熱應力）
• A temperature change results in a change in length or
thermal strain. There is no stress associated with the
thermal strain unless the elongation is restrained by
the supports.
• Treat the additional support as redundant and apply

the principle of superposition.
 T   T L
PL
P 
AE
  thermal expansion coefficien t
• The thermal deformation and the deformation from

the redundant support must be compatible.
  T   P  0  T L 
PL
0
AE
P   AE T 
P
   E T 
A
Edition
Sixth
Poisson’s Ratio
• For a slender bar subjected to axial loading:

x
x  y z  0
E
• The elongation in the x-direction is

accompanied by a contraction in the other
directions. Assuming that the material is
isotropic (no directional dependence),
y  z  0
• Poisson’s ratio is defined as
lateral strain y 
   z
axial strain x x
0    12 (to be demonstrated)

Edition
Sixth
Negative “Poisson’s ratio”

Edition
Sixth
Generalized Hooke’s Law

• For an element subjected to multi-axial loading, the
normal strain components resulting from the stress
components may be determined from the principle of
superposition(疊加原理): the effect of a given
combined loading on a structure can be obtained by
determining separately the effects of the various
loads and combining the results obtained. This
requires:
1) strain is linearly related to stress
2) deformations are small
• With these restrictions:

 x  y  z
x    
E E E
 x  y  z
y    
E E E
 x  y  z
z    
E E E
Edition
Sixth
Dilatation: Bulk Modulus

• Relative to the unstressed state, the change in volume is
   
e  1   x 1   y 1   z   1  1   x   y   z  1
 x y z
1  2
  x   y   z 
E
 dilatation (change in volume per unit volume)
• For element subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure,

3(1 - 2n ) p
e = -p =-
E k
E
k= = bulk modulus
3(1 - 2n )
• Subjected to uniform pressure, dilatation must be

negative, therefore
0    12

Edition
Sixth
Shear Strain
• Shear strain is defined as the change in angle
between two line segments that were originally
perpendicular.
• A cubic element subjected to a shear stress will

deform into a rhomboid. The corresponding shear
strain is quantified in terms of the change in angle
between the sides,
Fig. 2-46  
 xy  f  xy
• A plot of shear stress vs. shear strain is similar to

the previous plots of normal stress vs. normal
strain except that the strength values are
approximately half. For small strains,
 xy  G  xy  yz  G  yz  zx  G  zx
Fig. 2-47 where G is the modulus of rigidity or shear modulus.

Edition
Sixth
Example 2.10
SOLUTION:
• Determine the average angular
deformation or shearing strain of
the block.
• Apply Hooke’s law for shearing
stress and strain to find the
A rectangular block of material with corresponding shearing stress.
modulus of rigidity G = 630 MPa is
bonded to two rigid horizontal • Use the definition of shearing stress
plates. The lower plate is fixed, to find the force P.
while the upper plate is subjected to
a horizontal force P. Knowing that
the upper plate moves through 1.0
mm. under the action of the force,
determine a) the average shearing
strain in the material, and b) the
force P exerted on the plate.
Edition
Sixth
• Determine the average angular deformation

or shearing strain of the block.
1 mm
 xy  tan  xy   xy  0.020 rad
50 mm
• Apply Hooke’s law for shearing stress and

strain to find the corresponding shearing
stress.
 xy  G xy  630MPa 0.020 rad  12.6MPa
• Use the definition of shearing stress to find

the force P.
 
P   xy A  12.6 106 Pa 0.2m 0.062m   156.2 103 N
P  156.2 kN

Edition
Sixth
Relation Among E, , and G

• An axially loaded slender bar will
elongate in the axial direction and
contract in the transverse directions.
• An initially cubic element oriented as in
top figure will deform into a rectangular
parallelepiped. The axial load produces a
normal strain.
• If the cubic element is oriented as in the
bottom figure, it will deform into a
rhombus. Axial load also results in a shear
strain.
• Components of normal and shear strain are
related,
E E
 1    or G 
2G 21  
(Read textbook 2.15 for detailed proof )
Edition
Sixth
Example 2.5
A circle of diameter d = 225 mm is scribed on

an unstressed aluminum plate of thickness t =
18 mm. Forces acting in the plane of the plate
later cause normal stresses x = 84 MPa and
z = 140 MPa.
For E = 70 GPa and  = 1/3, determine the
change in:
a) the length of diameter AB,
b) the length of diameter CD,
c) the thickness of the plate, and
d) the volume of the plate.

Edition
Sixth
SOLUTION:
• Apply the generalized Hooke’s Law to • Evaluate the deformation components.
 B A   x d   0.533 10 3 mm/mm 225mm 
find the three components of normal
strain.
 B A  0.12mm
 x  y  z
x    
E E E  C D   z d   1.600 10 3 mm/mm 225mm 
 

1
84 MPa   0 
1
140 MPa   C D  0.36mm
70  10 MPa 
3
3 
 0.533 103 mm/mm  t   y t   1.067 10 3 mm/mm 18mm 
 x  y  z
y      t  0.0192mm
E E E
 1.067 103 mm/mm
 x  y z • Find the change in volume
z    
E E E
 1.600  103 mm/mm e   x   y   z  1.067 103 mm 3 /mm3
V  eV  1.067 103 380  380 18mm 3
V  2733mm 3

Edition
Sixth
Saint-Venant’s Principle
• Loads transmitted through rigid
plates result in uniform distribution
of stress and strain.
• Concentrated loads result in large

stresses in the vicinity of the load
application point.
• Stress and strain distributions

become uniform at a relatively short
distance from the load application
points.
• Saint-Venant’s Principle:
Stress distribution may be assumed
independent of the mode of load
application except in the immediate
vicinity of load application points.
Edition
Sixth
Stress Concentration: Effect of Materials Defects on

Stress Distribution
(a) Flat bars with holes
Discontinuities of cross section may result in  max P

K  ave 
high localized or concentrated stresses.  ave t d
Edition
Sixth
Stress Concentration: Fillet
(b) Flat bars with fillets
 max P
K  ave 
 ave t d
Edition
Sixth
Example 2.12
SOLUTION:
• Determine the geometric ratios and
find the stress concentration factor
from Fig. 2.64b.
Determine the largest axial load P
that can be safely supported by a • Find the allowable average normal
flat steel bar consisting of two stress using the material allowable
portions, both 10 mm thick, and normal stress and the stress
respectively 40 and 60 mm wide, concentration factor.
connected by fillets of radius r = 8 • Apply the definition of normal stress to
mm. Assume an allowable normal find the allowable load.
stress of 165 MPa.

Edition
Sixth
• Determine the geometric ratios and

find the stress concentration factor
from Fig. 2.64b.
D 60 mm r 8 mm
  1.50   0.20
d 40 mm d 40 mm
K  1.82
• Find the allowable average normal

stress using the material allowable
normal stress and the stress
concentration factor.
 max 165 MPa
 ave    90.7 MPa
K 1.82
(b) Flat bars with fillets • Apply the definition of normal stress
to find the allowable load.
P  A ave  40 mm 10 mm 90.7 MPa 
 36.3  103 N
P  36.3 kN

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LECTURE MECHANICS OF

© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Stress & Strain: Axial Loading

• Suitability of a structure or machine may depend on the

• Considering structures as deformable materials allows

• This chapter is concerned with deformation of a structural

© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2- 2

© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2- 4

Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials

Ultimate Strength Breaking Strength

© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2- 5

Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials

Fig 2.1 Stress-strain diagram for a typical brittle material.

© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2- 6

Hooke’s Law: Modulus of Elasticity

© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2- 7

Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior

• If the strain disappears when the

• The largest stress for which this

• When the strain does not return

© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2- 8

Deformations Under Axial Loading

• From Hooke’s Law:

© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2- 9

• Apply a free-body analysis on each

• Evaluate the total of the component

© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2- 10

SOLUTION: • Apply free-body analysis to each

• Evaluate total deflection,

L1  L2  0.3m L3  0.4m   1.73 mm

© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2- 11

© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2- 12

© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2- 14

• Redundant reactions are replaced with

• Deformations due to actual loads and redundant

© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2- 15

• Solve for the displacement at B due to the

• Require that the displacements sum due to the

• Solve for the reaction at A due to applied loads

A1  A2  400 10 6 m 2 A3  A4  250 10 6 m 2

A1  400  10 6 m 2 A2  250  10 6 m 2

• Find the reaction at A due to the loads and the reaction at B

© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2- 18

• Treat the additional support as redundant and apply

• The thermal deformation and the deformation from

• For a slender bar subjected to axial loading:

• The elongation in the x-direction is

• Poisson’s ratio is defined as

© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2- 20

Negative “Poisson’s ratio”

© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Generalized Hooke’s Law

• With these restrictions:

Dilatation: Bulk Modulus

• For element subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure,

• Subjected to uniform pressure, dilatation must be

© 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

• A cubic element subjected to a shear stress will

• A plot of shear stress vs. shear strain is similar to

Fig. 2-47 where G is the modulus of rigidity or shear modulus.

• Determine the average angular deformation

• Apply Hooke’s law for shearing stress and