PH 301

ENGINEERING OPTICS
Lecture_1
 Syllabus
Lens systems: Basics & concepts of lens design, some lens systems.
Optical components: Reflective, refractive & diffractive systems; Mirrors, prisms, gratings,
filters, polarizing components.
Interferometric systems: Two beam, multiple beam, shearing, scatter fringe & polarization
interferometers.
Vision Optics: Eye & vision, colorimetry basics.
Optical sources: Incandescent, fluorescent, discharge lamps, Light emitting diode.
Optical detectors: Photographic emulsion, thermal detectors, photodiodes, photomultiplier
tubes, detector arrays, Charge-coupled device, CMOS.
Optical Systems: Telescopes, microscopes (bright field, dark field, confocal, phase
contrast, digital holographic), projection systems, interferometers, spectrometers.
Display devices: Cathode ray tube, Liquid crystal display, Liquid crystals on silicon, Digital
light processing, Digital micro-mirror device, Gas plasma, LED display, Organic LED.
Consumer devices: Optical disc drives: CD, DVD; laser printer, photocopier, cameras,
image intensifiers.

Texts
1. R. S. Longhurst, Geometrical & Physical Optics, 3rd ed., Orient Longman, 1988.
2. R. E. Fischer, B. Tadic-Galeb, & P. R. Yoder, Optical System Design, 2nd ed., SPIE, 2008
3. W. J. Smith, Modern Optical Engineering, 3rd ed., McGraw Hill, 2000.
4. K. Iizuka, Engineering Optics, Springer, 2008.
5. B. H. Walker, Optical Engineering Fundamentals, SPIE Press, 1995.
 Engineering Optics

Engineering Optics deals with the engineering aspects of optics, & its
main emphasis is on applying the knowledge of optics to the solution of
engineering problems.

09-08-2017
 Optical phenomena
• Interference
• Diffraction
• Polarization
Young’s Experiment
(1801)
 Young’s Experiment
Two light rays pass through two slits, separated by a distance d & strike a
screen a distance D, from slits. Interference pattern consists of a series of dark
& bright lines perpendicular to plane of Figure.
P

S1S2  d , OP  yn
s1 yn

s O
s2

For an arbitrary point P to correspond to a maximum

S2 P  S1P  n; n  0,1,2,...
( S 2 P) 2  ( S1P) 2  [ D 2  ( yn  d / 2) 2 ]  [ D 2  ( yn  d / 2) 2 ]
 2 yn d
2 yn d
S 2 P  S1P 
S 2 P  S1P
 If yn, d << D then negligible error will be introduced if S2P + S1P ~ 2D.
Ex. d = 0.02 cm; D = 50 cm; OP = 0.5 cm
S2P + S1P = 100.005 cm
Error = 0.005 % Negligible

2 yn d yn d
S 2 P  S1 P  
2D D
nD
yn 
d
Thus dark & bright fringes are equally spaced & distance between two
consecutive dark (or bright) fringes is

(n  1)D nD
  yn 1  yn  
d d
D

d
Expression for fringe width
Young’s Double Slit Experiment
Young’s Double Slit Experiment
Displacement of fringes
 Diffraction

Tracks of a CD act as a diffraction grating, producing a separation of

colors of white light. Nominal track separation on a CD is 1.6 μm,
corresponding to about 625 tracks per mm. For λ = 600 nm, this would
give a first order diffraction maximum at about 22º.
Diffraction
Diffraction
 Diffraction
Interference corresponds to situation when we consider superposition of
waves coming out from a number of point sources &

Diffraction corresponds to situation when we consider waves coming out

from an area source like a circular or rectangular aperture or even a large no.
of rectangular apertures (like diffraction grating).

Diffraction phenomena are usually divided into two categories:

Fresnel diffraction: Source of light & screen are at a finite distance from
diffracting aperture.
Fraunhofer diffraction: Source & screen are at infinite distances from
aperture. This is easily achieved by placing source on the focal plane of a
convex lens & placing screen on the focal plane of another convex lens.
Fresnel diffraction

Fraunhofer diffraction
 Single-slit diffraction pattern
A slit is a rectangular aperture of length large compared to its breadth.

Diffraction of a plane
wave incident normally
on a long narrow slit of
width b. Spreading
occurs along width of the
slit.

In order to calculate
diffraction pattern, slit is
assumed to consist of a large
no. of equally spaced points.
Assume, slit consists of a large no. of equally spaced point sources & that each
point on slit is a source of Huygens’ secondary wavelets which interfere with
wavelets emanating from other points.

Let point sources be at A1, A2, A3, ….. And let distance between two
consecutive points be Δ. Thus, if no. of point sources be n, then

b  (n  1)
At P, amplitudes of disturbances reaching from A1, A2, A3, ….. will be very
nearly same because point P is at a distance which is very large in comparison
to b.
However, because of even slightly different path lengths to P, field produced by
A1 will differ in phase from field produced by A2. If diffracted rays make an
angle θ with normal to the slit then path difference would be
2
A2 A2   sin    sin 

If field at P due to disturbances emanating from A1 is acosωt then field due to
disturbances emanating from A2 would be acos(ωt-Φ).

Resultant field

E  a[cos t  cos(t   )  ............  cos(t  (n  1) )]

cos t  cos(t   )  ............  cos(t  (n  1) )
sin n / 2 1
 cos[t  (n  1) ]
sin  / 2 2
1
E  E0 cos[t  (n  1) ]
2
 sin n / 2
E0  a
sin  / 2
In the lim it n  ,   0, such that n  b
n  
  n sin   b sin 
2  
 b sin  
na sin  
a sin(n / 2)     A sin 
E0  
/2 b(sin  ) /  
b sin 
A  na;  

sin 
EA cos(t   )

Corresponding int ensity
sin 2 
I  I0 I 0 represents int ensity at   0
 2
Positions of Maxima & Minima
I  0, when   m , m  0
sin 
When   0, 1  I  I0

 b sin   m ; m  1,  2,  3,.....( Minima )
I min    sin 1 ( / b)
II min    sin 1 (2 / b)

Intensity distribution
corresponding to single slit
Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.

Graphical method for

determining roots of
equation tanβ = β.
To determine positions of maxima, we differentiate intensity distribution with
respect to β & set it equal to zero.
sin 2 
I  I0
2
dI  2 sin  cos  2 sin 2  
 I0   0
d   2
 3

 sin  [   tan  ]  0
Condition sinβ = 0, or β = mπ (m ≠ 0) correspond to minima. Conditions for
maxima are roots of following Eqn.
tanβ = β (Maxima)
Root β = 0 corresponds to central maximum & other roots can be found by
determining points of intersections of curves y = β & y = tanβ. Intersections
occur at β = 1.43π, β = 2.46π, etc. & are known as first maximum, second
maximum, etc. Since
 sin(1.43 ) 
2

 1.43 
 
is about 0.0496, intensity of 1st maximum is about 4.96% of central maximum.
Similarly, intensities of 2nd & 3rd maxima are about 1.68% & 0.83% of central
maximum respectively.
 Two-slit Fraunhofer diffraction pattern

Fraunhofer diffraction pattern produced by two parallel slits (each of width b)

separated by a distance d. Resultant intensity is a product of single-slit
diffraction pattern & interference pattern produced by two point sources
separated by a distance d.
Assume that slits consist of a large no. of equally spaced point sources & that
each point on slit is a source of Huygens’ secondary wavelets. Let point sources
be at A1, A2, A3, ….. (1st slit) & at B1, B2, B3, ……(2nd slit). Assume distance
between two consecutive points in either of slits is Δ.
If diffracted rays make an angle θ with normal to plane of slits, then path
difference between disturbances reaching P from two consecutive points in a
slit will be Δsinθ.
Field produced by first slit at P
sin 
E1  A cos(t   )

Similarly, second slit will produce a field at P
sin  2
E2  A cos(t    1 ) 1  d sin 
 
Resultant field
sin 
E  E1  E2  A [cos(t   )  cos(t    1 )]

This represents interference of two waves, each of amplitude A(sinβ)/β &
differing in phase by Φ1.
sin  1 1
EA cos  cos(t    1 )
 2 2
1 
 d sin 
2 
sin 2 
 I  4I 0 cos 2

 2
I0(sin2β)/β2 represents intensity distribution produced by one of the slits.
Intensity distribution is a product of two terms;

1st term (sin2β)/β2 represents diffraction pattern produced by a single slit

of width b &
2nd term (cos2 γ) represents interference pattern produced by two point
sources separated by a distance d.

If slit widths are very small (so that there is almost no variation of sin2β/β2 term
with θ) then one simply obtains Young’s interference pattern.
Positions of Maxima & Minima
Intensity is zero whenever β = π, 2π, 3π, …….. or
when γ = π/2, 3π/2, 5π/2, ……
Corresponding angles of diffraction are
b sin   m ; (m  1,2,3....)
1
d sin   (n  ) ; (n  1,2,3....)
2
Interference maxima occur when γ = 0, π, 2π,….. or
when dsinθ = 0, λ, 2λ, 3λ, ….
Actual positions of maxima will approximately occur at above angles provided
variation of diffraction term is not too rapid. A maximum may not occur at all if θ
corresponds to a diffraction minimum, i.e., if
bsinθ = λ, 2λ, 3λ, ….
These are usually referred to as missing orders, which occur where conditions
for a maximum of interference & for a minimum of diffraction are both fulfilled for
same value of θ.
Diffraction
 Polarization

If sunlight is incident on water surface at an angle close to polarizing angle,

then reflected light will be almost polarized.
(a) If Polaroid allows the (almost polarized) reflected beam to pass through, we
see glare from water surface.
(b) Glare can be blocked by using a vertical polarizer, & one can see inside the
water.
 Polarization

To differentiate longitudinal & transverse wave. As sun glasses to cut of unwanted

reflected light best utilized by fishermen, motorist, skiers, sportsmen, etc.
 Polarization

Effect of polarizing filter in sky (right picture).

 Polarization

Plane polarized light

Cross-polarized light

Frequently exploited using polarization microscope for identifying minerals

(geology). Photograph of a volcanic sand grain.
 Polarization
 If we move one end of a string up & down, then a transverse wave is
generated.
 Each point of string executes a sinusoidal oscillation in a straight line
(along x-axis), & wave is, known as a linearly polarized wave. It is also
known as a plane polarized wave because string is always confined to xz
plane.

 At any instant, displacement will

be a cosine curve.
 Displacement for such a wave
can be written as

x( z, t )  a cos(kz  t  1 )
y ( z, t )  0
An x-polarized wave on a string with
displacement confined to xz plane.
 Further, an arbitrary point z = z0
will execute simple harmonic
motion of amplitude a.
 String can also be made to
vibrate in yz plane for which
displacement is given by

y( z, t )  a cos(kz  t  2 )
x( z , t )  0

A y-polarized wave on a string with

displacement confined to yz plane.

 In general, string can be made to vibrate in any plane containing z-axis.

 If one rotates the end of string on circumference of a circle, then each point
of the string will move in a circular pat; such a wave is known as a
circularly polarized wave.
 Corresponding displacement is given by

x( z, t )  a cos(kz  t   )
y ( z, t )  a sin(kz  t   )
 x2  y2  a2
 Displacement corresponding to a Each point on the string rotates on
circularly polarized wave – all points the circumference of the circle.
on the string are at same distance
from z-axis.
 If a linearly polarized transverse wave (propagating on a string) is
incident on a long narrow slit, then slit will allow only component of
displacement, which is along length of slit, to pass through.
 If an unpolarized wave propagating on a string is incident on a long
narrow slit S1, then transmitted beam is linearly polarized & its
amplitude does not depend on orientation of S1. If this polarized wave is
allowed to pass through another slit S2, then intensity of emerging wave
depends on relative orientation of S2 with respect to S1.
EM theory
1
B0  E0
v

An x-polarized electromagnetic wave propagating in z direction.

Direction of propagation is along the vector E × B.
 If an ordinary light beam is allowed to fall on a Polaroid, then emerging
beam will be linearly polarized; & if we place another Polaroid P2, then
intensity of transmitted light will depend on relative orientation of P2 with
respect to P1.
 Superposition of two linearly polarized em waves with their electric fields at
right angles to each other & oscillating in phase is again a linearly polarized
wave with its electric vector, in general, oscillating in a direction which is
different from the fields of either of the two waves.

For θ ≠ nπ (n = 0, 1, 2, ….), resultant electric vector does not, in general,

oscillate along a straight line.

Ex. Consider θ = π/2 with a1 = a2. Thus,

Ex  a1 cos t
E y  a1 sin t
 If we plot time variation of resultant electric vector whose x & y components
are given by above Eqs., we find that tip of electric vector rotates on the
circumference of a circle (of radius a1) in counterclockwise direction, &
propagation is in +z direction which is coming out of page. Such a wave is
known as a right circularly polarized wave.
Superposition of two linearly polarized waves with their electric fields
oscillating in phase along x axis & y axis. Resultant is again a linearly
polarized wave with its electric vector oscillating in a direction making
an angle Φ with x axis.
 Propagation
is out of the
page.

States of polarization for various values of θ corresponding to a1 = a2.

Ex. (c) & (g) correspond to right circularly & left circularly polarized light,
respectively; similarly, (b) & (d) correspond to right elliptically polarized
light, & (f) & (h) correspond to left elliptically polarized light.