Exponential function

Exponential growth Exponential decay

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• Viscous damping force,
F=-c𝑥
-ve sign indicates damping force
opposite to direction of velocity c𝑥 kx
• Measure x from equilibrium position of
mass m , by Newton’s Law
𝑚𝑥 = - c 𝑥 - k x
𝑚𝑥 + c 𝑥 + k 𝑥 = 0 (1) x
Assume solution
• 𝑥 𝑡 = C 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 (2)

Substituting (2) in (1)

𝑚𝑠 2 + 𝑐𝑠 + 𝑘 = 0 (3)

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• Roots of equation (3)
−𝑐 ± 𝑐 2 − 4𝑚𝑘 −𝑐 𝑐 2 𝑘 (4)
𝑠1,2 = = ± −
2𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚 𝑚

• These two roots give solution to equation (1) as

𝑥1 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑡𝑠1 , 𝑥2 = 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑡𝑠2

• The general solution is 𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , C1 and C2 are determined from initial

conditions

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Critical Damping constant & the damping ratio: −𝑐 𝑐 2 𝑘
𝑠1,2 = ± −
2𝑚 2𝑚 𝑚

• Critical damping cc is defined as the value of damping constant c for which

the radical of equation (4) becomes zero.

𝑐𝑐 2 𝑘
∴ - = 0 ∴ 𝑐𝑐 = 2 𝑘𝑚 = 2𝑚𝜔𝑛 (5)
2𝑚 𝑚

𝑐
• Damping ratio, ζ = (6)
𝑐𝑐
By (5) and (6)
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐𝑐
= = ζ 𝜔𝑛 (7)
2𝑚 𝑐𝑐 2𝑚

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−𝑐 ± 𝑐 2 − 4𝑚𝑘 −𝑐 𝑐 2 𝑘
𝑠1,2 = = ± −
2𝑚 2𝑚 2𝑚 𝑚

∴ 𝑠1,2 = (- ζ ± ζ2 − 1 ) 𝜔𝑛 (8)

• Nature of roots s1 and s2 and system behavior will depend upon magnitude of
damping

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Case 1: When ζ =0, undamped free vibrations.

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Case 2: Underdamped system (ζ < 0)

• For this condition ζ 2 -1 is negative and roots are expressed as

𝑠1 = (- ζ + i √1- ζ 2 ) 𝜔𝑛 (9)
𝑠2 = (- ζ − i √1- ζ 2 ) 𝜔𝑛
• The solution can be written as
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑠1𝑡 + 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑠2 𝑡 (10)
𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are constants to be determined from initial conditions.

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Underdamped system (ζ < 1)
• The solution can be written in many ways:
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −ζ𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝐶1′ cos 1 − ζ2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐶2′ sin 1 − ζ2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡

= 𝑋𝑒 −ζ𝜔𝑛 𝑡 sin ( 1 − ζ2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡+ ∅) (10)

• 𝐶1′ , 𝐶2′ , X and ∅ are constants to be determined from initial conditions.
• Initial condition at (t=0): x = x0 and 𝑥 = 𝑥0
𝑥+ζ𝜔𝑛 𝑥0
∴ 𝐶1′ = x0 and 𝐶2′ =
2
1−ζ 𝜔𝑛

The solution is

𝑥+ζ𝜔𝑛 𝑥0
∴𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −ζ𝜔𝑛 𝑡 2
x0 cos 1 − ζ 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + sin 1 − ζ2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 (11)BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
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• Motion described by equation (11) is damped harmonic motion of angular
frequency 𝜔𝑑 = 1 − ζ2 𝜔𝑛 .

• Amplitude decreases exponentially by the factor 𝑒 −ζ𝜔𝑛 𝑡

𝜔𝑑
𝜔𝑛

𝑒 −ζ𝜔𝑛𝑡

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Case 3: Critically Damped System: ζ = 1
c = cc
𝑐 𝑘
= √
2𝑚 𝑚
• Roots s1 and s2 are equal
𝑐𝑐
s1 = s2 = - = − 𝜔𝑛 (12)
2𝑚
• Solution of (1) is
x(t) = (C1 +C2 t) 𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡 (13)
• Applying initial conditions (at t=0)
x(t) = x0 , 𝒙(t) = 𝒙0
• Solution becomes
x(t) = (x0 +(𝒙0 + 𝜔𝑛 x0)t)𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡 (14)
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Case 4: Overdamped System (ζ > 1)

c > cc
𝑐 𝑘
2𝑚
>√
𝑚 𝑠1,2 = (- ζ ± ζ2 -1 ) 𝜔𝑛 (8)
Roots of (8) are real and distinct

𝑠1 = (- ζ + ζ2 − 1 ) 𝜔𝑛 <0

𝑠2 = (- ζ − ζ2 − 1 ) 𝜔𝑛 <0
With 𝑠2 << 𝑠1 , the solution is
2 2
(− ζ + ζ −1 ) 𝜔𝑛t (− ζ − ζ −1 ) 𝜔𝑛t
x(t) = C1 𝑒 + C2 𝑒 (15)
Applying initial conditions (at t=0)
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Constants C1 and C2 becomes

𝑥0 𝜔𝑛 ζ + ζ2 − 1 + 𝑥0
𝐶1 =
2𝜔𝑛 ζ2 − 1

−𝑥0 𝜔𝑛 ζ − ζ2 − 1 − 𝑥0
𝐶2 =
2𝜔𝑛 ζ2 − 1
Motion is aperiodic regardless of initial conditions and diminishes exponentially
with time

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aperiodic

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Case 3: Overdamped System (ζ > 1)

c > cc
𝑐 𝑘
2𝑚
>√
𝑚 𝑠1,2 = (- ζ ± ζ2 -1 ) 𝜔𝑛 (8)
Roots of (8) are real and distinct

𝑠1 = (- ζ + ζ2 − 1 ) 𝜔𝑛 <0

𝑠2 = (- ζ − ζ2 − 1 ) 𝜔𝑛 t<0
With 𝑠2 << 𝑠1 , the solution is
2 2
(− ζ + ζ −1 ) 𝜔𝑛t (− ζ − ζ −1 ) 𝜔𝑛t
x(t) = C1 𝑒 + C2 𝑒 (15)
Applying initial conditions (at t=0)
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Constants C1 and C2 becomes

𝑥0 𝜔𝑛 ζ + ζ2 − 1 + 𝑥0
𝐶1 =
2𝜔𝑛 ζ2 − 1

−𝑥0 𝜔𝑛 ζ − ζ2 − 1 − 𝑥0
𝐶2 =
2𝜔𝑛 ζ2 − 1
Motion is aperiodic regardless of initial conditions and diminishes exponentially
with time

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Complex plane representation

Im
• Semicircle represents locus of s1
and s2 for different values of ζ ζ=0
• For ζ =0, 0< ζ <1
• s1 = i𝜔𝑛
• s2 = - i𝜔𝑛
S1,2= −𝜔𝑛
• For 0 < ζ <1, roots are complex Re
conjugate, located symmetrically
about real axis S2 S1
ζ >1
• As ζ tends to 1, both roots
approach -𝜔𝑛
• As ζ > 1, roots lies on real axis, s1
decreases and s2 increases
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• Critically damped system required a smallest damping for aperiodic motion,

hence mass returns to the position of rest in the shortest possible time
without overshooting.
• Example : Gun recoil mechanism
• If damping is more than critical value, there would be some delay before next
firing.

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Phase plane of a damped system

𝑥0 , 𝑥0

underdamped

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Logarithmic Decrement
• Definition:
• Rate at which the amplitude of a free-damped vibration decreases.
• Natural logarithm of the ratio of any two successive amplitudes.
• Let t1 and t2 be the times corresponding to two successive amplitudes
/displacements, measured one cycle apart for an underdamped system.
• Using equation
x(t) = 𝑋0𝑒 −ζ𝜔𝑛 𝑡 cos ( 1 − ζ2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − ∅0)

𝑥1 𝑋0𝑒 −ζ𝜔𝑛 𝑡1 cos ( 1 − ζ2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡1 − ∅0)

= We know, t2 = t1 + τd and τd = 2𝜋 𝜔𝑑
𝑥2 ∴ cos( 𝜔𝑑 t2 - φ0 ) = cos(2𝜋 +𝜔𝑑 t1 - φ0 )
𝑋0𝑒 −ζ𝜔𝑛 𝑡2 cos ( 1 − ζ2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡2 − ∅0)
= cos( 𝜔𝑑 t1 - φ0 )
= 𝑒 ζ 𝜔𝑛 τd
𝑥1
𝑥2
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Logarithmic Decrement
The logarithmic decrement
𝑥1 2𝜋 1 2𝜋ζ
δ = ln = 𝜔𝑛 τd =ζ 𝜔𝑛 = (a)
𝑥2 𝜔
1−ζ2 𝑛 1−ζ2

For small damping (a) becomes

δ=2πζ (b)

(a)
18

(b)

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Logarithmic Decrement
Measuring damping by experiment:
• Measure x1 and x2 and use equation (a) to find damping ratio ζ
• Damping ratio ζ can also be found by measuring two displacements
separated by any number of cycles
• If x1 and xm+1 denote the amplitudes corresponding to times t1 and
tm+1 = t1 +m τd , where m is any integer

x1 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥𝑚
= ….
xm+1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥𝑚+1
xj
• Also we know that = 𝑒 ζ𝜔𝑛τd 𝑥1
xj+1 δ = m ln
𝑥𝑚+1
x
∴ 1 = (𝑒 ζ𝜔𝑛τd )m
xm+1
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Torsional Systems with Viscous Damping

• Viscous damping torque , Shaft, Kt

𝜃
T = - ct 𝜃
• Equation of motion is
J0 𝜃 + ct 𝜃 + Kt 𝜃 = 0 (5)
Fluid, ct
• All other treatment is similar to linear system.

Kt 𝜃, 𝑐𝑡𝜃

𝐽0
𝜃, 𝜃, 𝜃

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Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping

• Mechanical simplicity and convenience.

• Sliding, dry friction
• Coulomb’s law “ When two bodies are in contact, the force required to
produce sliding is proportional to the normal force acting in the plane of
contact”
F = μ N = μ mg (6)
• μ depends on materials in contact and the condition of surfaces
• μ = 0.1 (metal on metal- lubricated)
• μ = 0.3 (metal on metal- non-lubricated)
• Damping force is independent of displacement and velocity

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Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping
Case 1:
• When x is +ve and 𝑥 is +ve, mass moves from left
to right (first half cycle)
• By Newton’s Law
𝑚𝑥 = - μ N - k x
𝑚𝑥 + k x = - μ N (7)
• This second order nonhomogeneous differential
equation, whose solution can be assumed as
μN
x(t) = A1cos ωnt + A2sin ωnt - (8)
𝑘

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Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping
Case 2:
• When x is +ve and 𝑥 is -ve, mass moves from
right to left (second half cycle)
𝑚𝑥 = μ N -k x
𝑚𝑥 + k x = μ N (9)
• Solution is assumed as
μN
x(t) = A3cos ωn t + A4sin ωn t + (10)
𝑘
μN
• The term in (8) and (10) is a constant representing the virtual displacement of
𝑘
spring under the force μ N, if it were applied as a static force.
• In each half cycle, the motion is harmonic with equilibrium position changing from
μN μN
[ ] to [ - ]
𝒌 𝒌
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Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping
Solution:
• Equation (7) and (9) can be expressed as a single equation

𝑚𝑥 +(𝜇𝑚𝑔) 𝑠𝑔𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 (11) sign(y) = 1 for y > 0

= -1 for y < 0
where sgn(y) is signum function, = 0 for y = 0

Equation (11) is nonlinear differential equation and can be solved analytically if

we break the time axis into segments separated by 𝑥 = 0 (i.e. time intervals
with different directions of motion)

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Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping
• Initial conditions : x t=0 = x0 and 𝑥 t=0 = 0 (12)
• This initial condition means motion starts from right to left
• Let x0 , x1, x2 … denote the amplitudes of motion at successive half cycles
• Using equation (10) and (12),
𝜇𝑁
• A3 = x0 - , A4 = 0
𝑘
• Equation (10) becomes
𝜇𝑁 μN for 0≤ 𝑡 ≤
𝜋
) (13)
x(t) = (x0 - ) cos ωn t + ωn
𝑘 𝑘
𝜋
• When t = , mass will be at extreme left position and its displacement from
ωn
equilibrium position is 2𝜇𝑁
𝑥1 = - (x0 - ) 2𝜇𝑁
𝑘 In first half cycle x reduces by
𝑘
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Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping
• In second half cycle, mass moves from left to right ,
equation (8) can be used
• Initial condition :
𝜋
• xt=0 = value of x at t = in (13)
ωn
2𝜇𝑁
= - (x0 - )
𝑘
𝜋
• 𝑥 t=0 = value of 𝑥 at t = in (13)
ωn
𝜇𝑁 𝜋
= value of {- ωn (x0 - sin ωnt } at t =
)
𝑘 ωn
=0
• With these initial conditions (8) becomes
3𝜇𝑁
A1 = (x0 - ), A2 = 0
𝑘

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Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping
Equation (8) becomes

3𝜇𝑁 μN 𝜋 2𝜋
(14)
x(t) = (x0 - ) cos ωn t - valid for ≤𝑡 ≤ )
𝑘 𝑘 ωn ωn

2𝜋
• At the end of this half cycle, at time t =
ωn

4𝜇𝑁
𝑥2 = (x0 - ) 𝑥=0
𝑘

• These become initial conditions for third half cycle until motion stops.
μN
• Motion stops when xn ≤ because the restoring force exerted by spring kx will
𝑘
be less than friction force 𝜇𝑁
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Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping

The number of half cycles (r) that elapsed before the motion ceases is given by
2𝜇𝑁 μN
x0 – r ≤
𝑘 𝑘
4𝜇𝑁
• Amplitude reduces linearly with time in each successive cycle by and
𝑘
slope of enveloping line is
− 4𝜇𝑁
𝑘
2𝜋
𝜔𝑛

Motion is periodic in coulomb damping and natural frequency is unaltered.

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