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Chapter 6
r
E
Dielectric Materials and Polarization (Chapter 4- 8 )
r
In order to understand the relationship between electric field E and stored
energy (and power flux for travelling waves, E 2 / 2h ), we needr to take ar
microscopic look at a dielectric material to justify the relation D = e o e r E .
After we establish this relationship, we must consider energy storage in a
dielectric.
All matter is composed of atoms in some physical arrangement in space
with other atoms. An atom is composed of a positively charged nucleus,
surrounded by one or more electrons. The composite bulk material may be
arranged in such a way that the electrons are free, or nearly free, to move
about within the material. Metals and doped semiconductors are examples.
Many more solids are insulators. In an insulator, all of the electrons are
bound in atomic ore molecular orbitals and are not free to move about the
material. In the case of a metal, an applied electric field will induce a current
composed of the freely mobile electrons. In an insulator, or dielectric, some-
thing else must happen because there are no free electrons.
What can, and does, happen is that the electric field pulls the electron and
pushes the positively charged nucleus. The result is a distorted object with
a net atomic dipole moment, or polarization. This is electronic polarization.
There is also orientational polarization (water) and ionic polarization (salt
crystals).
r
This microscopic polarization, p , of an individual atom, molecule,
r unit cell,
etc. must be summed up to form the macroscopic polarization P .
Formally:
r 1 r
n Dv
r r
P = lim
D vÆ0 Dv
 pi = n pa = nQda = r+ da ,
i Æ1
Dy
r ++ ++ r + + + +
E + + E
++ ++ + + + +
+ -- + - -
-
Dz - - - -
d -
- - - - - - - -
- -
wt = 0 p p
wt = wt =
4 2
r - - - - r -- -- r - - - -
E E - - E
- - - -
-- - - - - -
+ + + + - ++ - + + + + + +
+ +
+ + + +
+ + ++ + + + +
+ +
3p wt = p 5p
wt = wt =
4 4
r r + + + + r ++ ++
+ +
E E E
+ + + + ++ ++
- - + - - + - -
- - - -
- - - - -- - -
- -
3p 7p w t = 2p
wt = wt =
2 4
r
Recalling that = e o c e E o cos w t e$ x , we can identify:
P
r r
r
Jp =
∂ P ∂ eo ceE
=
d i
∂t ∂t
The induced polarization current is equal to the time rate of change of the
polarization.
r r
Ampere’s Law is:
—¥B r ∂ eoE
= J +
d i
mo ∂t
r
But now we need to add J p , the polarization current.
r r r
—¥ B r
= J +
d i
∂ eo E
+
∂P
mo ∂t ∂t
r r
r
= J +
d i
∂ eo E
+
d
∂ eo ceE i
∂t ∂t
r ∂ r
= J +
∂t
b
eo 1 + ce E g
er = 1+ ce
Then Ampere’s Law is (in a dielectric):
r r
—¥B r
= J +
∂ eoer Ed i
mo ∂t
r
r
= J +
∂ eE d i
∂t
r
r ∂D r r
= J + , where D = e E
∂t
Polarization Charge Density
r
— ◊ P = - r p polarization charge density. More on this later.
Then:
r r r r
—◊ e o E + P = —◊ e o E + c e o E = r v ,
d i d i
r
a f
or — ◊ e o E 1 + c = r v
r r
But D = e o e r E = e E a1 + c f ,
o
so that:
r r r
— ◊ D = r v , where D = e o e r E
e r = 1+ c e
r r
Note that — ◊ e o E + P = r v is the most fundamental form of this equation
d i
r r r
which holds, even when P is not linearly proportional to E . If P has terms
r
proportional to 2nd, 3rd, etc. powers of E , we have nonlinear material not
covered in this course. But lots of important devices are based on it; for
example, nonlinear optics, modulation of lasers (which are important in opti-
cal [fiber optics] communication).
Dielectric Materials
r
(alternate derivation of — ◊ P = - r p )
Now, consider
r that the E field is not constant, but increases linearly with
x; that is, E = A x e$ x . Then the polarization also increases linearly with x.
That is to say, the number of aligned dipoles per unit volume increases lin-
early with x. Something like this is shown on the sketch.
+ - + - +
- + - + - + -
- + - +
- + - +
- + - +
- + - +
- + - +
- + - +
- + - + - +
- +
- + - + - +
- +
- + - + - +
- +
r - +
E = A x e$ x - + - + - + - + - +
Obviously, now the plus and minus charges don’t cancel out. There is
always more negative charge to the right, so the effect is a net negative
af
charge in any given volume. If P = e$x n x pa , where pa is the atomic dipole
af
and n x is the number per unit volume (which is now not constant, but a
function of x), then:
dn dP
- pa = - = r vb
dx dx
Note that this charge density was not placed in as an excess charge, but
comes from the non-uniform aligned dipoles. These charges are part of the
material. If the field is removed, the dipoles randomize in orientation or dis-
appear. So we distinguish these charges as a “bound” charge density.
In a more general form, we can write bound charge density due to
dipoles as:
r
r vb = - — ◊ P
on the first
r sketch, which shows that, although all the charges cancel out for
uniform P , at the boundary x = 0 , there is an effective negative surface
charge density; and, at x = a , there is an effective positive surface charge
r r
density.
r This agrees with r s = n ◊ P . This is the physical meaning of
b
— ◊ P = - r s .***
r
Note that r v = - — ◊ P ris an expression of vector algebra that already
b
r
accounts for r s = n ◊ P .
b
This now allows us to simplify greatly how we deal with the dipoles in mate-
rials:
r
— ◊ e o E = all charges = r v + r vb
A A
placed charges bound charges
r r r
—◊e o E = rv - —◊ P = rv - —◊e o c e E
r r
Thus, — ◊ e o E + P = r v
r r
b g
—◊ eo 1 + c e E = rv ⇒ — ◊ D = r v , D = e oe r E
r
—◊ e oe r E = rv