NATIONAL TRANSMISSION AND DESPATCH COMPANY

LIMITED

GRID STATION MAINTENANCE

TRAINING BOOK-1
GSO TRAINING CENTRE TARBELA
Revised by:
Tariq Ali Shah Addl. Manager Sub Station
Muhammad Shoaib Addl. Manager Sub Station
March, 2014

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 Substation Maintenance Training Program
Course Outlines

Chapter No. 1- SAFETY (REVISED)

Safety policy:
 Safety Principles:-

i. Five safety principles.

ii. Example on application of safety principles

iii. Self-check Questions.

 Safe ways are the best ways

 Low Voltage Hazards:-

i. Why L.V is considered more dangerous than H.V?

ii. Effects of current on human body according to its magnitude.

 Portable temporary Groundings (P.T.Gs)

i. Purpose
ii. Grounding/ Bonding, Differentiation.
iii. Important points when applying P.T.Gs.
 Fire classes and extinguishers for each

 Shop rules.

 When to use eye protective Gears

 Absolute limits of approach for various voltages.

i. For untrained persons (Grid Maintenance Staff)

ii. For highly qualified persons
Practical Project on:
 Artificial Respiration
 P.T.G Application.

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Chapter No. 2- FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY (NEW)
 A.C & D.C supply, Voltage, current ,Resistance, Capacitance, inductance, Ohm’s
Law, Series & Parallel circuits ,Single & Three phase supply, Star & delta
connections, Voltage levels, Electrostatic and Electromagnetic induction etc

Chapter No. 3- ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM (NEW)

 Basic concept, Basic components of power system

Chapter No. 4- TOOLS & PLANTS

 Hand tools, Machine tools, Identification/ use /care & upkeep of tools ,Safety
precautions

Chapter No. 5- RIGGING

 Definition, rigging hardware, nylon ropes, steel wire ropes, knots, hutches, bends,

 D-shackles, Tackle blocks, Snatch blocks, Nylon & steel wire rope slings,

 Practical projects in workshop, Safety precautions

Chapter No. 6- ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS (REVISED)

 volt meter ,ampere meter ,continuity tester ,multi- meter ,clip on meter
safety precautions
Chapter No. 7- BASIC CONTROL CIRCUITS
 Auxiliary switches ,Device function numbers ,Practical projects on basic control
circuits
Chapter No. 8- MOTORS ( NEW )
 Fundamental theory ,A.C & D.C Motors ,Main parts, Motor Starters, Replacement of
bearings of motors, Practical projects on motor control circuits, Trouble shooting
Safety precautions
Chapter No. 9- INSULATING MATERIALS ( NEW )
 Solid, Liquid & Gaseous insulation, Mineral insulating oil, Air ,Vacuum, SF-6 gas,
Insulation resistance, Effects of temperature on insulation resistance, Insulating oil
treatment, Safety precautions

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Chapter No. 10- INTRODUCTION OF GRID STATION EQUIPEMENTS (NEW)
 Transformer, Circuit Breakers, Disconnect Switches/ Isolators, Lightening Arrestors,
D.C Batteries & battery Chargers, Station Grounding System, A.C & D.C auxiliary
supply system, Power & control cables, Bus bars etc

Chapter No. 11- TRANSFORMERS ( REVISED)

 Fundamental theory, Types, Transformer connections / transformer bank connections

Main parts, Accessories, Bushings, Winding connections /Vector group diagrams, On

load Tap- changers (OLTC) &control circuits ( oil type & vacuum type ), Off load tap-
changers,

Cooling system & control circuits, Oil temperature gauges, Winding temperature
gauges,

Buccholz’s Relay, OLTC protective relay, Pressure relief devices, Oil level indicators
etc,

 TESTS ( insulation resistance test, transformer turns ratio test , polarity tests, winding
resistance tests , C& DF test, Oil DES test, Dissolved gases in oil Analysis-DGA,
Short Circuit test , Open circuit test etc ), Parallel operation of transformers, Practical
projects , Safety precautions

Chapter No. 12- CIRCUIT BREAKERS ( REVISED)

 Fundamental theory, Types of Circuit Breakers ( oil, vacuum, pneumatic, SF-6 ) ,
Construction designs, Characteristic quantities, Duty cycle, Operating times,
Operating mechanisms, Pneumatic operation diagrams, Hydraulic operation diagrams,
Motor spring operation diagrams, Schematic wiring diagrams (Seal-in feature, Anti-
pumping feature, Anti-slam feature, Interlocking, supervision etc.), Tests (open / close
timing tests, contact resistance test, vacuum tests, insulation resistance test, Hi-pot
test, oil tests, SF-6 gas test etc ) practical projects on control circuits trouble shooting,
Safety precautions
Chapter No. 13- ISOLATORS /DISCONNECTING SWITCHES (REVISED )

Fundamental theory, Different types, Main parts, Operating mechanisms, Pneumatic

operating diagrams, Hydraulic operating diagrams, Motor spring operation diagrams,
Schematic wiring diagrams ( interlocking, supervision, etc ), Tests ( contact
resistance test etc ), Practical projects on control circuits & trouble shooting, Safety
precautions

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Chapter No. 14- LIGHTENING ARRESTORS (NEW)
 Fundamental theory, Types, Construction design /main parts, Operation counters,
Tests ( insulation resistance test, leakage current monitoring, Hi-pot test ), Safety
precautions

Chapter No. 15- BUS BARS ,CONNECTORS, CLAMPS (REVISED)

 Fundamental theory, Bus bar conductors, Flexible stranded conductors bus bars, Rigid
/ Tubular bus bar, Test ( contact resistance test ), Practical projects, Safety precautions

Chapter No. 16- D.C STATION BATTERIES

 Fundamental theory, Types, Lead acid batteries, Alkaline batteries, Sealed batteries,
Vented batteries, Parts of battery cell, Specific gravity of electrolyte, Effect of
temperature on specific gravity ,Pilot cell, Float charging , Equalizing or boost
charging, Freshening charge, Over charging, Under charging, Tests ( Ampere Hour
(AH) capacity, Impedance test), Replacement of defective cell, Installation of new
battery bank, Practical projects, Safety precautions

Chapter No. 17- POWER CABLES & CONTROLE CABLES

 Fundamental Theory, Types of Cables, Different sizes of cables, Main parts of power
cables, sheath / Shield grounding, phase identification, Tests (Continuity test,
Insulation Resistance, DC Hi-Pot test), Practical projects, Safety precautions

Chapter No. 18- STATION GROUNDING SYSTEM (NEW )

 Fundamental Theory, Earth faults, Component parts of grounding system, Equipment
grounding, Tests (Earth Resistance Test, Earth Mesh Integrity Test, etc), Safety
precautions

Chapter No. 19- DIFFERENT TYPES OF GRID STATIONS (NEW)

 Air insulated Substation; Gas insulated Substation, Indoor & outdoor Substations,
Concept of Smart Grid, Hybrid Substation etc.
Chapter No. 20- BUSBAR SCHEMES (NEW / REVISED)
 Single Bus Single Breaker Scheme, Double Bus Single Breaker Scheme,

Double Bus one & half Breaker Scheme etc.

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Chapter No. 21- CAPACITOR BANKS
 Fundamental Theory, Construction Design, Test, Connection Schemes, Safety
precautions

Chapter No. 22- STATIC VAR COMPENSATION (SVC) (NEW)

 Fundamental Theory, Construction Design, Tests, Connection Schemes,Safety
precautions

Chapter No. 23- HV DC TRANSMISSION ( NEW)

 Introduction, HV DC Fundamentals, Converter

i- Station lay – out & system configuration

ii- HVDC operating configuration/Modes

iii- Control & operation of HVDC links

 Station Design & Equipment

i- Thyristor Valves

ii- Converter Transformers

iii- Smoothing Reactors

iv- A.C Filters

v- D.C Filters

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 SAFETY
SAFETY POLICY: No 0perating conditions or urgency of work can ever justify
endangering the life of someone.
1. SAFETY PRINCIPLES
1.1 FIVE SAFETY PRINCIPLES
Before performing any job or work, the following five safety principles must
be considered.

1. Know and identify hazard.

This means that what kind of hazard or danger may exist in the work to be
done. Generally two hazards exist in any kind of work to be performed in a grid
station.

i. Electric hazard
ii. Failing hazard
Sometimes mechanical hazard i.e. hazard due to accidents closing / opening of
work during work on breaker, also exists. Electrostatic and electromagnetic
inductions are also example of hazards

2. Eliminate or remove hard, if possible.

Electric hazard must always be removed by isolating the circuit, grounding,

bonding, use of caution notice and line teasing etc.

3. Control or reduce hazard, if it cannot be removed.

4. Minimize injuries by use of approved protective gears when hazard is out of

control.

5. Minimize severity of injury, if an injury occurs.

This is accomplished by use of first aid and artificial respiration.
1.2 EXAMPLE
Job is to replace a defective light fixture.
What two hazards exist in this job?
i. Electric hazard and
ii. Falling hazard

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a. Electric hazard must be removed
b. Falling hazard should be controlled
1.3 SELF CHECK QUESTIONS
The following five safety principles are incomplete and in incorrect order.
Complete each principle by placing the correct word in the blanks and the
corresponding number in the space provided.

i. ____________ the hazards when they cannot be removed.

ii. know and ________ the hazard

iii. __________ injuries when hazard is out of control

iv. ___________ the ____________ of injury if an injury occurs.

v. ______________ the hazard if possible.

1.4 SELF CHECK QUESTIONS
In each of the following cases, one of the five safety principles is being applied.
Indicate which principle is applied by placing the corresponding number in the space
provided.

i. A foreman was requested to perform maintenance of CB. Before applying for

PTW he discussed the safety aspects of the job with his AE. Safety principle
No. _______.

ii. A fitter was going to work in an area where the noise level was above 90 dbs
and the time for the work was more than one hour. So before entering the area
he put on appropriate hearing protection. Safety Principle No. ________

iii. A worker injured his hand while cutting a piece of metal with hacksaw. He
received immediate first aid treatment for the injury. Safety Principal No. ___

iv. A foreman was required to perform some repair work in an enclosed area.
Before starting the work, he checked to make sure that the area is continuously
vented to prevent the accumulation of hazardous welding fumes. Safety
principle No. __________.

v. A foreman made himself familiar with all hazards associated with replacement
of the electric motor on a pump. He then took out necessary work protection to

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 ensure that the system is electrically and mechanically isolated and de-
energized. Safety principle No. _______.

2. SAFE WAYS ARE THE BEST WAYS

The following points should be remembered and observed at all times:-
i. Consider everything unsafe /energized unless it is proven safe.

ii. Keep all floors, ladder, clean and fee of grease/ oil to avoid slipping / falling.

iii. Do not wear loose clothing when working around rotating machines.

iv. Carry ladders, tools and materials below waist level when working in switch
yard.

v. Keep gasoline in safety Cane painted red.

vi. Never use gasoline for cleaning. Always use proper solvent for cleaning.

vii. Practice good housekeeping habits.

viii. Get help when lifting heavy objects.

ix. Wear goggles when chipping, drilling and using grinder etc.

x. Ascertain the location of firefighting equipment, and the purpose of each type
of extinguisher.

QUESTIONS
Complete the following statements by inserting the missing word.

i. Working method around electrical lines and equipment are usually adopted
when they are ___________ methods.
ii. Apparatus is considered to be ____________ to approach until it has been
proven otherwise.
iii. Neckties are hazard when working around _______ machinery.
iv. Gasoline is stored in a ___________ Cane.
v. General cleaning is done with cleaning ____________.
vi. Ladders and long tools or materials are more safely carried _______ belt level.
vii. Lifting should be done with the _________ muscles.
viii. When chipping and grinding, injury to the eyes is prevented by wearing _____

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3. LOW VOLTAGE HAZARD
3.1 Why Low Voltage is considered more dangerous than H.V?
Generally electric hazard occurs due to low voltage, rather than high voltage
because high voltages are inaccessible as they give warning to approaching persons
prior to contact due to their electrostatic fields. But low voltages give no such warning
and are felt only when they are approached or touched. Therefore, low voltages are
considered more dangerous than high voltages.

3.2 EFFECTS OF CURRENT ON HUMAN BODY ACCORDING TO ITS

MAGNITUDE
Magnitude Effect
Upto 1 ma No sensation
Low Currents 1 to 8 ma Sensation of shock
8 to 15 ma Painful shock
15 to 20 ma Loss of muscular control
Medium current
20 to 50 ma Severe muscular contraction
50 to 100 ma Probable heart failure
High currents 100 to 200 ma Heart failure certain
Above 200 ma Severe burns and muscular contraction

At low currents person may let go himself of the circuit.

At medium currents (10 to 20 ma) the victim cannot let up himself of the
circuit. The voltage required to produce such currents may be as low as 42 volts D.C
or 110 volts A.C.

4. PORTABLE TEMPORARY GROUNDINGS (PTG)

4.1 Purposes or Advantages of PTGs
1. PTGs are positive proof of electrical isolation.
2. PTGs drain e.s. and e.m induced potentials.
3. PTGs guard against the accidental energization of circuit.
4. PTGs provide bonding.

4.2 Grounding / Bonding Differentiation

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Grounding
Grounding provides low resistance parallel path and hence by passes the
worker if and only if worker is standing on a grounding mat. The current flowing
through grounds operates earth fault relays which then trips the breaker and hence
equipment is isolated. Thus we can say that “Grounding Clears the Fault and Provides
Bonding for the Worker”.

Bonding
By bonding we mean to connect all the metallic parts in the work area to
station grounds in order to maintain them at same potential i.e. ground potential so
that there is no danger of appearing of potential difference within the reach of worker
feet or hands in case of fault / inductions etc. Hence we can say that bonding saves the
worker.

Examples of Bonding
In case of ground fault, ground voltage rises and it decreases as we move away
from ground rod, as shown in diagram, due to earth resistance. In the diagram shown
person A and person B both are standing on earth or mat which is not grounded. In
case of ground fault both will be standing at different potentials than the ground
potential due to absence of bonding. When person A will touch the tower / person B
will take steps, both will be subjected to electric hazard due to existence of potential
difference between hand and feet of person A and between feet of person B.

In case of ground fault the potential experienced by a person standing on earth

or ungrounded mat while touching the tower is called Touch Potential.

In case of ground fault, the potential experienced by a person between his feet
when taking step in the ground fault vicinity is called Step Potential.

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These both potentials can be eliminated by grounding the mat on which person A and
person B are standing i.e. by providing bonding.

4.3 Important points when applying PTGs

1. Approved sticks must be used when applying / removing PTGs.

2. In damp weather rubber gloves must be worn when applying grounds and
grounding stick must be held away form the body.

3. Grounding cable must be in good condition and of proper size.

4. When applying PTGs first apply ground at ground end and then at line end.
When removing PTGs first remove from line end and then from ground end.
Ground connection at ground end must be tight and for proper tightening
ground cable should be secured by rope.

5. Eye protection must be worn when applying / removing PTGs.

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6. Line must be teased before applying PTGs. The hearing of buzzing sound when
metallic head of grounding stick is brought near a live circuit is called line
teasing.

7. When applying ground on a line, if line is found energized then ground must be
applied so that ground fault relay trips the circuit. If in this case ground is
removed, heavy arc will be established causing power arc hazard.

8. Ground clamps must be in good condition and of proper size.

9. If the weight of ground cable is too much then two person should do the job.

10. PTGs must be applied to all three phases even if work is only on one phase due
to the following reasons.

i. Worker may forget that the other phases are not grounded. The other
phases may have induced voltages and when he will approach the other
phases or comes in contact with other phases accidentally, he will be
subjected to electric hazard.

ii. 3-phase tripping is faster than 1-phase tripping so fault will be cleared
soon if all the 3-phases are grounded. Moreover, cable rating is only for
25 cycles and if only one phase is grounded it may take long time to
clear the fault and hence the cable may burn away.

11. Grounding of Dead Circuit near a Live Circuit

In the diagram shown very high current may circulate in the loop. After the
completion of work when PTGs at one end will be removed first, arc will be
produced due to current interruption causing power arc hazard. To prevent this,

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 either use only PTGs at one end or keep breaker open or keep grounds as close
as possible.

5. FIRE CLASSES AND EXTINGUISHERS FOR EACH

Fire Class Includes
A Paper, Wood
B Electrical
C Chemical (oil,
paint grease etc.)
D Metals
Extinguisher
Water, sand, foam (or soda acid), Halon gas
CO2, Halon, Dry Chemical Powder
Halon, dry chemical powder, foam
Water, sand, halon

CO2 extinguishers clean the equipment. Dry chemical powder / foam type
extinguishers make the equipment dirty and damage the wiring.

6. SHOP RULES
1. Do not use shop machinery until you are trained.
2. Grease / oil on floor must be removed immediately to avoid slipping / falling.

3. Keep all tools in their proper place.

4. Wear eye protection when necessary
5. All the tools must be kept clean.

6. After the completion of job with tools, dry and clean them and return them to
their proper location.

7. Do not use damaged tools.

8. Long hairs / loose clothing should be confined when working around rotating
machines.

7. WHEN TO USE EYE PROTECTIVE

1. When drilling

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2. When chiseling or chipping
3. When grinding
4. When handling compressed air
5. When handling acids for preparation of electrolyte for lead acid battery.
6. When applying / removing PTGs.
7. When welding
8. When using power saws.

8. ABSOLUTE LIMIT OF APPROACH FROM VARIOUS VOLTAGES

8.1 For Untrained Persons (Grid Maintenance Staff)

Voltage Absolute Limit of Approach

11 KV Three Feet
33 KV Four Feet
66 KV, 132 KV Eight Feet
500 KV Ten Feet

8.2 FOR HIGHLY QUALIFIED PERSONS

Voltage Absolute Limit of Approach

11 KV 1.0 foot
33 KV 1.5 foot
66 KV, 132 KV 3.0 feet
220 Kv 4.0 feet
500 KV 9.0 feet

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PRACTICAL PROJECT

Topic
Artificial respiration.

Objectives
Using SCHAFER method of artificial respiration practice receiving electrical
short victim.

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PROCEDURE
Follow step given in the chart shown below.

PRACTICAL PROJECT
Topic
P.T.Gs
Objectives
Using grip all grounding stick and all angle clamp correctly tease and install portable
temporary ground on shop bus.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY
A.C D.C SUPPLY : A source of electrical pressure that change in magnitude &
direction is known as A.C supply and a source of electrical pressure that does not
change in direction is known as D.C supply.

VOLTAGE: Voltage is the difference in electrical pressure between two points in

some electric circuit. Voltage is also called potential difference, or electromotive force
(emf) that causes electric current to flow in an electric circuit.

CURRENT: The flow of electrons (negative charges) through a material from a

negative potential to a positive potential is known as current. Conventional current is
the flow of positive charges from a positive potential negative potential. Current is a
general term often used to mean either of the above. Symbol is I, unit is Ampere.

RESISTANT: Opposition to current flow which is a lot like friction because it

opposes electron motion and generates heat. Symbol is R. Unit is Ohm (Ω).

CAPACITANCE: The ability of a non-conductor to store a charge. Equal to quantity

stored charge (Q) divided by the voltage (E) across the device when that charge was stored.
Unit of measurement is farad.

INDUCTANCE: The ability of a coil to store energy and oppose changes in current
flowing through it. Symbol is H & unit is Henry.

OHM’S LAW: It states that in simple materials, the amount of current through the
material varies directly with the applied voltage and varies inversely with the
resistance of the material. Gives rise to three common equations for use in circuit
analysis:
E ═ IR , R ═ E/I , I ═ E/R.

SERIES CIRCUIT: A circuit with only path through which current can flow.

PARALLEL CIRCUIT: A circuit with two or more paths (branches) for current flow.

SINGLE PHASE SUPPLY: The emf available at the terminals of an armature wound
with only one coil is termed as single phase supply. Single phase supply is comprised
of only one phase with neutral.

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THREE PHASE SUPPLY: The emfs. available at the terminals of an
armature,wound with three number coils with 120◦ phase difference is termed as three
phase supply.
STAR OR WYE CONNECTION : In this system of three phase connection, the end
terminals of the three phases are connected at a common point called as star point and
the start terminals are connected with the supply terminals as shown in the fig.

Ref: to the fig.

line current ═ phase current

line voltage ═ √3 phase voltage

phase voltage ═ line voltage/ √3

VOLTAGE LEVELS: Low voltage =

High voltage = above 650 volt
Extra high voltage = 220 k.v and above
Single phase voltage = 220─240 volt
Three phase voltage = 380─415 volt
ELECTRO STATIC INDUCTION: It is found that when an uncharged body is
brought near a charged body, it requires some charge. This phenomenon of an
uncharged getting charged merely by the nearness of a charged body is known as
induction. In the fig. a, below :

+ ++++++ ─── ++ ++++++++ ───

+ ++++ ── +++ +++++++++ ──

Fig. a Fig. b

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a positively charged-body A is brought closed to a perfectly-insulated uncharged body B. It is found
that the end of B nearer to A gets negatively charged whereas farther end becomes positively charged.
The negative and positive charges of B are known as induced charges. The negative charge of B is
called ‘bound’ charge because it must remain on B so long as positive charge of A remains there.
However the positive charge on the farther end of B is called free charge. In the fig. b above the body
B has been earthed by a wire. The positive charge flows to the earth leaving negative charge behind. If
A is removed next, then this negative charge will also go to the earth, leaving B uncharged. It is found
that:

(i) A positive charge induces a negative charge and vice-versa.

(ii) Each of the induced charges is equal to the inducing charges.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION: It is well known that whenever an electric

current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field exists in the space surrounding the
conductor. It can be said that when electrons are in motion, they produce a magnetic field.
The converse of this is also true i.e. when a magnetic field embracing a conductor moves
relative to the conductor, it produces a flow of electrons in the conductor. This phenomenon
whereby an emf and hence current is induced in any conductor which is cut across or is cut
by a magnetic flux is known as electromagnetic induction.

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 ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM
Basic Concept : Energy is the basic requirement of economic development. Need for
energy is always critical. Man is ever searching for to explore energy resources to meet
his energy requirements. For this purpose he exploits all energy resources that are easily
available to him. Electrical power is one such source that has more significance on all
other sources of energy.

BASIC COMPONENTS OF POWER SYSTEM:

(1) Generating Station:- a generating station is the heart of an electrical power

system. Electrical power is generated by the following means;

i) Water falls (hydro-electric):- In the modern hydro-electric generating

stations, a dam is erected at suitable locations on a waterway. This backs
up the water to produce the necessary head, or difference in elevation
required to power a generator. The water is channeled down a pipe or
“penstock”, striking the blades of a turbine runner at the bottom. The
runner rotates and being connected by a shaft to the generator, provides
the power to produce electricity. Having served its purpose, the water
then passes out through the draught tube to the tailrace and joins the
main stream of the river.

ii) Nuclear fuelled:- In the nuclear station, heat from the splitting of the
uranium atom inside the reactor produces steam to spin the turbo-
generators. Heavy water is used to transport heat from the hot uranium
fuel bundles to the steam generator, and turns ordinary water into steam
within a heat exchanger to generate electricity. Cooling is achieved as in
the conventional thermal station.

iii) Steam power (thermal):- In the conventional thermal station, the fossil
fuels i.e; coal, oil, or natural gas, are burned in the boiler which has
walls lined with water filled tubes to generate steam and operate the
turbine. Cooling water passes through condensers in a closed circuit to
condense the steam back to water.
iv) Wind-mills
v) Solar energy system.etc.

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(2) TRANSMISSION LINE: - Transmission line is comprised of three power
conductors. These three power conductors are also referred to as phases and for
purposes of identification are referred to as Red, Yellow and Blue. These
conductors are attached to steel arms on steel towers by suspension type
insulators.

(3) SWITCHING STATION :- A simple switching station makes provision for

switching from one source of power to another or directing power from one
circuit to another.

(4) LARGE TRANSFORMER STATION :- The large transformer station is

usually located adjacent to a heavy load centre where a number of transmission
circuits terminate. The transformer steps down the voltage from 220 or 500kv
132kv for transmission to nearby parts of the system.

(5) SMALLER TRANSFORMER STATION :- The purpose of this type of

transformer station is to step down a high voltage to one that can be carried to
rural or municipal distributing stations, industrial plants or other large direct
customers.

(6) DISTRBUTING STATION :- Distributing stations are also step down points.
Distribution lines radiate from here to wherever electric power is needed. These
stations step the voltages down to the distributing range i.e 11kv. As the
distribution lines reach customers homes and small businesses, the voltage is
again reduced to 120 volts for lighting and appliances, 240 volts for ranges,
water heaters and motors or 600 volts for large motors. The transformers for
this purpose are mounted on poles on road ways and streets and are equipped
with arresters and fuses.

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 TOOLS & PLANTS ( T&P )
1. CARE AND UPKEEP OF TOOLS

i. All the tools should be stored in a proper toolbox and each should be placed in
the own compartment.

ii. Tools should not be thrown in toolbox in order to avoid damage to itself and to
other tools.

iii. Tools must be kept away form heat because heat reduces hardness of tools.

iv. All the tools should be kept clean. Dust or rust must never be allowed to
accumulate on tools.

v. After completion of work the tools should be wiped with a clean cloth
moistened with machine oil and then each tool should be stored in its proper
place.

vi. Each tool must be used only for that job for which it is made.

vii. Ordinary plastic insulated tools must never be relied upon for electrical
insulation.

viii. Always purchase best quality tools regardless of their cost because good
quality tools last for long time and give good continuous service.

Hand Tools :
2. PLIERS

2.1 Care
i. Before using pliers check that:

a. Its handle is in good condition and not slippery.

b. There is no side play in it.
c. Its cutting edge is not dull i.e. it is sharp and aligned.
d. It is not too tight and not too loose at hinge.
e. It has deeply mild teeth to have perfect grip with minimum hand
pressure.
ii. Plier should not be used as hammer

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iii. Plier with marked handle must never be relied upon for electrical insulation.

iv. Plier should not be exposed to heat.

v. Never try to bend wire against the cutting edge of plier in order to avoid
damage to its cutting edge.

vi. Never try to cut long objects by extending the length of plier handle for greater
leverage because due to this handle of plier will be broken.

vii. Plier should only be used for cutting when wire is de-energized.

viii. Always use proper size and type of plier according to the job.

2.2 Maintenance
i. Dull cutting edge of plier should be dressed with oil stone.

ii. All moving parts of plier should be oiled with one or two drops of machine oil
form time to time.

iii. The play between the moving parts of plier should be removed by tightening
the rivet.

iv. Dust or rust from hinge point should be flushed by oiling.

3. SCREW DRIVER

3.1 CARE
i. Do not hold the work in one hand while using the screw driver in other hand
because screw driver may slip and injure the hand.
ii. Do not use a screw driver near a live wire or for electrical testing.
iii. Do not carry screw driver in hip pocket.
iv. Do no use screw driver for prying, punching and chiseling etc.
v. Use off-set screw drivers in close quarters where a conventional screw driver
cannot be used.
vi. Do not use plier on the handle of screw driver to get extra turning power. A
wrench made for this purpose should be used.
vii. Do not expose screw driver to heat.
viii. Do not use screw driver with broken handle.

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3.2 MAINTENANCE
i. Rounded tip of screw driver should be dressed with a file or grindstone to make
the edge straight. Do not taper a sharp edge.

ii. Keep screw driver handle clean, because greasy handle may cause an accident.

4. WRENCHES

4.1 CARE

i. Doe not expose wrenches to heat.

ii. Do not ground wrenches to change their shape.

iii. Wrenches with bent handle must be discarded.

iv. Never use pipe extension to get extra leverage from a wrench.

v. Always apply fore on the fixed jaw side of adjustable wrench.

vi. Always use proper size of wrench according to job.

4.2 MAINTENANCE
i. Wrenches should be kept clean.
ii. Replace damaged parts of wrenches.
iii. Lubricate moving parts of wrenches from time to time.
PRACTICAL PROJECT

Topic: Tools
Objective: To set a torque wrench for correct torque for a given bolt and then tighten
the bolt with it.

25
5. METAL PUNCHES

5.1 VARIOUS TYPES OF PUNCHES AND THEIR USE

i. Solid Punch
It is used to loosen (i.e. start or set) tight bolts or pins and to punch holes in thin
sheets.

ii. Pin Punch

It is used to finish driving pin or rivet through hole which has been started by
solid punch. It is also used to remove tight bolts or pins.

iii. Taper Punch

It is used to align holes or parts of the assembly work.

iv. Center Punch

It is used to mark center of hole to be drilled.

v. Prick Punch
It is used for making small identification for location of points and center for
divider points.

5.2 CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF PUNCHES

Punches with mushroomed heads should never be used. Such heads should be
dressed.

6. HACKSAWS

6.1 PROPER PROCEDURE FOR CUTTING MATERIAL WITH HACKSAW

i. Place the blade in the frame such that the teeth point towards forward direction (or
away form the handle) and tighten it. During the work, blade tension must be
checked and it should be retightened, if necessary.

ii. Hold the object to be cut in the vice in such a way that maximum number of teeth
are engaged throughout the cut. (At least two teeth must be in contact with the job).

iii. Start the work at an angle to have number of teeth engaged with the job. (It is better
if cutting surface is prepared by making a mark with few strokes of file).

26
 iv. Apply sufficient pressure to make teeth cut. Do no merely rub the blade on job.

v. Always use full length of blade. Avoid short strokes. The recommended number of
strokes per minute are from 40 to 50.

Note
When cutting hard material, use slower cutting stokes to avoid overheating of blade
and hence its damage.

vi. Lift the hacksaw a little bit on the return stroke to avoid dragging the teeth and
dulling the cutting edge.

vii. Keep the blade and frame in line with the cut to avoid breaking or bending of blade
and keep hand free to cutting edge

viii. Cool the blade during work by a lubricant.

Note

When cutting thin or flimsy material with hacksaw, clamp it between two wooden
boards and then cut through whole assembly.

6.2 CARE AND MAINTENANCE

i. Do not use saw frame as a hammer or pry.
ii. Keep the saw assembled when not in use to prevent loss of parts.
iii. Keep saw clean, wipe dry when wet and oil when necessary.
7. STEEL SQUARE

7.1 USES OF STEEL SQUARE

i. For checking squarness of corners (or stock).
ii. For checking the flatness of surfaces.
iii. For scribing lines.
iv. For measuring 900 angle.

7.2 CARE
i. Steel square should be treated as a precise tool.
ii. Steel square should be kept in safe and secure place.
iii. Steel square should not be dropped.
iv. Steel square should not be subjected to blow of any kind.

27
8. FILES
8.1 PROCEDURE FOR PROPER USE OF FILE
i. Select proper file for the job to be done and fit it in the correct size handle.

If file is new then first remove oil from it by chalking it and with file brush.

ii. Place the work securely in the vice and start filing.

iii. Apply pressure only on forward stroke because file cuts in forward stroke only.
Bear hard but take slow strokes.

Notes
1. When it is necessary to file a flat surface, CROSS FILING is used. In this
method a few cuts are made in one direction over the surface and then position
of the body and hands are changed and few cuts are made across the 1 st cut. The
process is repeated until the job is completed.

2. For removing the metal too fast, DRAW FILING is used. In draw filing the file
is held in two hands at right angle to work and file is rubbed back and forth
with just enough pressure to make the file cut. A single cut file will give
smooth surface and double cut file will give course or rough surface. But
double cut file will remove more material.

8.2 CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF FILE

1. Do not throw file in other tools or on ground to avoid damage to its teeth.
2. Do not use file as hammer or pry.
3. Remove metal chips cloged in the file teeth with file brush.
4. Keep files clean and dry and do not allow rust or dust to accumulate on them.
9. TAPS AND TWIST DRILLS
9.1 TAP SIZE
Tap is sized by two things i.e. the diameter of screw of thread and the number
of threads per inch (TPI) or number of threads per milimeter (TPM). For example

12 – 24, 3/4 – 16, 16M – 1.6

Dia = 12 No. size, TPI = 24, Dia = 3/4", TPI = 16, Dia = 16mm, TPM 1.6

28
9.2 TAP SETS
Taps of sizes over 1/4" are made in set of three tapes called TAPER TAP,
PLUG TAP and BOTTOMING TAP.

Taper Tap is used in starting. About 5 to 6 threads are removed at the point of taper
tap.

Plug Tap is used after taper tap. About 3 to 4 threads are removed at the point of plug
tap.

Bottoming Tap is used at the end. 1 to 2 threads are removed at the point of
bottoming tap.

9.3 CARE WHEN USING TAP

1. Care should be taken to apply even pressure on the handle of the tap wrench. If
the tap does not enter squarely at the beginning of operation (or it becomes
hard to drive it in the hole), then stop work, remove tap from the hole, then
restart it by applying force in the direction from which the tap leans. This is
called Straightening Process.

2. Dull tap should never be used to make threads because tap will chip or break
and also it will make rough or poor threads.

3. To sharpen the point of tap, reground it on the side of grinding wheel.

4. Broken teeth or threads must always be removed because removal of 1 or 2

teeth from tap does not affect efficiency of tap too much.

9.4 TAP WRENCHES

Various types of tap wrenches most commonly used are:

1. Double Ended Adjustable Tap Wrench

It is used where enough room is available to turn the tap wrench.

2. T-Handle Tap Wrench

It is used in depth where space does not permit the turning of handle.

3. Single Ended or Rachet Tap Wrench

It is used when working against a shoulder.

29
Note
In general that type of tap wrench should be used by means of which even
pressure can be applied or tap wrench handle in order to avoid damaging of tap in the
hole, and space available for turning of the tap wrench.

9.5 SYSTEM OF DRILL SIZE

Size of drill is the size (i.e. diameter) of its shank. There are four systems of
drill size. They are:

1. Number System
From 80 to 1
 
Smallest Largest

2. Letter System
From A to Z
 
Smallest Largest
A starts after 1 (i.e. A is larger than No. 1 size).

3. English System
It is in fractional of inches e.g. 1/2", 3/4", 5/8", 11/16", 21/32” and 31/64" etc.

4. Metric System
It is in millimeter e.g. 7 mm, 11 mm, 15 mm etc.
All these systems can be converted to decimal system (i.e. decimal of an inch)
which is called American System.

Mostly Fraction sizes of drill are common. Table A includes all of the
number sizes, all of the letter sizes and the fractional sizes from 1/64" to 1/2".
They are arranged in the order of size with the decimal equivalent opposite to
each drill size.

For converting inches to mm use formula 1"= 25 mm.

9.6 HOW TO FIND TAP DRILL SIZE (OR DRILL SIZE) FOR A GIVEN SCREW
SIZE (OR TAP SIZE)
Tap drill size for a given screw size can be found by one of the following ways.

1. From charts or tables, for this, tables are attached.

30
 0.75 x 1.299
2. Tap drill size = (outside dia of screw in inches)
No. of TPI

3. Tap drill size =75% of outside dia of screw approximately. If screw dia is given
in number (NO.), then screw dia in inches (screw dia in No.) x 0.013 + 0.060.

9.7 THE TAP AND DRILL GAUGE

It is used to measure the size of tap and twist drill to be used for drilling hole
and then making threads in it. It has 3 column of figures. The tap size, the drill size
and the body drill size.

9.8 THREAD PITCH GAUGE

It is used to take measurement of slots, air gaps and clearance etc. It consists of
hardened leaves called feelers. To make measurement, the number of leaves are
inserted in the opening to be measured until snug (or tidy) feel is reached and then
additional of these leaves will give the measurement.

Note
Always use the fewest number of leaves possible.

10. VERNIER CALIPER

It is used take very accurate measurements correct upto 1/1000 th of an inch or
1/20th of a m.m.

It has two scales

i. Main or fixed scale and
ii. Sliding or vernier scale

Reading= Reading on main scale just before zero of vernier scale + co-including
division of vernier scale with main scale x least count.

Smallest graduation on main scale

Where least count =
No. of divisions on vernier scale

Mostly least count is given on vernier caliper.

11. GRINDERS

31
11.1 PROPER PROCEDURE FOR GRINDING
1. Stand to one side of wheel.

2. Place the work on tool rest

3. Move the work back and forward straight on the wheel to avoid appearance of
grooves in the surface of work.

4. Apply enough pressure to grind.

5. Cool the work in water pot if it becomes hot.

6. Remove as much material by rough grinding as possible, then use a finer wheel
for finishing.

Note
1. When grinding small pieces, keep fingers away form the wheel.
2. Place tool rest close to the wheel to prevent the work from slipping into the
space between the two.
11.2 CARE / PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING GRINDER

1. Goggles must be worn when using grinder.

2. Guards and safety glass shields etc. provided must be used.
3. Never exceed the rated safe rim speed of wheel.
4. Work rests on tool rest should not be more than 1/8" away from the wheel.
5. Keep wheel dry
6. Never grind soft materials with grinder.

QUESTIONS (TOOLS)

Q.1 Fill in the blanks in following with suitable words?

i. Heat reduces __________ of tools.

ii. File cuts on ___________ stroke.
iii. Draw filing should be done with _________ cut file to get smooth finish.
iv. The work rest on stationary grinders must be spaced more than _______ from
the wheel.
v. Tap is sized by diameter of threads and __________.

32
Q.2 A badly mushroomed punch head is dangerous. Why?
Q.3 For a given piece of flat iron, using hand tools complete tap block(Diagram
attached) as accurate to size as possible.

RIGGING
1.1 Rigging Definition
Lifting of heavy objects is called rigging. In rigging following 4 things are the
most important.

1. Weight of objectives to be lifted must be known.

2. C.G. of object to be lifted must be known.
3. Size and strength of rigging hardware must be known.
4. Crane capacity and place to park crane must be known.
Now let us discuss all of these items separately.

1. Weight of Object
Tables A, B and C show the weight of different objects in pounds per foot
length for a given diameter, pound per cubic ft. and pounds per square ft. for various
thickness respectively. Therefore the weight of an object to be lifted can be calculated
by finding its area, volume or length and then by using these tables.

33
Example
A steel rod is 100 ft. long and has 7/8" dia.
What is its weight.
Solution
Using table – A. weight of Rod = 2.04 x 100 = 204 Pounds.
Example
A brick has dimensions 9" x 4.5" x 4". What is its weight? What will be weight
of 100 bricks?

Solution
Area of brick = 9/12 x 4.512 ft.
Using table – C
Weight of one brick for 4" thickness
= 9 / 12 x 4.5/ 12 x 40 = 11.25 lbs
weight of 1000 bricks = 11.25 x 1000 = 11.25 Lbs
= 5.5 tons
Example
A box with no top measures 10' x 4' x 4' and is 2" thick made of concrete
reinforce. What is its weight?

Solution
Volume of box = 3 (10' x 4" x 2/12') ft + 2 (3-10/12 x 3-8/12x2/12) ft3
= 24.7 ft3 (24.1)
Using Table – B

Weight of box = 27.7 x 150 =3705 pounds or 1. tons

2. C.G OF AN OBJECT : It is a point in a body at which its total weight acts.

34
 Object must be lifted at the vertical line drawn from the CG of object. i.e. Hook
must be directly above the CG of object, otherwise there will be no equilibrium and
the body will topple over causing injury to persons and equipment and also object may
be damaged itself.

C.G of regular objects can be determined easily as shown.

For finding C.G of non-uniform shape objects pendulum and thread is used or
C.G is found by common sense.

In the field object is suspended by slings having turn buckles. Object is slowly
lifted and tilt is removed by adjusting turn buckles to vary sling lengths and or by use
of hoist.

3. Size and Strength of Rigging Hardware

For wire ropes, fiber ropes, chains see section III of Rigging Handbook (Self-
study).

Safe working load (SLW) of various types of ropes can be found from tables
given in rigging handbook. If tables are not available, then for SWL use following
rule.

For all Fibers Ropes

Change the rope diameter to eighth of an inch then:
For Manila Rope SWL In Pounds = (numerator)2 x 20
For Polyethylene SWL in LBS = (Numerator) 2 x 35
For Polypropylene SWL in LBS = (Numerator)2 x 40
For Nylon and Polyester SWL in LBS = (Numerator)2 x 60
e.g. for ½" Manila Ropes – Dia = ½ x 4/4 x 4/8".
SWL = (4)2 x 20 = 320 Lbs.

For Wire Ropes

SWL in Tons = (Diameter in inches)2 x 8
e.g. SWL of ½” dia wire rope = (1/2)2 x 8 = 2 tons.

Breaking strength of material

SWL =
Its S.F

35
4. CRANE CAPACITY AND PLACE TO PARK CRANE
Important points in crane are:

i. Crane Radius (R): Distance from the center of rotation of crane to a vertical
line drawn through the CG of the suspended load is called crane radius (R).
More radius will reduce crane capacity. For the loads above 75% of crane
capacity radius must be measured exactly.

ii. Boom Angle (O): Crane capacity decreases with decrease of boom angle i.e.
crane can lift more load if boom angle is kept high.

iii. If load lifted is equal to or more than 75% of crane capacity, then load must be
determined exactly or for the lifting of such loads, higher capacity crane should
be arranged.

iv. Load on crane includes the actual load to be lifted + slings weight + hook
weight + blocks weight etc.

v. Levelling: When crane is not operated on tyres, crane must be levelled

properly. When load lifted is above 75% crane capacity then crane must be
levelled within ½ degree.

vi. Wind: When long booms are used or when the load has large surface area, then
wind effect must be considered. On any load above 75% of crane capacity wind
effect must be considered and it is better to delay rigging program under high
wind velocities.

vii. Temperature: At low temperature steel becomes brittle and hence at extreme
low temperatures lifting should not be done.

viii. Icing: It increase load on crane.

ix. Rough operation of crane must be avoided in order to have no jerking and
swinging of load.

Note: For further detail see Craning Handbook.

36
1.2 SLING ANGLE

Wire ropes, fiber ropes and chains etc. are used as sling materials.

Capacity of sling material decreases as the sling angle decreases. Sling angle
below 45 degree must be avoided.

In rigging handbook various tables are given which indicate SWL for various
sling angles.

Note: For further detail Section – V of Rigging Handbook can be seen.

1.3 SAFETY FACTOR (SF)

Breaking Strength of the weakest section
S.F 
Max load to be lifted (or applied)

For ropes S.F. is 5, shackles and turnbuckles have S.F of 10. S.F is provided in
rigging because of following reasons.

i. Breaking strength of ropes etc. is not exactly known.

ii. Load to be lifted is not exactly known.
iii. Rigging materials may not be in good condition and not be new one.
iv. Weather conditions

37
PRACTICAL PROJECT
TOPIC
Rigging

OBJECTIVE
On a given Siemens Break Frame Calculate its weight by using tables.

1.4 KNOTS
Knots reduce rope strength by 50%.

There are many knots but this section deals only with the knots whose use is
most common.

1. Square or Reef Knots

It is used to unite end of two ropes of same size. If size of ropes is different,
then this knot will slip. Tying of square knot will be demonstrated. (Hint for tying left
on right, then right on left).

38
2. Bowline
(i) It never slips and (ii) it can be easily united.

There are many types of bowline. We will consider here only few of them, they are:

a. Single Bowline
Its uses are (i) to unite two ropes of different sizes and (ii) to attach the fall line
of tackle blocks (iii) to attach rope to hook etc.

Tying of single bowline will be demonstrated. (Hint: Make 6, pass lower end
from hole, then pass around other end and then back to the hole).

b. Running Bowline
It is used where slip type of knot is required. Pulling the line will cause it to be
tightened around the object to which it is fastened.

Tying will be demonstrated.

(Hint: Pass around the object, pass one rope around other and then tie single
bowline).

c. Single Bowline around an Object

It is used to attach some objects (such as trees, pole or hook) where rope has
strain on it, such as when attaching a temporary guy to a pole.
Its tying is same as that of single bowline but it is tied around an object.

3. Clove Hitch
It has many types. Some of which are as follows:

a. Clove Hitch in Hand

It is used for attaching T&P to hand lines and also used to attach the fall line of
blocks or hook of snatch block to anchor.
(Hints: Hold opposite loops in hand and then combine them).
b. Clove Hitch around an Object
It is used where there is pull on a rope, but tension must be same on each part
of rope, otherwise hitch will slip.
Its tying will be demonstrated.
(Hints: Pass rope around an object, pass one line around other top to bottom,
then pass that line around object and then pass its end under same loop).

39
4. Snubbing Hitch
It is used for securing temporary guys and fall line of tackle blocks to pole or
tree.

Its tying will be demonstrated

(Hints: One round turn around object and then tie the two half hitches).

5. Figure Eight Knot

It is used as a hand hold at the end of fall line of blocks etc. (its tying will be
demonstrated).

6. Becket Bend or Knot

It is used for attaching rope to the becket of becket block (i.e. standing block)
in a set of tackle blocks.

(Its tying will be demonstrated).

PRACTICAL PROJECT
TOPIC
Rigging

OBJECTIVE
On a given piece of rope practice to tie square knot, bowline, clove hitch,
figure eight knot, snubbing hitch and becket bend.

CROWN SPLICES
Splice reduces rope strength by 10%. There are many splices but we will
discuss here only about crown splice and eye splice because these are used most
commonly.

1. Crown Splice or Back Splice

It is used to keep the ends of ropes form untwisting.
Its tying will be demonstrated.

2. Eye Splice
It is used to form a permanent loop or eye in the end of a rope.
Its tying will be demonstrated.

40
PRACTICAL PROJECT
Topic
Rigging

OBJECTIVE
On a given piece of rope practice to tie crown splice and eye splice.

1.5 TACKLES BLOCKS

1. Meaning of Tackle Blocks

Tackle blocks mean arrangement of ropes and pulleys (or sheaves) to raise or
lower the load. A block contains 1, 2, 3 or 4 pulleys of sheaves.

2. Set of Tackle Blocks

A set of tackle blocks consists of 2 blocks:
i. Standing or Becket block to which rope is fastened at the end by Becket bend
and it is anchored to something.

ii. Running block to which load to be lifted is attached.

3. Mechanical Advantage (M.A) of Tackle Blocks

Mechanical advantage tackle blocks= Number of ropes (or parts of rope)
attached to the running block (or to the load).

Weight to be lifted (W)

M.A 
Force applied (F) or pull on fall line

4. Friction in Tackle Blocks

When a rope moves around a sheave (or pulley) to turn the pulley, the rope
must overcome the friction between the sheave and its axle. This friction in tackle is
considered as an additional load (or weight) to be lifted.

If W = weight to be lifted, Wf = Wt. due to friction.

Then Wf = 10% of W x total No. of sheaves,
Then net weight to be lifted Wn = W + Wf and M.A = Wn./F

41
Example
In the figure shown find F taking friction into account?

Solution
W = 1000 pounds
Wf = 10/100 x 1000 x 4 -= 400 pounds
Wn = W + Wf = 1000 x 400 = 1400 pounds
M.A = 4 here
So F = Wn/M.A = 1400/4 = 350 pounds.

5. Size of Tackle Blocks and Size of Rope Used

Generally fibre ropes are used in tackle blocks.

Size of tackle blocks = length of its shell in inches = rope dia x 8

Note
Always use correct size of rope and block for the job.

a. If block is smaller than recommended size, then following can happen

i. Sheaves will make sharp bends n the rope and hence rope may be
damaged.

ii. Rotation of sheave will be restricted due to which there will be more
friction and hence operating efficiency will be reduced.

iii. The rope may not pass through the swallow of the block.

b. If rope is smaller than recommended then there is no support on side to keep

rope in place due to which rope strands spread out flat and hence rope will
damage.

42
6. Increase in M.A by Using 2nd Set of Tackles Blocks
When added or extra MA is required to increase the pulling power, a 2 nd set of
blocks is used. The 2ndset of blocks is attached to the fall line of 1 st set of blocks by a
single bowline. But it must be known that how much load first block will lift, and
what will be the load on the fall line of first block set. On 2 nd set of blocks a load
should never exceed 520 Lbs. for a 4" triple block (i.e. each block having 3 sheaves,
rope dia 1/2", size of block = length of shell = 4”)
Example: In Fig. (A) Find F1 and F2?

Solution
Consider 1st set of tackle blocks.
W = 2000 Lbs, M.A = 6
Wf = 10/100 x 2000 x 6 = 12000 Lbs.
Wn = W + Wf = 2000 + 1200 = 3200 Lbs.
So F1 = Wn/ M.A = 3200/6 = 533 Lbs.

Consider 2nd set of tackle blocks.

W = F1 533 Lbs, M.A = 7
Wf = 10/100 x 533 x 6 = 319.8 = 320 Lbs.
Wn = 533 x 320 = 853 Lbs.
Now F2 = Wn/ M.A = 853/7 = 122 Lbs.

7. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. Keep rope and blocks clean and dry. Do not drag them on ground.

2. Lubricate sheaves bearing with fiber grease (do not use oil).

3. Replace defective and worn parts.

4. Straighten bent shell and straps but never straighten bent hooks. Always replace
bent hooks (since all the load and force both are on hook).

5. Wear on load is mainly on block end. Examine rope regularly and change its
position in the blocks to prevent it from damage.

43
8. Reeving a set of Tackle Blocks :
Reeving a set of tackle blocks mean the threading of rope around the sheaves of each block
in such a manner as to unite them so that they can be used as tackles. Follow the procedure
given below for reeving.
i. Place becket block (or standing block) on left side with sheaves in horizontal
position and running block on right side 3Ft. away from becket block with
sheaves in vertical position.

ii. Pass fall line from the center sheaves of becket block. Due to this hoisting
tension comes on the central sheave of blocks and they are saved from cutting
across the edges of block shell.

iii. Then the process of reeving is continued by the method. When on top, stay on
top, when at bottom, stay at bottom, when inside, stay inside and when on
outside stay out side.

iv. When rope has been passed around all the sheaves then at the end attach the
end of rope to the Becket of left (i.e. standing) block using a Becket bend.

Reeving a set of tackle blocks will be demonstrated.

PRACTICAL PROJECT
TOPIC
Rigging

OBJECTIVES
Given a set of tackle blocks and rope practice reeving tackle blocks.

1.7 SNATCH BLOCKS

1. Uses of Snatch Blocks

i. As a standing block to provide change in direction of fall line. In this case its
M.A = 1.

ii. As running block to provide M.A of 2.

Example: In Fig.1:- if W=1000. Calculate F1 and F2, Taking friction into account.

44
Solution
For set of tackle blocks.

W = 1000 Lbs. M.A = 4,

Wf = 10/100 x 1000 x 3 = 300 Lbs. so Wn = W + Wf = 1300 Lbs.

F1 = Wn/M.A = 1300/4 = 325 Lbs.

W = F1 = 325 Lbs. M.A = 1

Wf = 10/100 x 325 x 1 = 32.5,

So Wn = W + Wf = 325 + 32.5 = 357.5 Lbs

Example: In Fig.2:- If W=1000 Lbs, Calculate F1 and F2

Taking friction into account

45
Solution
For tackle blocks set
W  1000 Lbs. M.A  4
WF = 10/100 x 10000 x 4 = 400 Lbs. sow Wn = W + Wf = 1000 + 400 Lbs.
Now F1 = Wn/M.A = 1400/4 = 350 Lbs.
For Snatch block W = F1 350 Lbs. M.A = 2.
WF = 10/1000 x 350 x 1 = 35 Lbs.
F = Wn/M.A = 385/2 = 192.5 Lbs.
Example: Draw proper rigging for the drawing shown in figure A.

Example: In the arrangement shown in figure B find F1, F2 and F3 taking friction
into account.

46
7.2 SIZE OF FIBRE ROPE SNATCH BLOCK
Size of fibre rope snatch block = length of shell = rope diameter x 8.

Note
Wire rope must never be fibre rope snatch blocks because of following reasons.

i. Sheaves dia is small and will make sharp bends in the wire.
ii. The groove is sheave is of large radius and will not correspond to rope.
iii. Either block or rope or both may be damaged.

7.3 SIZE OF WIRE ROPE SNATCH BLOCKS

Block size = Sheave diameter = rope diameter x 16
Always use correct size of rope for the block because:

a. If sheave groove is narrow for a wire rope then rope tends to climb on one side
of groove and score the groove i.e. rotation of sheave is restricted and rope is
subjected to abrasive tension.

b. If sheave groove is too wide of the rope, then rope is not properly supported
and become flattened or distorted.

7.4 ANGLE OF LEAD LINE

Angle between load line

And fall line is called angle of lead line. This angle affects the stress or tension
on the hook.

Tension (or stress) on hook  1/angle of lead line.

i.e. for larger angles tension on hook is less and vice versa. But normally this
angle is very small (i.e. Zero Degree) so tension on hook is more.

47
 T = F + W for 0 degree). Therefore the hook must be very strong and because
of this reason it is stated that bent hooks must always be replaced and never be
straightened.

ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Ammeter, voltmeter, ohmmeter, multimeter (or AVO meter) and megger are the
most commonly /testing instruments. We will discuss here only about the proper use
of each instrument.

1. Ammeter (Or Ampere Meter)

i. Avoid careless handling

ii. Always connect ammeter in series in the circuit whose current is to be
measured.

iii. Always 1st set the range selector switch at the highest range and then stepwise
decrease the range until suitable scale reading is obtained.

2. Voltmeter
i. Same as above
ii. Always connect voltmeter in parallel to the circuit, whose voltage is to be
measured.

iii. Same as above

iv. Leads of voltmeter must be free of defects.

48
3. Ohmmeter
i. Never use ohmmeter on energized circuit

ii. Zero adjustment must be made for each range. For this short its leads together
and then bring pointer to zero by variable resistor by using screw driver (or by
turning the knob provided).

iii. Avoid careless handling

iv. For checking continuity of wires etc. it is better to use smallest range of
ohmmeter.

4. Multi meter or (AVO Meter)

i. Adjust the selector switch to the quantity which is to be measured (i.e. current,
voltage or resistance and A.C voltage or DC voltage etc.).

ii. When multi meter is not in use, put its selector switch to off position because of
following reasons:

a. Meter damage is avoided if it is connected to high voltages by someone.

b. Needle movement is damped and hence needle is protected from

damage during transportation etc.

Note:
If off position is not provided, then return the selector switch to the
highest voltage range.

iii. Avoid careless handling

iv. When measuring V and I, always set range selection switch at the highest range
and then switch successively to lower ranges until a suitable range is obtained.

v. When measuring resistance (or continuity) of a circuit with multi meter, the
circuit must be de-energized before inserting the mete leads in it.

vi. Leads of multi meter must be clean, dry and free of defects.

49
PRACTICAL PROJECT
TOPIC : METERS

OBJECTIVE
1. Complete connections, energize circuit and

2. Record voltmeters reading

3. Record ammeters readings

4. De-energized circuit and measure resistance of heater 1 and heater 2 with

ohmmeter.

MEGGER : It is a device used to measure the insulation resistance of the power

cables etc.

Important points when using Megger:

i. Megger must never be used in energized circuit.

ii. Accuracy of megger must be checked before using megger. Accuracy of

megger is checked by performing following two tests:

a. Zero Check: For this short megger leads together and crank it, the
pointer of megger must deflects towards zero position.

b. Infinity Check: For this leave megger leads open circuited and crank
megger, its needle must deflects towards infinity position.

50
iii. The equipment under test must be discharged and grounded after test to
discharge the capacitor (insulation) and to release the energy which it may have
absorbed due to the dielectric absorption phenomenon.

iv. Megger leads must be clean, dry and free of defects.

v. Guard terminal of megger must never be touched during test.

vi. The rating of megger should not be more than the rating of equipment under
test.

vii. Procedure: The H (or line or +) terminal of megger is connected to the

equipment whose insulation resistance is to be measured, the E (Earth) terminal
of megger is connected to the terminal of equipment which is grounded. Then
megger is cranked until its needle is stabilized and reading is taken / recorded.

viii. Megger readings are always corrected to 200C standard temperature because Ri
varies inversely with temperature. To convert Ri to 200C following rule is
adopted:

For every 100C rise of temperature from 200C, Ri becomes half of its value.

For every 100C fall of temperature from 200C, Ri becomes double of its value.

NOTE: 1 M OHM reading for 1KV rated equipment at 20°C is considered

satisfactory.

Example
Ri reading of 66KV equipment at 40 0C was measured to be 20mega ohm. Can
this equipment be energized, explain.

Solution
Ri at 400C = 20 M. Ohm
G Ri at 300C = 40 M. Ohm

Ri at 200C = 80 M. Ohm

The equipment can be energized, since for 66KV equipment Ri reading of 66

M. Ohm is satisfactory. This reading is 80 M. Ohm.

51
Example
Ri reading of 220KV insulation measured at –5 0C was 1000 M. Ohm. Is this
good reading? Explain.

Solution
Ri at –50C = 1000 M. Ohm
Ri at 50C = 500 M. Ohm
Ri at 150C = 250 M. Ohm
Ri at 250C = 125 M. Ohm
Ri at 200C = (250 + 125)/2 = 375/2 = 187.5 M. Ohm

This is not a good reading as the satisfactory reading for 220 KV equipment is
200 M. Ohm at 200C.

Question
Insulation resistance of an 132KV bushing was found to be 50 Mega Ohm at
0
45 C. Can this bushing be put in service? Explain
Demonstration of insulation resistance test by megger on 132KV bushing will
be made.

52
BASIC CONTROLE CIRCUITS

1. Auxiliary Switches / Important Letters

Letters a, b, aa and bb are used in diagrams to represent switches or auxiliary
switches.
a. It is closed when main device (C.B, Isolator or contactor/Relay) is
closed/energized and it is opened when main device is open or de-energized.
Sometimes, a is also called normally open contact of a device.
b. It is closed when main device is opened and vice versa. b is also called
normally closed contact of a device.
aa. It is always open. It only closes for a very short time when the driving force
(air pressure, hydraulic pressure or spring) operating the main device is in
action. It returns to its original position when driving force ceases.
bb. It is opposite to aa i.e it is always closed. It opens for a very short time when
driving force operating the main device is in action. It re-closes or re-sets when
driving force is ceased.

2. NAMES OF AUTOMATIC SWITCHES

The names of various automatic switches are:
i. Level switch
ii. Flow switch
iii. Position or limit switch
iv. Pressure switch
v. Temperature switch
vi. Speed switch (centrifugal switch)

3. PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS

Absolute Pressure
It is measured from absolute zero, denoted as PSIG.
Gauge Pressure
It is measured above atmospheric pressure, denoted as PSIG.
Gauge Zero = 14.7 PSIA or atmospheric pressure.

53
Vacuum
It is measured below atmospheric pressure (or gauge zero). It is mostly
measured in CM of Hg or inches of Hg. It is always negative in gauge.

1 Bar = 1 Atmospheric pressure = 14.7 PSI

1 KG/Cm2 = 13.75 PSI = 1KP/CM2 (In German) where KP = Kilo ponds.

4. DEVICE FUNCTION NUMBERS

The following device function numbers are most commonly used in schematic
diagrams. They are:-

1. Switch (Manual or Automatic)

2. Time delay closing (or starting) device.

4. Contactor.

8. Control power disconnecting device such as switch or M.C.B or pull out

fuse block.

20. Electro valve.

23. Temperature switch (Thermo state)

27. Under Voltage Relay.

29. Manually operated isolator.

30. Alarm with lockout device, manually re-set.

33. Position switch.

43. Selector switch.

48. Phase discrepancy Relay.

49. Thermal over load relay.

52. Circuit Breaker. (A.C.)

62. Time delay opening (stopping) device.

63. Pressure, Level or Flow switch.

65. Governor switch.

54
 69. Control switch with spring return or push button (P.B).

72. Circuit Breaker (D.C)

74. Alarm with no lockout device (automatic re-set)

77. Pulse transmitter (counter)

84. Operating mechanism.

89. Motor operated isolator (Manually operated as well).

90. Regulating device may be voltage, current, speed or power sensitive

relay.

5. OVERLOAD PROTECTION

In order to avoid damage to motors etc. due to temperature rise because of

overloading and defective bearings etc., overload protection features are
incorporated in motor control circuits. It should be noted that O/L relay or
element is always incorporated in the power circuit but its contact is installed in
the control circuit. Due to this, the life of contact increases as it breaks small
current because in control circuit current is small.

Over load relays are mostly operated thermally and may be of bimetallic strip
type or solder pot (malting alloy) type.

6. OVER CURRENT OR SHORT CIRCUIT PROTECTION

The function of o/c protective devices is to protect motors and its circuit
elements etc. from damage in case of phase-phase short circuits or phase-
ground faults etc.
The o/c device must be capable of carrying the starting current of motors.
Mostly fuses and magnetic devices are used as over current protective devices.
Rating of fuse should not exceed 300% of full load current.
7. CONTACTOR:

Contractor is a device which is operated electrically and controlling the

operation of other circuits magnetically.

(Contactor may also be called as an ON-OFF Switch).

55
 Contactor has two types of contacts:

i. Main contacts:- these are used in power circuits and hence must be
strong to carry the full load current of motor continuously without undue
heating.

ii. Auxiliary contacts:- These are small and used in control circuits only.
These may be NO or NC and are used as seal in contact (NO),
interlocking contact (NC) and for indications etc.

CONTACTOR MAINTENANCE: It mainly includes:-

(a) Removal of rust or deposits etc. from contacts with emery paper and dry
cloth. Never file the contacts as it will remove the elkonite from the
contacts.

(b) Checking of contacts alignment

(c) Free movement of moving contacts assembly with binding etc.

(d) Checking of connections at terminal points.

SEAL IN CONTACT (S.I CONTACT): It completes the operation automatically

started by us manually so as not to hold the push button all the times.

7. MOTOR CONTROL CIRCUITS:

(i) Basic control circuit for a motor with one start P.B and one stop P.B.

S.I. Contact is always in parallel to the start P.B.

(ii) When it is required to control the motor from more than one location,
then circuit will be as shown below:-

56
 Here connect all start P.Bs in parallel (S.I. Contact also in parallel to them),
connect all stop P.Bs in series

(iii) Control circuit for a 3-phase motor which can be run in

forward/reversed direction:-

Note that direction of rotation of 3- phase motor is achieved by inter changing

connections of any two phases to motor.

57
 Here interlock is achieved through push buttons.

QUESTIONS

1. Draw a circuit for a bulb which can be controlled from:

i. Two locations ii. Three locations

2. Draw power circuit and control circuit for raising/lowering of a gate with a
3-phase, 400 volts motor, controle circuit voltage 150V a.c.

Show a safety device in such a way that gate can be raised during lowering
operation when a person wants to pass through in case of emergency. Also
show electrical interlocks, overload and over current protection features.

3. Draw a circuit for heating system of a room, with following data:

Heater supply: 3-phase, 400 volts, fan supply: 3-phase, 400 volts, control
circuit supply: 100v d.c.

When temperature drops to 40oF, the thermostat picks up and heater becomes
ON,

When temperature rises to 120oF, the fan starts,

When temperature rises to 180oF, both the fan and heater shut OFF

PRACTICAL PROJECT

TOPIC: CONTROL CIRCUITS project No.1

OBJECTIVE

58
 For a given control circuit, make proper connections and understand its
operation.

PRACTICAL PROJECT

TOPIC: CONTROL CIRCUITS project No.2

OBJECTIVE:

For a given control circuit, make proper connections and understand its
operation.

59
 MOTORS
FUNDAMENTAL THEORY: Electromagnetism, when applied properly, converts
electrical energy into mechanical energy. Rotary devices that accomplish this is called
motors.

If a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field the field becomes

distorted. This distortion exerts a force on the conductor, which tends to move it out of
the field. This is the fundamental principal of motor action. Any conductor carrying
current in a magnetic field tends to move at right angles to the field.

D.C. MOTOR:- It is identical in construction to a D.C generator. Its main parts are :

i ). Armature:- it consists of conductors placed in slots in its core, a commutator,

and the shaft on which it rotates. It is the medium through which the applied voltage
causes torque to be produced.

60
ii ) Permanent Magnet:- it establish a magnetic field in the space between north and
south poles of the magnet.

In a d.c motor, current is drawn from the supply and conducted into the armature
conductors through the brushes and commutator. When the armature conductors carry
current in the magnetic field established by the field circuit, a force is exerted on the
conductors which tend to move them at right angles to the field.

A.C MOTOR:- induction motor is the most commonly used type of a.c motor. It
consists of two parts:

a ) the stator, or stationary part.

b ) the rotor, or rotating part.

The stator is connected to the ac supply. The rotor is not connected electrically to the
supply but has current induced in it by transformer action from the stator. When the
stator winding is energized from a three phase supply, a rotating magnetic field is
established which rotates at synchronous speed. As the field sweeps across the rotor
conductors, an emf is induced in these conductors just as an emf is induced in the
secondary winding of a transformer by the flux of the primary currents. The rotor
circuit being complete, either through end rings or an external resistance, the induced
emf causes a current to flow in the rotor conductors. The rotor conductors carrying
current in the stator field thus have a force exerted upon them.

Motor starters: Two requirements must be met in starting d.c motors, especially if they are
to be started under load:

1. Both the motor and supply lines must be protected from the flow of excessive current
during starting period.

2.The motor starting torque should be made as large as possible, to bring the motor up to the
full speed in a minimum period of time.

At starting, when a motor armature is stationary, no counter emf is being generated. This
means that the only thing to limit the amount of current being drawn from the supply is the
armature-circuit resistance, which in most motors is very low, being of the order of 1ohm or
less. To meet the first starting requirement, an external resistance is placed in series with the

61
motor-armature circuit during the starting period. To show why this is necessary, consider a
10-hp motor with an armature resistance of 0.5 ohm. If this motor were connected directly to
a 230-v supply line , the resulting current would be

I= E/R=230/0.5=460 A

Which is roughly twelve times normal full load armature current for a motor of this size.This
large in rush of current would in all probability damage the brushes, commutator, or
windings. Starting resistances are usually designed to limit the starting current of a motor to
125 to 200 percent of the full load current. The amount of starting resistance required to limit
the armature starting current to the desired value is

Rs= Et/Is ─Ra where Rs = starting resistance in ohms

Et = motor terminal voltage, v

Is = desired armature starting current, A

Ra =armature circuit resistance,ohms

The second motor starting requirement is met by providing a maximum value of field flux
and by allowing a maximum safe value of armature current to flow during the starting period.

A starter is a device whose function is to start and accelerate a motor and provide some
measurement of protection for the motor that it governs.

Induction motors may be started either by connecting the motor directly across the supply
line or by applying a reduced voltage to the motor during the starting period.

STAR- DELTA STARTER : This method is used in the case of motors which are built to run
normally with a delta connected stator winding .It consists of a two way switch which
connects the motor in star for starting and then in delta for normal running. The usual
connections are shown in the fig. below: When star connected , the applied voltage over each
motor phase is reduced by a factor of 1/√3 and hence the torque developed becomes 1/3 of
that which would have been developed if motor were directly connected in delta. The line
current is reduced to 1/3. Hence during starting period when motor is Y-connected, it takes
1/3rd as much starting current and develops 1/3rd as much torque as would have been
developed were it directly connected in delta.

62
Replacement of bearing of motors: will be demonstrated by the instructor

Practical projects on control circuits : will be demonstrated by the instructor

Trouble shooting: will be explained by the instructor

Safety precautions: will be explained by the instructor

INSULATING MATERIALS

Anything that has weight and occupies space is called matter. Matter is made up of
atoms, and that atoms are essentially protons and electrons.

Matter in which the atoms are loosely bonded together and have a large number of
free electrons are good conductors of electricity. For example; metallic substances i.e ;
copper, aluminum, silver.

At the other ends of the range of matter, those substances whose atoms are bonded
together rather closely and have few free electrons are called insulating materials.
Electric current cannot pass through insulating materials, although it is known that a

63
very minute quantity of current may leak through insulation materials of any kind. It is
so small in the better insulations that it can be neglected.

Solid insulating materials:- glass, rubber, plastic, paper, mica, dry wood, porcelain
etc.

Liquid insulating materials:- distilled water, hydro-carbon mineral oil ( insulation

oil), varnish.

Gaseous insulating materials: - sulpher hexa fluoride gas ( , vacuum, compressed air.

Insulation resistance:- resistance offered by an insulation to the flow of current. It is

measured in mega ohms by the device called Megger.

Effect of temperature on insulation resistance:- insulation resistance varies inversely

with temperature. For every 10◦ rise in temperature from standard 20◦ temperature, the
insulation resistance becomes half and for every 10◦ decrease in temperature from
standard 20 ◦ temperature the insulation resistance becomes double.

Insulating oil treatment: - usually insulating oil becomes contaminated while in service in
switchgears and transformers or even stored in storage tank .The soluble & insoluble contaminants
both seriously affect the electrical properties of the oil and must be removed periodically in order to
maintain the insulating oil in good condition.

The conducting impurities in the insulating oil must be removed by passing the oil through a blotter
filter press. The blotter paper serves to trap solid particles and to absorb any moisture present. Passage
of the oil through the press is continued until the dielectric strength of oil has risen again to a
satisfactory value i.e, 22kv or better. This process is known as reconditioning.

Reclamation of insulating oil: - over a long period of time, the oil slowly oxidizes
and eventually reaches the point where it develops excessive acidity or deposits
excessive amounts of sludge. This applies mostly to insulating oil in transformers. In
addition, the oil may have leached small amounts of soluble contaminants from the
solid insulation. These soluble contaminants and deterioration products cannot be
removed the filter press. Only reclamation by chemical treatment will affect their
removal. If their concentration is too high, it may be found uneconomical to reclaim
the oil and in such a case, it is disposed off.

64
Reclamation is accomplished by bringing the heated oil in contact special absorbent
clay, such as fuller earth, which absorbs the acidic and related deterioration products.

XI. MODULE ON OIL SAMPLING/D.E.S. TESTING

MAIN OBJECTIVE: After completion of this module, trainee will be able to do

the followings:-

To correctly take an oil sample from equipment and to

perform DES test on oil to know about its condition.

XI. OIL SAMPLING / DIELECTRIC STRENGTH TESTING OF

INSULATION OIL

1. PURPOSE:-

The main purpose of DES test on insulation oil is to know about the
condition of oil i.e to know whether oil has absorbed soluble
contamination’s like water and carbon etc, or not.

2. INTERPRETATION:-

For new oil DES of oil must be at least 25kv for 2.5 mm or 0.1gauge.

For oil in service DES must be at least 22kv for 2.5 mm or 0.1 gauge.

If DES of oil is less than above values, then oil must be filtered or
reconditioned.

3. PROCEDURE FOR OIL SAMPLING/ DES TESTING OF INSULATION

OIL

i. Remove sufficient oil from the sampling pipe.

ii. Oil samples should be taken in sealers or syringes to avoid syringe or

container in which oil sample is to be taken must be free of moisture
dust etc. for this it should be washed or flushed three times with the oil
of equipment from which sample is to be taken.

65
 iii. Test the sample immediately after it is drawn. Adjust the gauge at
2.5m.m and gradually increase the voltage at the rate of 3kv per second
and continue raising the voltage until break down occurs.

Take five readings on one sample with an interval of two minutes among
the readings.

DES of oil will be the average of 5 readings taken.

IF DES is above 22kv for oil should be allowed to settle for about half
hour to permit any entrapped air to escape.

Again test the oil as above.

If reading found is above 22kv then no further test is necessary.

If result is again below 22kv then take new sample and repeat the above
maintained testing procedure.

IF test on second sample verifies the test on first sample (i.e reading
below 22kv for 2.5m.m gauge) then filtration or reconditioning of oil is
must.

The result should be recorded along with date ambient temperature and
oil temperature etc.

NOTE:

(A). When taking oil sample from energized transformer, it is better to block
buchholz’s relay tripping.

(B). Make sure that oil level in the equipment, from which sample is to be
taken, is adequate.
OIL SAMPLING BY SYRINGE AND D.E.S. TESTING OF OIL WILL BE
DEMONSTRATED.

PRACTICAL PROJECT

TOPIC: INSULATION OIL TESTING PROJECT NO. 1

OBJECTIVE:-

66
 1. Take oil sample by syringe and then perform DES test on it.

2. From the above test results, determine the condition of oil.

INTRODUCTION OF GRID STATION EQUIPEMENTS

1. Transformer: - it is a static electrical device which converts electrical energy from

one circuit to another circuit at the same frequency but at different voltage & current.
The windings i.e; primary & secondary, of the transformer are placed on a common
iron core. The core of a transformer is made up of laminated iron and links the coils of
insulated wire that are wound on it. There is no electrical connection between primary
& secondary windings; the coupling between them is through magnetic field. A
transformer works on the principle of mutual induction.

If secondary windings have more turns than primary windings, the transformer will
operate as step up transformer; if the secondary has less turns than primary, the
transformer will operate as step down transformer. In both cases power in the primary
is equal to the power in the secondary. Thus if the load draws 1000 watts, the product
of voltage and current in the primary is also equal to 1000watts. Another important
principle is the fact that primary and secondary voltages are in the same ratio as their
turns. If the secondary has twice the turns of the primary, the secondary voltage will
be twice as great as that of the primary.

Transformers can be cooled by (a) insulating oil (b) air. Transformer cooling systems
are mentioned below:

i) ONAN (ii) ONAF (iii) OFAF

2- CIRCUIT BREAKER:- A circuit breaker is a control device that can make and
break an

electric circuit under normal and abnormal conditions.

Types of circuit breakers:-

1- oil circuit breakers

1-i: - minimum oil circuit breakers

1-ii: - bulk oil circuit breakers

67
 2- Air blast circuit breakers

3- Sf-6 gas circuit breakers

4- Vacuum circuit breakers

Types of circuit breaker mechanisms:-

i- Spring operated controlling mechanism

ii- Hydraulic operated controlling

mechanism

iii- Pneumatic operated controlling

mechanism

3;- Disconnect switches / Isolators: - This switch isolates a portion of a power system
for some maintenance work etc. This device must be operated only and only under
no load condition of the circuit.

Types of disconnecting switches/isolators:- a) Horizontal operation of contact

arms/blades

b) Vertical operation of contact arms/blades.

4:- Lighting arrestors:- It is a type of protective device used to save the costly power
system equipments from the damaging effects of over voltages due to lightening strokes and
surges.

Types of Lightening Arrestors: - i. Spark gap type lightening arrestor

ii . Zinc-oxide type lightening arrestor.

5:- D.C BATTERIES:- D.C battery is a source of d.c power, used for emergency lighting.
Secondly the operation of protective relays is largely based on d.c voltage source being
provided by the station d.c battery.

Types of station batteries:- 1- Lead acid battery

1.i- Lead antimony battery

1.ii- Lead planty battery

1.iii- Lead calcium battery.

2- Alkaline battery

68
6:- BATTERY CHARGER:- A device which allows current flow in one direction and
blokes current flow in the opposite direction. This characteristic is used to change A.C to
D.C.

Storage battery chargers should be installed in clean, dry and well ventilated locations as
close as practical to the battery being charged. This minimizes the length of the cable
between the battery and charger. Short leads are essential when the battery voltage is sensed
for control purposes. Any appreciable voltage drop in the leads affects the charging time.

7:- STATION GROUNDING SYSTEM:- The purpose of earthing mesh is to provide a

grounding mat below ground surface in and around the substation which will have uniform
zero potential with reference to ground and the lowest earth resistance .

The grounding mesh is laid to ensure that:-

1- All non-current carrying parts connection to the earthing system shall be uniformly at
zero potential with reference to ground.

2- The surface/floor on which the substation staff moves shall be at ground potential
( safe step potential )

3- That during any earth fault in the substation, the potential of steel structure, tanks and
other non-current carrying parts does not rise to unsafe value (safe touch potential).

A.C & D.C auxiliary supply system:- A.C & D.C auxiliary panels are installed in
the control building of the substation for the following purposes;

1- A.C panel supply& control power for:

i. control building

ii. the operation of transformer cooling fans

iii. tap-changers operation

iv. Motorized switchgears.

2-D.C panel supply & control d.c power required for emergency lighting and for the
operation of d.c based protection system and switch gears.

69
8- POWER & CONTROL CABLES:- There are usually two types of circuits used for
the successful function & operation of power system equipments; namely power circuit and
control circuit. Power cables are used in the power supply circuit, whereas control cables are
used for control circuits etc. Power cables should be properly laid in trenches in the ground
approximately 3 feet deep. Control cables should be placed in cable trays made below ground
surface covered by concrete made slabs.

9- BUS BARS: - Bus bars are a set of conductors carrying current to which many
connections may be made. Bus bars are merely convenient means of connecting switches and
other equipments into various arrangements. The usual arrangement of connections in most
substations permits working on almost every piece of equipment without interruption to
incoming or outgoing lines. Some of the arrangements provide two buses to which the
incoming or outgoing lines and the principal equipment may be connected. One bus is usually
is called the main bus and the other transfer bus. The main bus may have a more elaborate
system of instruments, relays, etc associated with it. Bus bars come in a variety of sizes and
shapes.

TRANSFORMERS

Fundamental theory:- Transformers provide a simple means of changing an alternating

voltage from one value to another. Transformers make possible the economical transmission
of electric energy over long distances.

A simple transformer consists of two coils wound on a closed iron core as shown in
the figure below. Energy is supplied to one winding called the primary winding, and is
delivered to the load from the other winding, called the secondary winding.

70
Transformer is a static electrical device which converts electrical energy from one
form to another at the same frequency but at different voltage and current.

If the primary winding is energized and the secondary winding is kept open, no
current can flow in the secondary. The primary winding then behaves as a simple
induction coil on a core. The applied voltage EP causes a current IM to flow in the
primary winding for the magnetization of the core (see fig. below). This current sets
up the flux ø.

EP

When an alternating voltage is applied across the primary winding, magnetic flux
established in the core causes a counter emf. to appear across the coil and limits the
flow of current to some steady value, depending on the voltage, frequency, number of
turns in the coil and the nature of the core material. This flux also links the secondary
winding and induces a voltage across its terminals, but no current can flow since the
circuit is not closed.

The voltage across the secondary winding will vary directly with the voltage across
the primary winding as the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (Ns) to the
number of turns in the primary (Np). This is called the turns ratio of the transformer.

Example: Turns ratio = Ns/Np

With the secondary winding open circuited, the current drawn by the primary winding
will be almost 90 percent out of phase with the voltage across it and lagging. This
current is called the exiting current.

Some power will be taken from the line because of core loss and will appear as heat in
the transformer. A typical 50/83 MV.A transformer may have approximately 55Kw
core loss. Further , I2R losses(copper) will be present when the transformer is on load
(no load - no copper loss) . I2 R losses (copper loss) also generate heat. The combined

71
losses are much less than one percent of the transformer rating and cause the exciting
current to lag by slightly less than 90 degrees.

If a load is connected across the secondary winding, current will flow through it
producing a magnetic flux which, by Lenz’s law, will oppose the main magnetic flux
as shown in the fig. below and thus upset the balance. The primary will then draw
more current from the line to increase the magnetic flux, thereby restoring the
previous balanced condition. The extra current which appears in the primary at this
time flows because the reduced flux produces a reduced counter emf which is unable
to balance out the line voltage.

TYPES :-

MAIN PARTS:- Iron-core, H.V windings, L.V windings, main tank, conservator
tank, H.V bushings, L.V bushings, Explosion vent pipe/ relief vent valve, Silicajil
breather.

ACCESSORIES:- cooling fans, oil circulating pumps, de-humidifier, arcing horns,

arcing rings, oil level indicators, temperature gauges, tap changers(off-load/on-
load),Buccholz relay, control cubicle etc.

WINDING CONNECTIONS:- The most common three phase transformer

connections are

72
(i)Y-Y (ii) Δ- Δ (iii) Y- Δ (iv) Δ-Y (v) open delta or V-V (vi) Scott connection or T-T
connection

(i) Star/Star or Y/Y connection: This connection is most economical for small, high-
voltage transformers because the number of turns/phase and the amount of insulation
is minimum (as phase voltage is only 1/ √3of line voltage)

(iii) Delta-Delta or Δ- Δ connection: This connection is economical for large

low-voltage transformers in which insulation problem is not so urgent,
because it increases the number of turns/phase.

73
 (iv) Y/ Δ or Wye/ Delta connection: The main use of this connection is at the
substation end of the transmission line where the voltage is to be stepped
down.

(v) Delta/ Wye or Δ/Y connection: This connection is generally used where it
is necessary

to step up the voltage as for example, at the beginning of high tension

transmission line.

PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS: When the load supplied by the

existing transformer exceeds its rating, a second transformer may be connected in
parallel with it to share the load and such an arrangement is as shown in the fig.

For parallel operation of transformers following conditions must be fulfilled to ensure

that the transformers share the common load in proportion to their KVA ratings:

(i) Voltage Ratios of the transformers should be the same

(ii) Polarities of the transformers should be the same

(iii) Percentage impedances of the transformers should be the same

(iv) Vector groups of the transformers should be the same.

1. TYPES OF INSULATION USED IN TRANSFORMERS

Two types of insulations are used in transformer, which are

i. Major insulations and ii. Minor insulations.

74
Major insulations include insulation between windings, insulation between winding
and core, insulation between winding and ground or body and insulation between
core laminations.

Minor insulation is the insulation between the turns of a winding.

2. STANDARD VECTOR DIAGRAMS OF 3-PHASE TRANSFORMER

3. TRANSFORMER POLARITY

2.1 Polarity Meaning:- Polarity of a transformer is defined as the relative

instantaneous direction of current in its terminals. Terminals have same polarity if
current entering in the primary terminal and that leaving from the secondary
terminal is such that they form a continuous circuit. Terminals having same
polarity are marked with same number i.e. 1 or 2 e.g. H1, X1 and H2, X2. or with
same color.

Polarity of Transformer may be changed by interchanging the connection of either HV

or LV side. Polarity of Transformer is needed when:

1. Transformers are connected in parallel for load sharing

2. When single phase transformers are connection in Delta-Star, Star-Star etc.

3. When Transformer is under ratio test.

Polarity of 3-phase Transformer is indicated by phase marking or vector diagram or

vector groups.

Polarity Measurement of Single Phase Transformers

It is done to know about the physical location of H1, H2, X1 and X2 Terminals etc.
Polarity of 1-Phase Transformers can be measured by one of the following three
methods:-

75
 1. D.C Method

2. A.C Method and

3. Ratio Meter Method.

PROCEDUTRE FOR POLARITY CHECKING OF 1-PHASE TRANSFORMER BY

D.C. METHOD

On HV side of T/F, select H1 and H2 Terminals according to your own choice and
connect them with 1.5 Volt Dry Cell through a Switch. Then connect D.C Volt Meter
to LV side in such a way that its positive terminal is connected to that terminal which
is adjacent opposite to that HV Terminal to which positive of Cell is connected. After
making connections as directed above, close switch “S”. If Voltmeter needle deflects
towards clock wise direction (or up scale or right side) then polarity of T/F is
“subtractive” (i.e. H1 and X1 terminals of T/F are adjacent opposite to each other).If
voltmeter needle deflects towards A.C.W direction (or down scale or left side), then
polarity of T/F is “additive” (i.e. H1 and X1 terminals of T/F are diagonally opposite
to each other).

CAUTION: Always energize H.V side of T/F.

NOTE: This method is limited to low capacity T/Fs only because in high capacity
T/Fs danger of induction kick is present due to collapsing of flux when switch is put
off.

For reducing the danger of inductive kick:

(i) Use low capacity and low voltage battery i.e. always use 1.5v dry cell.
Never use station battery.

76
 (ii) After completion of test immediately disconnect battery from the circuit.

Procedure for polarity checking of single phase transformers by a.c. Method:

V, Vp are Voltmeters.

Make connections according to the diagram shown.

Then close switch S and note reading of voltmeters V and Vp simultaneously. If

reading of voltmeter Vp is more than that of voltmeter V, then polarity of T/F is
“additive” and if reading of voltmeter Vp is less than that of voltmeter V, then T/F
polarity is “subtractive”.

CAUTION: Always energize H.V side of T/F.

NOTE

1. Jumper is put to those H.V and L.V. terminals which are adjacent opposite
to each other.

2. Voltmeters V and Vp must be calibrated before the start of test.

Polarity checking of 1-phase transformer by a.c. Method will be demonstrated.

3.2.3: Procedure For Polarity Test Of Single Phase T/Fs By Ratio Meter (Model
Xrb-2)

77
 1) Select H1 and H2 terminals of T/F on H.V side according to your own choice.

2) Connect H1 and H2 terminals of Ratio meter to H1 and H2 terminals of T/F

respectively.

3) Then connect X1 terminal of Ratio meter to that L.V. terminal of T/F which is
adjacent opposite to its H1terminal and connect X2 terminal of Ratio meter to
the other L.V terminal of T/F.

4) Give supply to Ratio meter and put its detector switch (or function switch) to %
Ratio position. If its needle deflects towards right side, then polarity of T/F is
“Subtractive” and if radiometer needle deflects towards left direction, then
polarity of T/F is “Additive”

POLARITY TESTING OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER BY

RATIOMETER METHOD WILL BE DEMONSTRATED.

If tap changer is provided on both HV and LV sides, then first put LV tap changer on
neutral tap and take ratio readings on each HV tap, then put HV tap on neutral tap and
take ratio readings on each LV tap.
Compare measured or tested values with calculated values or with the previous
readings, if available, and diagnose the problem, if any.

Ratio testing of single phase transformer will be demonstrated.

4.3.4: procedure for ratio testing of single phase auto transformer with ratio meter
(model xrb-2)

78
 Check accuracy of Ratio mater by performing accuracy tests for 0% ratio and
100% ratio4. TRANSFORMER TESTISNG:-

The following tests are performed on T/F:-

a. Insulation Resistance (Ri) Test by Megger.

b. C and DF test.

c. Ratio test.

d. Core Loss and Excitation current test.

Let us consider each of the above tests in detail:-

4.1: INSULATION RESISTANCE TEST OF T/F WITH MEGGER:-

4.1.1: PURPOSES:

i) The main purpose of this test is to detect major faults of major

insulation.

ii) To assess that T/F can be energized of not i.e to know about the
condition of T/F major insulations.

For this Ri Reading of 1 M. ohm/1kv at 20 oC oil temperature is

considered satisfactory.

Megger test is performed on T/F when (a) T/F is newly installed and (b)
T/F is under fault.

4.1.2: PROCEDURE:

1) ABOUT MEGGER

i. Megger leads must be in good condition

ii. Accuracy of Megger must be checked by performing zero and
infinity tests.
During test, never touch guard terminal of Megger and bare Megger
leads. Also do not press Megger leads under feet during test.
2) Isolate and de-energize the T/F according to P.T.W.

3) Disconnect all the cables and bus bars etc. from T/F bushings.

79
 4) Thoroughly clean and dry all bushings.

5) Check T/F winding continuity because winding may be open circuited or

termination may have high resistance. This step is necessary when
transformer is under fault/is newly installed.

6) Short all HV bushings along with neutral bushings, if there, with bare and
stranded jumper. Jumper should not be allowed to sag and all the
connections must be tight.

7) Repeat step No.6 for LV side and for tertiary side as well, if provided.

8) Disconnect T/F neutral ground connection but make sure that T/F body is
solidly grounded.

9) Note oil temperature because Ri readings are corrected to 20 oC oil

temperature.

10) For 2 windings T/F only 3 readings (H-XG, X-HG, HX-G) and for 3
windings T/F also only 3 readings (H-XTG, X-HTG, T-HXG) are taken.

If core terminal is provided, then core-Ground reading should also be taken.

For core Ri reading of 100 M. ohm at 20oC oil temperature is considered
satisfactory.

11) After making connections between T/F and Megger according to the
terminal of Megger must be grounded for about 10 minutes.

12) After completion of test the terminal which was connected to the H terminal
of Megger must be grounded for about 10 minutes.
After completion of test correct all readings to 20 degree Centigrade,
Compare with them previous results and note any problem if there.

NOTE:

80
1. Ri test of T/F may be carried out when there is no oil in it.

2. Ri test of T/F must never be performed when T/F is under vacuum for drying
because in this case we are taking moisture/air out of the T/F and 1KV voltage
of Megger can cause an arc to form across some parts of insulation.

3. Megger test of auto T/F:- Almost in all auto T/Fs tertiary winding is provided.
In these T/Fs short HV and LV terminals together to get point HX say A, Short
tertiary terminals to get point T. Then it is just like 2 winding T/F for Megger
testing as shown in the diagram below:

Here also 3 readings i.e. A-TG, T-AG,AT-G are taken. If tertiary winding is not
provided in the T/F then only one reading i.e. HX-G is taken. (In this case all HV and
LV bushings are shorted together).

4.1.3: INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS i.e. FAULTS FINDING:

1) For 2 windings T/F:-

Let readings were as below:-

H-XG ---- Good i.e. H-X Good, H-G Good

X-HG ---- Poor i.e. X-H Poor, X-G Poor

HX-G ---- Poor i.e. H-G Poor, X-G Poor

From these readings it is obvious that fault is X-G i.e. insulation between LV
winding and Ground is weak or there is short circuit between them.

2) For 3 winding T/F:- Let readings were as below:-

H-XTG ---- Good i.e. H-X Good, H-T Good, H-G Good
X-HTG ---- Poor i.e. X-H Poor, X-T Poor, X - G Poor
T-HXG ---- Good i.e. T- H Good, T-X Good, T-G Good
From these readings it is obvious that fault is X-G.

MEGGER TESTING OF T/F WILL BE DEMONSTRATED.

81
4.2: C & DF TESTING OF T/F:

This test is for detecting minor faults of major insulations.

4.2.1: IMPORTANCE OR PURPOSE:

The purpose of this test is to know about the quality, condition of insulation
and extent of deterioration of insulation. C&DF test gives us an alarm to be ready for
things to be happening and to perform maintenance works etc. for example de-
hydration of T/F.

C&DF test must be performed on transformer when it is newly installed to frame

readings for future reference and then repeated yearly to know about the condition of
insulation.

4.2.2: INTERPRETATION:

1. If both C & DF values increase from their previous values then insulation is
contaminated definitely with moisture. In this case T/F must be de-hydrated.

2. If C value is unchanged but DF Value increases from its previous value then
insulation is deteriorated chemically (may be due to aging) or insulation may be
contaminated with varnish etc. (but not with moisture).

3. If DF of Inner winding (i.e. LV) to ground increases and C value decreases from
their previous values then core ground circuit is open.

4. If DF is unchanged but C value changes from its previous values, then suspect
some mechanical damage for example shifting of winding etc.

TYPICAL MAXIMUM %AGE DF. VALUE AT 20 C OIL TEMPERATURE FOR

VARIOUS T/FS ARE:

 1% for new 115KV and up oil filled t/Fs,

 1.5% for old 115KV and up oil filled T/Fs,

 5% for low voltage distribution T/Fs.

4.2.3: EFFECT OF HEAT ON C & DF:

82
 With heat DF increases and vice versa. So DF readings are always corrected to
20c Oil temperature. For this tables are attached.

Temperature has no affect on C values of Transformer insulations.

4.2.4: EFFECT MOISTURE ON C & DF:-

With moisture C & DF both increases.

4.2.5 PROCEDURE
1) Isolate and de-energize T/F according to P.T.W

2) Disconnect Cables, bus bars etc. from all bushings and ground them solidly.

3) Clean and dry all bushings thoroughly.

4) Shot all HV bushings thoroughly.

5) Short all HV Bushing along with neutral bushing if provided with bare and
stranded jumper. The jumper should not be allowed to sag and all the
connections must be tight.

6) Repeat step No.4 for LV side and for tertiary side as well, if provided.

7) The ULTC should be off neutral tap position.

8) Note oil temperature because DF readings are always converted to 20 oC oil

temperature.

(For new T/F ambient temperature may be taken instead of oil temperature).

9) Allocate safety man to watch other persons not to enter in the test area.

10) If there is raining or if relative humidity is too high (i.e. more than 85%) then
do not perform test.

11) Make all connections between the instrument and T/F according to Instrument
Instruction Book and perform test accordingly.

For 2 winding T/F, six readings i.e. H-X, H-G, X-G, HX-G, H-XG and X-HG
are taken. The first three readings must be taken. The last 3 readings are taken
only to verify the first 3 readings.

For Example:- CH-XG = CH-X + CH-G

83
 For 3 windings T/F 12 readings i.e. H-X, H-T, H-G, X-T, X-G, T-G, HX-G,
HT-G, XT-G H-XG, H-TG and X-TG are taken. Here also the first six readings
must be taken. The last six readings are taken only to verify first six readings.

For Example: CHX-G = CH-G + CX-G

Record readings, correct DF readings to 200 C. Compare readings with previous

results or with the results provided by the manufacturer or with the readings of an
identical T/F to diagnose the problem.

If there is any problem, take steps to rectify it if possible or replace the T/F.

NOTE:

C&DF Testing of Auto T/F:- If tertiary winding is provided then short HV and LV
bushings together to get point HX, short tertiary bushings together to get point T and
then proceed just like for 2winding T/F.

If tertiary winding is not provided then take only one reading i.e. HX-G.

C & DF TESTING OF TRANSFORMER WILL BE DEMONSTRATED.

4.3 RATIO TESTING OF TRANSFORMER WITH RATIO METER:

Ratio test is performed to detect faults in minor insulation of T/F.

% age ratio = (LV Phase-Neutral Voltage/HV Ph-N Voltage) x 100

4.3.1: PURPOSE

84
 The main purpose of ratio meter test is to measure the % age ratio of T/F to
know about the shorted turns in any of the T/F windings.

This test also tells that connections between T/F Tapped winding and selector
switches of tap changer are made correct or not.

Ratio meter also measures the phase angle ratio of T/F which can be also used
to know about the minute shorted turns in any of the T/F windings.

Some other purposes of ratio meter test are:

i. To check the polarity of single phase T/Fs.

ii. To find the un-known primary or secondary voltage if either of them is known.

iii. To detect open circuit fault in any of the T/F windings.

4.3.2: INTERPRETATION

Generally Ratio test is performed on T/F when it is newly installed to pass it for
energization and then when T/F is under fault. Usually the measured Values do not
match exactly with the calculated values due to (i) error in ratio meter itself (+/-
0.01%), (ii) error by manufacturer when constructing T/F.

But in a 3-Phase T/F measured ratio of all the 3-phases must be identical to
each other.

Also the measured values must match the previous measured values.

CAUSES OF INCREASE IN % RATIO:

i. Shorted turns in HV winding when T/F is under fault. \

ii. Wrong connections between T/F tapped winding and selector switches of tap
changer.
CAUSES OF DECREASE IN % RATIO:-
i. Shorted turns in LV winding for faulty T/F.
ii. Wrong connections between T/F tapped winding and selector switches of tap
changer.
4.3.3: PROCEDURE FOR RATIO TESTING OF SINGLE PHASE
TRANSFORMER WITH RATIO (MODEL XRB-2)

85
1. Check accuracy of ratiometer by performing accuracy test for 0% ratio and
100% ratio according to instrument instruction Book.

2. Isolate and de-energize T/F according to P.T.W.

Note: Do not put portable temporary grounds on any of the T/F windings.

3. Disconnect T/F neutral ground connection.

4. Calculate percentage ratio of T/F on each tap from T/F nameplate data.

5. If polarity of T/F is not known then check polarity of T/F by Ratio Meter or by
AC method .

6. Connect H1, H2 terminals of Ratio Meter to H1 and H2 terminals of T/F

respectively and connect X1, X2, terminals of Ratio meter to X1, X2 Terminals
of T/F respectively.

Note:

a. Always connect the Hs terminals of Ratio meter to HV side of T/F and Xs

terminals of Ratio meter to the LV side of T/F.

b. Galvanometer needle always deflects towards right direction if connections are

correct. If Galvanometer needle deflects towards left side then connections
between T/F and Ratio meter are made wrong with respect to polarity. In this
case interchange connections on any side of the T/F.

7. Take ratio readings on each tap according to instrument instruction book.

86
Note :

1. Isolate and de-energize the T/F according to P.T.W.

NOTE: Do not put ground on any of the T/F windings.

2. Disconnect T/F neutral Ground connection.

3. Calculate % Ratio at each tap from the name plate date of T/F.

4. Make connections between Ratio meter and T/F such that:-

a. LV winding is connected between X2 and X1 (or H1) terminals of Ratio

meter and HV winding is connected across H1 and H2 terminals of ratio
meter.

b. Tapped winding is involved only on one side during test.

5. Take ratio readings on each tap according to instrument instruction book and
record readings.

6. Compare measured or tested values with calculated values or previous values,

if available and find problem if there.

4.3.5: PROCEDURE FOR RATIO TESTING OF 3-PHASE, 2-WINDING T/F WITH

RATIO METER (MODLE XRB-2)

1. Check accuracy of Ratio meter by performing accuracy test for 0% and 100%
ratio.

2. Isolate and de-energize the T/F according to P.T.W.

Note: Do not put portable temporary grounds on any of the T/F windings.

3. Disconnect T/F neutral ground connection.

4. Calculate % ratio on each tap from Transformer Name plate Data.

In case of Delta-star/Star-Delta T/Fs the factor must be taken into account

because on Name plate data line to line voltages are given and Ratio meter
always measures phase to neutral voltages ratio.

5. Draw vector diagram of T/F from name plate data and make connections
between ratio meter and T/F accordingly i.e. connect H1, H2, H3, H0 (if

87
 neutral exists ) of Ratiometer to H1 (R) , H2(Y), H3(B), Ho (N) of T/F high
voltage side and connect X1, X2, X3, Xo (if neutral exists ) to X1(R) , X2(Y),
X3(B), Xo (N) of T/F low voltage side.
Note:
Always connect Hs terminals of Ratiometer to the HV side of T/F and connect
Xs terminals of Ratiometer to the LV side of T/F.
6. Ratio each winding according to instrument instruction book as though it was
an individual T/F i.e. H.V of red phase or leg to LV of red phase or leg, HV of
yellow phase to LV of yellow phase and HV of blue phase to LV of blue phase.
In this way three readings will be taken on each tap.

For Example on the T/F shown on each tap readings taken will be:

(Xo-X1) / (H2-H1), (X0-X2) / (H3-H2) and (Xo-X3) / (H1-H3).

Note: If tap changers are provided on both sides of T/F , then 1 st put L.V tap
changer on neutral tap position and take readings on each H.V tap, put H.V tap
changer on Neutral tap and take readings on each L.V tap.

7. Compare measured values with calculated or previous values and find problem,
it exists.

Note:

i. For 3-Phase, 3-windings T/f, Ist ratio LV - HV and then tertiary –HV.

ii. If phase Angle ratio readings are to be taken, take these readings according to
instruments instruction Book. Generally phase-Angle ratio reading is taken on each
tap after balancing the ratio meter for % ratio.

Ratio Meter Testing of 3Phase transformer will be demonstrated.

88
4.3.6 PROCEDURE FOR RATIO TESTING OF GROUNDING T/F WITH RATIO
METER (MODEL XRB-2)

(1) Check accuracy of Ratio Meter by performing accuracy test for 0% and 100%
ratio.

(2) Isolate and de-energize T/F according to P.T.W

Note: Do not put grounds on any of the T/F Windings.

(3) Disconnect T.F Neutral ground Connection

(4) Draw Vector Diagram of T/F from name plate data. Standard vector diagram
for a grounding T/F is shown above.

(5) Six readings i.e. (H1-A) / (H1- A + Ho-B), ((Ho-B) / (Ho – B + H1 –A) (H2 –
B) / (H2 – B + Ho – C), (Ho –C)/(H0-C + H2 –B), (H3 –C)/ (H3 – C + Ho –A),
(Ho-A) / (Ho –A + H3 –C) will be taken. For each of the above tests
connections between ratio meter and T/F will be made according to following
table:

TEST Ratiometer Terminals Calculated Jumper on T/F

H1 H2 X1 X2 Value Terminals

(H1-A) H1 H2 - H0(T/F) 50% H0-H3

H1-A+H0-B

If any of the measured reading does not come out to be 50% then there is definitely
fault in the T/F.

89
4.4 EXCITATION CURRENT (IE) AND CORE LOSS (WC) TESTING OF T/F:

4.4.1: Definition:

Current drawn by T/F on no load at rated voltage and frequency is called

excitation current of T/F.

%IE = IE Primary at no load

Result will be same in each case. IE must never exceed 3%.

Power consumed by T/F at no load at rated voltage and frequency is called core loss
of T/F.

%Core loss = (Core loss at no load /Rated MVA of T/F)

Core loss must never exceed 1%.

These tests must be performed when T/F is newly installed and then when T/F is
under fault.

4.4.2: PURPOSE:

Core Loss and excitation current tests tell about core bolts insulation
failure, core laminations insulation failure and about shorted turns of T/F windings.

Note: It is better to perform these tests on rated voltage. However these tests can be
performed on low voltage. But in these cases current will be very small.

Questions

1. The Ri reading of 132/11KV T/F was measured to be 48M.ohms for H-XG.

Ambient Temperature was 30 deg. centigrade and oil Temperature was 45 deg.
centigrade. Is this reading showing a good result? Explain.

2. The following readings were taken with a Megger on 2 different T/F. what is the
fault on each T/F?

X-HG HX-G H-XG Fault

Low
High Low

High Low Low

90
3. What should be the minimum Megger reading for core insulation?

4. What is the effect of Drying on C and DF readings? Explain.

5. If few turns of L.V winding become short circuited, what will be their effect on %
Ratio.

6. If there is insulation failure between turns of H.V winding of T/F. Can it be

detected by Megger Test / C and DF Test?

7. Megger reading of an 132/11KV T/F shows following results at 20 deg.Cent. oil

temperature:-

H-XG = 250 M.OHMs, X-HG = 120 M.Ohms and HX-G = 125 M.Ohms where is
fault?

Topic: Transformer Testing Project No.1

Objective
1. On a given 11KV/415V, 3phase Distribution T/F. Perform Megger test,
record readings and evaluate results.

2. Repeat 1. On 66/ 11 kv T/F.

PRACTICAL PROJECT
TOPIC: TRANSFORMER TESTING PROJECT: No.2
Objective:
1. On a given 11kv/415v,3-phase Distribution T/F perform %Ratio test, Record
readings and evaluate results.

2. Repeat 1.for 66/11KV T/F.

91
 C&DF TEST PROFORMA

FOR BRIDGE MODEL (CB-100D)

TEST LOCATION________________ TYPE ___________ SR.NO___________

EQUIPMENT____________ TEMPERATURE (oil/ambient) _________________

Temp. Correction factor______________ Weather Condition _________

Test.no Measures Mode Test leads connection Capacitance DF reading Correction

CH (Red) CL (Black) reading factor
To H To L

PRACTICAL PROJECT

TOPIC: TRANSFORMER TESTING PROJECT NO:3

OBJECTIVE:-

On a given 66/11KV Power transformer perform C and DF test, record readings

and evaluate results.

Do you consider % DF readings satisfactory?

5. T/F COOLING SYSTEM MAINTENANCE

Main things to be checked in T/F cooling system are:-

i. Radiators :-check radiator valves (top and bottom), for open position, cleaning
of radiators must be carried out from time to time in order to have good heat
radiation.

92
ii. Pumps:-check for correct oil flow and listen for noisy bearings of motor.

Note : For motor maintenance see module on motors.

iii. Cooling Control Circuit:- It consists of contractors and fan motors etc.

For contactors maintenance see module on control devices.

For motor maintenance see module on motors.

iv. Temperature gauges:- It includes calibration of temperature gauges for cut in /

cut out of fans / pumps etc.

Calibration of oil temperature gauge for cut in and cut out of fans will be
demonstrated.
Procedure for this is as follows:- Temperature sensing tube of temperature
guage is put in oil pot. A thermometer is also put in the pot. Then oil is slowly heated
and the correct temperature at which the cut in / cut out micro switches operate is
noted.

Guage needle is calibrated in accordance with the thermometer reading by

loosening the locking device on indicating needle and then by adjusting the needle.

Similarly cut in / cut out micro switches can be set to the desired positions.

Operating point at which micro switches operate requires the greatest accuracy.
Guage may be re- adjusted to this point, if necessary.

6. BUCHHOLZ’S RELAY TESTING / CALIBRTION:

In Buchholz’s relays an arrow is marked for their proper installation. Relay
must be installed in such a way that the arrow mark must point towards the
conservator tank.

Buchholz’s relay performs two functions, which are:-

i. To give an alarm in case of minor faults like defective joints, core laminations
shot circuits etc.

These faults result in slow formation of gases, these gases are trapped in the
relay causing oil level to fall in the relay, allowing float to sink and hence to
operate a micro switch which completes alarm circuit.

93
 Volume of gas required to initiate alarm circuit varies from 110 to 250c.c.
depending up on size of relay.

In most relays it is 200cc.

For testing the operation of Buchholz’s relay for alarm, following procedure is
adopted:

Relay is pressurized with a bicycle type air pump and reading on guage is noted
at which the micro switch operates the alarm or bulb.

The volume of gas required to initiate alarm can be adjusted by adjusting the
micro switch.

Testing of Buchholz’s relay for initiation of alarm will be demonstrated.

ii. To de- energize the T/F in case of major faults, like turn to turn short circuit in
T/F windings, open circuit in T/F winding and major insulation failure etc. Due
to such faults an oil surge is produced which operates the relay. The velocity
required to operate the relay varies from 65cm per second to 150 cm per second
depending upon the size of relay and rating of T/F. In most Buchholz’s relays
provision is made for adjusting the relay to operate at 65 cm per second, 100cm
per second and 150 cm per second. Most commonly, these relays ate set at 100
cm per second.

For testing the operation of Buchholz’s relay for TRIP following procedure is
adopted:-

Test key is pressed and trip indication or trip alarm is noticed. In this case 1 st
alarm

indication will come on.

OR

Valve from conservation side is shut off, and oil is drained from the relay
through drain plug, if provided, or through drain valve of T/F till the trip indication
comes on.

94
Testing of Buchholz’s relay for trip and its adjustment for operation at various
velocities will be demonstrated.
Practical project

TOPIC: TRANSFORMER TESTING PROJECT NO. 4

OBJECTIVE:-

On the arrangements provided in sub station work shop for Buchholz’s

relay testing:-

1. test the relay for alarm indication using bicycle type air pump and note c.c. of
air on relay gauge at which alarm is initiated.

2. Test the relay for tripping by method of draining oil from the relay.

3. Check the operation of relay for alarm/trip by pressing the test key.

4. Check that for tripping relay is set at 100 cm / second or not. If not adjust it for
100 cm / second 100cm / second velocity.

X UNDER LOAD TAP CHANGERS

MAIN OBJECTIVES:

 After completion of this module, trainee will be able to do the followings.

 To know main parts of ULTC and to know how to maintain ULTC.

1. MAIN PARTS OF ULTC:-

Main parts of ULTC are:-

i. Selector switches and their compartment:-

All the taps of T/F tap windings are directly connected to selector switches. In
this compartment tap is selected and there is no make/break of current. Therefore this
compartment is directly installed in the main tank of T/F.

ii. Diverter switches and their compartment:-

This compartment is subjected to arcing due to making / breaking of current, so
this compartment is fitted in a separate oil tank. The oil of this compartment must
never be mixed with T/F oil.

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 The oil of this compartment needs periodic inspections and filtration, when
necessary.

Center tapped reactor or resistors are also installed in this compartment.

iii. REVERSING SWITCH / COARSE FINE SWITCH:-

One of these two switches is always installed in ULTC. These switches are also
installed in selector switches compartment as there is no making / breaking of current
when these switches operate.

The purpose of Reversing switch/coarse fine switch is to get 20% voltage

regulation from 10% tapped winding and hence number of selector switches and
extent of tapped winding is reduced.

IV. MECHANICAL / ELECTRICAL INTERLOCKS:-

The purpose of these interlocks is to protect the tap changer from being over
driven beyond the lowest and highest tap position in order to avoid damage to ULTC
and hence to T/F.

V. MOTOR DRIVE UNIT:-

The motor drive units of various tap changers have been discussed in control
circuits module.

VI. HAND CRANK :-

The purpose of hand crank is to change the tap by hand in case when there is
no electric supply or for making various adjustments etc.

2. CONTROL CIRCUITS OF MOTOR DRIVE UNIT OF VARIOUS ULTCS:-

For this see control circuit module.

3. ULTC MAINTENANCE:-

Maintenance of ULTC includes:-

i. Maintenance of Diverter switch compartment and

ii. Maintenance of motor drive unit.

3.1 DIVERTOR SWITCH COMPARTMENT MAINTENANCE:

It includes:-

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 i. Checking of resistors and their value, their replacement, when necessary.
ii. Checking of diverter switches contacts/their cleaning and replacement, if
necessary.
iii. Testing of oil for dielectric strength and oil filtration when necessary.
iv. Removal of carbon from all parts with an oil hose.

3.2 MAINTENANCE OF MOTOR DRIVE UNIT:

It includes:-
i. Motor maintenance (for this see module on motors).
ii. Contactors maintenance (for this see control device module).
iii. Lubrication of all moving parts.
iv. Checking of panel heaters.
v. Checking of loose connections etc.
A typical circuit of an ULTC is shown below:-

XI HIGH VOLTAGE BUSHINGS

MAIN OBJECTIVES: After completion of this module, trainee will be able to do the
followings:-

1- To know how to store H.V bushing properly.

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 2- To know how to maintain H.V bushing by performing
various tests like. Megger and C&DF on it.
1. STORAGE:-

A bushing should be stored in such a way that the paper insulation used
between the conductor and flange (or porcelain) is always under oil. For
this bushing should be stored inside n a vertical position, if room
available, or at an angle in dry and warm location, with packing
removed. However large bushiness may be stored outside vertically in
proper crates, with plastic cover over them.

The bushings whose core is paper or plastic must have silicon and ----------

in order to avoid absorption of moisture:

Note

Rushing should not be stored horizontally because in that case some paper
insulation will be without oil and will absorb moisture.

Before storage, DF test and magger test must be performed on bushing and
then repeated yearly.

Moreover, bushing oil must also be tested for D.E.S yearly.

Oil must never be taken out from bushing.

1. C&DF TESTING OF BUSHING :

This test must be performed when bushing is newly installed and then
repaid yearly.
1.1 PURPOSE
Purpose of C&DF test on bushing is to know about the quality condition of
bushing insulation and the extent of deterioration insulation.
Generally two types of tests i.e overall C&DF test and hot collar C&DF
test are performed on bushings.

1.2 PROCEDURE FOR OVERALL C&DF TEST:-

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 1. Isolate and de-energize the equipment on which bushing to be tested is
installed, according to P.T.W.

2 Remove bushing from the equipment.

3 Clean and dry bushing thoroughly.

4 Note bushing temperature because of readings are corrected to 20C.

5 Make sure that bushing flange id solidly grounded.

6 Take only one reading of C and DF between bushings conductor and its
flange according to instrument instruction book.

INTERPRETATION

Correct DF readings to 20C and then compare C&DF readings with the
precious reading to know about the bushing insulation condition.

Maximum typical values of %DF at 20C for various bushings are:-

10% for solid or dry bushings rated up to 15kv.

10% for compound filled bushing rated up to 15kv.

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 5% for compound filled bushings rated from15 to 46kv.

4% for oil filled bushings rated from below 110kv,

3% for oil filled and condenser type bushings rated above 110kv.

2.3: PROCEDURE FOR HOT COLLAR C&DF TEST:-

Do step no.1 to step no. 5 as in topic 2.2.

After completing step no .1 to step no. 5

Short circuit bushing conductor and flange,

Put a band of metal around bushing first skirt, and then

Take C&DF reading between the skirt and bushing conductor (or flange
because both are shorted together).

After this shift the metal band to other skirts one by one and takes C&DF
reading for each skirt.

INTERPRETATION:

Correct all DF reading to 20C and then compare them with previous
results to detect any problem, if exists.

After completion of test correct all readings to 20C and compare them to
previous results to detect any problem, if there.

In general Ri reading of one mega ohm / 1 kv at 20c is considered satisfactory.

4. D.E.S. TESTING OF A BUSHING OIL:-

For this first of all isolate and de-energise bushing according to P.T.W. take oil sample
and perform DES test following the module on OIL SAMPLING / DES TESTING OF
OIL.

QUESTIONS

1. C&DF reading of a bushing was 25PF and 1.2% (at 20C) respectively during
its installation period. When after one year the same test was performed,

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 readings recorded were 32PF and 1.7% (at 20C) respectively. What is
problem? How this problem can be removed?

2. Ri Reading of 132kv bushing at 39C was measured to be 780 mega ohms. Can
this bushing be put service? Explain.

3. DF reading of a bushing was 1.5% at 20C at the time of installation during

over all C&DF test. When after 3years, the same test was performed, DF
reading became 1.75% 20C in order to investigate the faulty section hot collar
test was performed on bushing and following readings were recorded at 20C.

For first skirt from top = 5.5%

For second skirt from = 4%

For 3rd skirt from = 1.5%

For 4th skirt from = 1.5%

Form the above readings (i) locate contaminated area? And (ii) what could be
the cause of this?

Practical project

TOPIC: H.V. BUSHING PROJECT NO. 1

OBJECTIVE:-

On a given 132kv bushing perform Ri test with megger record readings

and then evaluate the results to know about the condition of bushing.

Practical project

TOPIC: H.V. BUSHING PROJECT NO. 1

OBJECTIVE:-

On a given 132kv bushing perform

1. Overall C& DF Test

2. Hot Collar C & DF Test

3. Record Reading and Interpret the result.

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 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

FUNDAMENTAL THEORY:

In d.c circuits when large currents are to be measured, it is usual to use low range
ammeters with suitable shunts. But it is not convenient to use this method with
alternating current instruments. For this purpose, specially constructed accurate ratio
instrument transformers are employed in conjunction with standard low range a.c
instruments. These instrument transformers are of two kinds (i) current transformers
for measuring large alternating currents and (ii) potential transformers for measuring
high alternating voltages.

C.Ts is used with low range ammeters to measure currents in high voltage a.c circuits.
In addition to insulating the instrument from the high voltage line, they step down the
current in a known ratio. The current transformer has a primary coil of one or more
turns of thick wire connected in series with the line whose current is to be measured as
shown in the fig. The secondary consists of a large number of turns of fine wire and is
connected across the ammeter terminals (usually of 5 ampere range.

TYPES:- (i) Bar primary type C.T : Its primary is in the form of a solid straight rod
and its core on which winding is done is of rectangular shape. Such type c.t is also
called window type c.t and has one wdg. only on its primary.

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 (ii) Wound type C.T: Such type c.ts have both primary and secondary
windings. The primary winding has one or more turns while the secondary windings
has many turns.( its primary should have at least one turn )

(iii) Free standing c.ts : These are bushing c.ts installed in the bushings of
the power transformers.

(iv) Multi ratio c.ts (multi tap): Such c.ts has different c.t ratios e.g.;
100/5,200/5,400/5,800/5

(v) Multi core c.ts : .Such c.ts having different wdgs. in secondary . Some
are used for metering & some for protection.

C.T TESTS: - polarity test, insulation resistance test, c.t ratio test, saturation test,
C&DF test, etc.

Safety Precautions: secondary of the c.t should never be open circuited.

POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER:

A transformer that steps down voltage only is called potential transformer (P.T). PT
supply voltage to meters, instruments, or control devices which has a definite ratio to
the line voltage. Its primary turns are more than its secondary turns.
Available ratio at secondary winding of P.T ═ 110 volt.

The primary winding of a P.T is in parallel of an electric circuit and the primary
current of the P.T is dependent upon secondary current. If there is no secondary
current there is no primary current.

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TYPES OF P.T :- (i) capacitor coupling potential transformer (ii) capacitor voltage
transformer

P.T TESTS: i- voltage ratio test

ii- insulation resistance test

Safety Precautions: will be explained by the instructor.

TYPES OF BRAKES
In the motor drive units of tap changers and isolators etc. when A.C supply is
cut off after the completion of the operation, the operating mechanism may be over
driven due to inertia and hence causing damages. In order to avoid this, motor must be
stopped immediately (quickly) when A.C supply is cut off. For this, two types of
brakes are used, which are:-

i. Dynamic Brake or Induction brake, and

ii. Electrically operated mechanical brake.

OPERATING DIAGRAMS

10.1 USES:- (i) To describe the operation of system

(ii) For troubleshooting i.e. Fault Finding and

(iii) During maintenance and testing.

10.2 TYPES:- Generally two types of operating diagrams are used by

maintenance crew. They are:

i. Connection wiring diagram:- This diagram gives in detail all connections of a

system. It is mostly used by construction crew.

ii. Schematic diagram: This diagram gives general idea of a circuit in simplified
form. This diagram is drawn from connection wiring diagram.

This diagram is mostly used by maintenance crews for troubleshooting because

with the help of schematic diagram fault can be detected in less time very
easily in systematic way.

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NOTE:

All operating diagrams are shown in de-energized position i.e. electrically de-
energized, mechanically de-energized, pneumatically de-energized and hydraulically
de-energized etc.

11.SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS OR CONTROL CIRCUTS FOR MOTOR DRIVE

UNITS OF VARIOUS TAP CHANGERS
11.1 GENERAL

Tap changer control circuits mainly consists of following:

1. Motor protective switch- it provides O/L and O/C features.

2. One contactor for raising and one contactor for lowering for tap.

Each contactor has at least 5 contacts : 3 contacts in motor circuit one contact
for electrical interlocking and one contact for S.I.

Each contactor may have some other contacts as well for example for
energization of brake coil etc

3 Electrical interlocking for blocking lowering Operation during Raise Operation

and vice versa.

4 Step by step feature- This feature ensures only one tap change operation at a
time whether P.B is pressed or not . This feature is provided in tap changer to
give rest to motor to avoid its over heating and hence damage to it.

5 Cut off after completion of each tap change

It is mostly achieved through cam switches or by even/odd change over switch.

6 Brake to stop motor quickly just after the completion of tap position and supply
cut off.

7 Hand crank interlock to disconnect electrical supply to control / power circuit

for operator safety when tap is changed manually by handle

8 Operation after restoration of supply

Now let us discuss control circuits of motor drive units of various tap changers.

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11.2 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM FOR MOTOR DRIVE UNIT OF GANZ TAP CHANGER

11.2.1 Sequence of operations for raising the tap from odd to even tap:

In this case IV switch will be closed towards odd side.

1. For this push Button NY1 is pressed it will energize Raise contractor VM1and
auxiliary contactor VS1.

When contactorVM1energizes: Its three contacts in motor circuit close and

energize motor, its one contact (35-37) in contactorVM2 Circuit Opens and provides

106
electrical interlocking, its one contact in its own circuit closes for providing S.I
Feature.

When contactor VS1 energizes- its one contact (23-25) Opens providing
electrical interlocking, its two Contacts (50-70, 29-70) close.

VS1 contactor (50-70) provides S.I for VS1 and VS1 contacts (50-70, 29-70)
along with VM1 contact (29-30) provides S.I for contactorVM1.

ii. When Tap changer moves to next tap, IV Switch Shifts towards even position
and thus disconnecting supply to contactor VS1 and hence to contractor VM1.

iii. If Operator keeps button NY1 closed then tap will be kept ON raising
continuously until raise extreme limit switch VK1 will open at last tap to disconnect
the circuit.

Hence in this circuit step by step feature is not provided.

11.2.2 When Tap is raised from Even to Odd Position then, contactor VS2 will be in
action along with VM1 and rest is same as for 11.2.1

11.2.3 Similarly for lowering the tap from odd to even contactors VM2 and VS1 will
be in action.

11.2.4 For lowering the tap from Even to odd contactors VM2 and VS2 will be in
action.
11.2.4:

IF supply fails during tap change operation then motor will stop. When supply
will be restored tap changer will not start automatically. Operator has to press push
button NY1 or NY2 to raise or lower the Tap as desired.

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11.3: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM FOR MOTOR DRIVE UNIT, (TYPE: DIII) OF MR
TAP CHANGER:

11.3.1 Sequence of Operations for Raising the Tap from Even to Odd:

1. In the diagram, tap is on even position. When switch a1 will be closed,

contactor d17 will energize via NC contacts of both the push buttons b3 and b2
path (call this initial path for energization of contactor d17).

When contactor d17 energizes:- Its two contacts (11-12, 17-18) in its own
circuit close. Through contact d17 (11-12) there is now another path for

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 energization of contactor d17 as well ( call this seal- in path for energization of
contactor d17 ).

2. Now in order to raise the tap, push Button b2 is pressed:

i- Due to this initial path for energization of contactor d17 is broken but contactor
d17 but contactor d17 remains energized through its Seal in Path.

ii- Raise contactor C1 gets energized- its three contacts in motor circuit close and
hence tap starts changing, its one contact C1 (13-14) in its own circuit closes for
providing S.I feature, its one contact C1 (21-22) opens in contactor circuit for
providing electrical inter locking, its one contact C1(11-12) opens keeping
contactor d17 initial energization path broken even if push button b2 is released.

3. When tap changer moves to next tap, Even / Odd switch b9 will shift towards
Odd Position, thus de-energizing contactors d17 and hence C1, motor.

iii- If Operator has not still released the push button b2, the contactor d18 cannot be
energized through its initial path (i.e. path through Push buttons NC contacts)
and hence contactor C1 cannot be energized, so tap cannot be changed further. It
is called step by step feature.
The Operator has to release the push Button b2 to have next tap change Operation
Possible.

In this circuit step by step feature is achieved through push buttons along with
contactor d17/d18.

11.3.2 Similarly for lowering the tap from even to odd contactors C2 and d17 will be
in action.
For raising / lowering the tap from odd to even, contactor d18 performs same
function as that by contactor d17while changing the tap from Even to Odd.

ii.3.3: if supply fails during Tap change operation, all the contactors in action will de-
energize and motor will stop. When will be restored, Tap changer will not start
automatically. Operator has to press push button b2 or b3 to raise or lower the tap, as
desired.

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11.4: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM FOR MOTOR DRIVE UNIT (TYPE MA-7) OF MR
TAP CHANGER:

Sequence of Operation for raising the Tap:

First of all motor protective switch a 1 will be closed.

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 1. For raising the Tap Push Button S2 is pressed, which energizes contactor
K2. (one contact of push Button S2 Opens in lower circuit for providing
mechanical inter locking. If both the push Buttons are pressed
simultaneously then nothing will happen.)

When contactor K2 energizes:-

i. Its two contacts close in motor circuit but motor will not start yet.

ii. Its one contact K2 (13-14) closes providing seal in feature.

iii. Its one contact k2 (21-22) opens in lower circuit providing electrical
interlocking

iv. Its one contact K2 (5-6) closes in brake contactor K3 circuit and hence
brake contactor K3 energizes (One contact of k2 (31-32) also closes in
motor protective switch coil a1 but it is not so Important).

2. When contactor K3 energizes:-

its four contacts (71-72, 61-62, 81-82, 91-92) Open braking the short circuit of
motor or releasing the dynamic braking its three contacts (13-14, 33-34, 23-24)
close and thus completing supply circuit for motor therefore motor start
running.

3. When Operating mechanism moves a little bit, cam switches s12 (C-No) and
S13 (N0-NO) Close simultaneously.

S12 (C-NO) provides supply path for contactor K2. When S13 (No-NO)
Closes, it energizes step by step contactor K20.

(s-13 Contact NC-NC Opens in coil a1 circuit but it is not so important).

4. When contactor K20 energizes:-

Its one contact K20 (71-72) Opens in contactor K2 seal in circuits and its one
contact K20 (61-62) Opens in K2 Circuts (Push Button Path its One Contact
K20 (23-24) closes (seals in path for contactor K20 through push button for
step by step Operation). K20 contacts (51-52, 13-14) also operates but perform
no function during raise Operation.
Now contactor K2 Is energized only trough cam switch S12 (C-NO).

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5. When tap reaches to next postion, cam switch S12 (C-No) Opens, thus de-
energizing contactor K2 and motor stops, cam switch S13 (NO-NO) also opens
de energizing contactor K20. But if operator has not released push button S2
yet, then contactor K20 will remain energized through its contact k20 (23-24)
and hence k20 contact (61-62) will remain open and therefore contactor K2
cannot be energized.

This is called STEP BY STEP OPERATION. The Operator has to release the
push Button to make the next Tap Change Operation possible.

When all the contactors de-energize, motor windings are shorted together
through K3 Contacts and motor stops quickly due to dynamic or induction
braking.

Note:
If supply fails during operation all the contactors will de-energize but cam
switches S12 and S13 will remain in Operated Position. When supply will be restored,
Tap Changer will start automatically through cam switch S12 (C-No) and tap will be
raised.

Sequence of Operations for lowering the Tap are exactly similar to those for raising
the tap. In this case contactors K1, K3, K20 and cam switches S14, and S13 will be in
action.

112
11.5 SCHEMTIC DIAGRAM MOTOR DRIVE UNIT (TYE MA-E) OF
TRAFO UNION

TAP CHANGER:

Sequence of operation for lowering the tap are as follows:-

1. Close motor protective switch A1.
2. For lowering the tap Push Button b1x is pressed which energizes contactor C1.
When contactor C1 energizes:
I. Its one contact C1 (13-14) in Position 15 closes and provides Seal- in Feature,

113
II. It one contact C1 (11-12) in position 20 Opens in raise circuit and provides
Electrical Interlocking.
III. Its tree contacts C1 (1-2, 3-4, 5-6) in Position close in motor circuit. Due to this
Y Phase Supply energizes break Contactor C3.

3. When Contactor C3 energizes:

I Its four contacts (1-2, 91-92,71-72, 81-82) in position 2 open and hence
dynamic brake from motor is lifted i.e. short circuit to motor disconnected.

II its one contact (23-24) in position 5 closes and hence contactor C4is energized.
4. When contactor C4 energizes:

i. Its two contacts (11-12, 21-22) in position 2 open breaking the short to motor
further ( Safety)
ii. Its three contacts (1-2, 3-4, 5-6) in Position 1 close and thus motor is energized.
5. When Operating mechanism moves a little bit cam switch b5 is operated
contacts of b5 operate in following sequence:
i. 1st of all its contact (31 Lt-32Lt) in position 12 closes so supply path to
contactor C1 is established through it as well then b5 contact (11Lt-12 Lt) in
position 11 opens so path to contactor C1 through it is cut off.

ii. Then b5 contact (31 Lb –32 Lb ) in position 4 closes establishing an other

supply path for contactors C3 and C4.

iii. Then b5 contact (31 Rt –32Rt) in position 17 closes and step by step contactor
d1 energizes through it.

(b5 contacts in position 23 and 24 also close which will be discussed later on )

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6. When contactor d1 energizes:
i. its contact (13-14) in position 12 closes. After this contact has closed ,b5
contact (11 Rt-12 Rt) in position 13 will open and now supply path for
contactor C1 will be through b5 contact and d1 contact in position 12
only.
ii. d1 contact (81-82) in position 3 opens and now supply path to contactors
C3 and C4 will be through b5 contact in position 4 only.
iii. d1 contact (61-62) in position 11 opens and its contact (23-24) in
position 16 closes. Their function will be explained later on.
iv. d1 contact (71-72) in position 20 opens and provides electrical
interlocking function in raise circuit.

7. When tap changer reach to the next tap, cam switch d5 is released by the
operating mechanism, its contacts return to their normal position,b5 contact
(31Lt – 32Lt) in position 12 opens and de-energizes contactor C1 and hence
whole circuit.
If operator has not released the push button yet then contactor d1 will remain
energized through its contact in position 16, therefore, its contact in position 11
will be opened, contactor C1 cannot be energized and tap will not change. This
is called step by step operation.
When all the contactors are de-energized, motor windings are short circuited
through contacts of c3 and c4 and hence motor stops quickly due to dynamic or
induction breaking.
Note:
If supply fails during operation, then all the contactors in action will de-
energize but cam switch b5 will remain in operated position, when supply is restored
then it will be the choice of operator to lower the tap by pressing push button b1x
again or to raise the tap by pressing push button b1xx (b5 tontact in position 23 and 24
will provide path for raising the tap).
Sequence of operation for raising the tap are exactly similar to those for
lowering the tap. In this case contactors. C2, C3, C4,d2 and cam switch b6 will come
in picture.

115
11.6: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM FOR MOTOR DRIVE UNIT OF ELIN TAP
CHANGER:
(SELF STUDY).

116
 CIRCUIT BREAKERS

FUNDAMENTAL THEORY: Circuit breaker is a device which can make and break
an electric circuit under normal and abnormal conditions. It is an on load device. It
comprises of three poles and each pole isolates the respective phase at a time. All the
three poles operates at the same particular time at the reception of operating signal to
isolate the faulty portion or any required portion for maintenance purpose or
otherwise. A circuit breaker must perform the following functions:

1- To carry rated current without temperature rise.

2. Open automatically during fault.
3. It must interrupt short circuit current and withstand (3 seconds).
4-Open contacts with stand the system voltage.
5- Making capacity.
6- With stand effects of arcing (arcing temperature 256 times normal temperature).
7- With stand against electromagnetic forces.
TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS: The common types of circuit breakers are:

 Oil circuit breakers ( minimum oil, bulk oil )

 Air blast circuit breakers
 Sulphur hexa fluoride ( SF6 ) gas circuit breakers
 Vacuum circuit breakers
Advantages of Air Blast circuit breakers :

i. elimination of fire hazard.

ii. Free of decomposition i.e; no disintegration of air.
iii. Arc-quenching media used being cheap and easily available everywhere.
iv. Air serves the purpose of operation and arc-quenching.
v. High speed operation i.e; two cycle, can be achieved.
vi. Rapid auto reclosing is possible.
vii. Largely maintenance free.
viii. Very suitable for repeated operations
ix. Can be used for extra high voltage i.e; 1100 KV
x. Very high breaking capacity and service voltage can be achieved by increasing
the number of breakes.

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Disadvantages of Air Blast circuit Breakers : i- Problems of switch over voltage ( at
the times of opening and closing. ( ii) Cost of compressed air system is very large.

Maintenance of Air Blast circuit breakers : i- Change of lubricating oil in compressor

(ii) Cleaning of inlet/outlet valves of air compressor. (iii) Cleaning of filters. (iv)
Checking of safety valves. (V) Checking of leakage of the compressed air and
attending to it. (vi) Draining of moisture on daily base. (vii) Checking of contact
resistance (50 µΩ ) .(viii) Checking of time of operation by time analyser. (xi)
Lubrication of operating mechanism (x) checking of the compressed air guage. SF-6
GAS CIRCUIT BREAKER:-

Sulphur hexa fluoride,SF6 , is a non-toxic, inert, insulating and cooling gas of high
dielectric strength and thermal ability . Due to its high dielectric strength, it is
particularly suited for use in high power circuit breakers as well as in high voltage
cables, transformers, and switchgears. The excellent arc-quenching and insulating
properties of sf6 allow the construction of new circuit breakers and switching
stations of higher voltage in smaller size with less noise.

Under the influence of an arc, a small portion of the gas dissociates into its atomic
constituents, sulphur and fluorine. Since the reaction is completely reversible, the
dissociated products recombine naturally into SF 6 provided that no secondary
reactions occur with vaporized electrode metal, or other materials used in the
construction of the component. Generally, solid or gaseous products formed as a result
of these secondary reactions are themselves good dielectrics, and cause no degradation
to the operational efficiency of the high voltage equipment.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SF-6 GAS:

1. Colore-les.

2. Odore les.

3. Non toxic.

4. Non inflammable.

5. Density: 5 time’s heavier then air.

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CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF S F-6 GAS:

1. Sf-6 gas remains stable up to 500 degree centigrade.

2. Inert gas: metallic parts do not oxidize.

3. Produced hydrogen fluoride ( hf ) , when contain with moisture, it can attack

metallic and insulating parts .

4. Sf-6 gas is electronegative i.e attracts electrons to itself.

5 . Decompose into sf-4 and sf-2 during arc extinction but regain quickly. The
products of the composition are toxic and attack certain structural materials. Activated
alumina (Al2 O3) which filter and regain the gas.

6. Moisture contents cause insultions failure.

DI-ELECTRIC PROPERTIES:

1- At atmospheric pressure dielectric strength is 2.35 times more than air and 30%
less to oil.
2- At 5 kg/cm2 pressure dielectric strength is more than oil (10 times).
ADVANTAGES OF SF-6 GAS CIRCUIT BREAKERS

1- Less no. of interrupter per pole as compared to Air blast C.B.

2- Maintenance free.
3- Simple construction, less costly, compact.
4- SF-6 gas is non inflammable, non toxic, chemically inert. No hazard of fire.
The composition products are not explosive, so no danger of explosion.
5- Same gas is circulated in the circuit, so small requirement.
6- Heat transfer ability is more than Air blast CB, so carry 1.5 times more
current for small size of contact.
7- Noise free.
8- Ability to interrupt low and high fault current without excessive over
voltage.
9- Excellent arc extinction medium.
10-Arc extinction less than Air blast CB. So contact life increases
11- 95% SF-6 gas regain.
12- Decompose products consist mostly powder having good insulation
property and easily removed during maintenance.

119
 DISADVANTAGES OF SF-6 GAS:-

1. Leakage of gas due to sealing problems.

2. Decomposition of arced SF-6 gas is poisonous and not let out to air.

3. Contamination with air or moisture causes failure of breaker.

4. Double pressure SF-6 C.B is costly due to non availability of gas.

5. Gas liquefies at 15 kg/cm2 and 10o c (so heater required maintaining

temperature).

MAINTENANCE OF SF-6 GAS C.B :-

 Contact resistance test of for 1 year.

 Dew point - 10 ppm

 Gas purity check – new : 99.99%

Arced: 85%

 SF-6 gas leakage check by leakage detector

 Over hauling after 8 to 16 years as per manufacturer

recommendations.

TESTINGS OF SF-6 GAS: 1) Dew point or moisture test (2) Purity test.

1- Dew point test: Dew point measurement is an important part of SF-6 equipment
maintenance. In the presence of moisture, the SF-6 reformation is disturbed and
secondary decomposition products such as highly corrosive hydrogen fluoride (HF)
start to form. These weaken the insulation properties of SF6 and may cause rapid
deterioration of high-voltage switchgear. Therefore the amount of water vapor in the
system should be kept at minimum. Typically, dew point measurement in the
switchgear is done at 5-8 years intervals by specialized SF6 servicing companies. The
measurement can either be performed at system or atmospheric pressure. The
conventional dew point measurement technique (chilled mirror) has typically been
restricted to measurement at atmospheric pressure due to rather high liquefaction
temperatures of pressurized SF6. A typical dew point range for servicing the SF6

120
equipment is -5…-20°c. The most typical operating pressure within the switchgears is
3…8 barg, but dew point test can also be performed at atmospheric pressure.

SF-6 GAS INTERRUPTER UNIT: It is shown in the fig. below:

VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKER:

121
12. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS OR CONTROL CIRCUITS OF VARIOUS CIRCUIT
BREAKERS

12.1: Important features of CB control circuit:

1. Anti-slam Feature: This feature prevents the energization of closing coil or tripping
coil of an already closed breaker or tripped breaker respectively.

In closing circuit this feature is mostly achieved through auxiliary switch b.

In opening circuit, this feature is mostly achieved through auxiliary switch a.

2. Trip free feature: If during closing stroke a breaker can trip upon the reception of
tripping signal before the completion of closing stroke, then breaker is said to be trip
free.

Due to this feature duration of fault current is reduced and hence damage to
breaker / equipment due to high temperature and high electromagnetic forces
caused by fault current is minimized.

This feature is achieved mechanically, electrically or pneumatically.

3. ANTI PUMPING FEATURE: This feature prevents the re-closing of a breaker

on a trip free stroke as long as the closing push button is being pressed by the operator.
The operator has to release the closing push button to give next closing pulse to
breaker.

This feature ensures that only one closing pulse will be given to breaker at one
time regardless of breaker closes or not.

Generally this feature is achieved through anti-pumping relay 52Y along with
its contacts and closing push button etc.

4. SELECTION OF FUSES FOR TRIP CIRCUIT: fuses in trip circuit must have
fairly high rating (5 to 10 times) than that of trip coil in order to have sure
tripping because during fault burning of few turns of trip coil can be born but
burning of fuse cannot be tolerated.

5. SEAL IN FEATURE: Already Discussed,

122
12.2: G E N E R A L
In most of the breakers tripping occurs by spring pressure, which is charged
during closing operation.

For closing various means are used, which may be hydraulic pressure, air pressure or
spring pressure etc. so spring operated breaker means closing by spring, hydraulic
operated breaker means closing by oil pressure, pneumatic operated breaker means
closing by air pressure.

In air blast breakers, closing and tripping both are done by air pressure.
Now let us discuss schematic diagrams of various breakers:
12.3:SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF 11KV SPRING OPERATED VACUUM
CIRCUIT BREAKER TYPE: VFT-12, MEIDENSHA (JAPAN)

In the diagram C.B. is shown open, closing spring charged.

123
 A. CLOSING/CHARGING OPERATION OF C.B:

i. In order to close the breaker CPB is pressed, due to this closing coil 52cc of
breaker will energize and breaker will close by spring pressure.

ii. Anti-pumping relay 52Y also energizes when CPB is pressed but its armature is
not attractive i.e. its contact 52Y does not operate till the attractive gap becomes
short by the movement of closing mechanism. But once 52Y contact opens, and
then it will not close unless 52Y coil is de-energized.

When C.B will close, 52b contacts will open and 52a contacts will close.

iii. Charging:- after each closing operation closing spring is discharged, due to
which LS switch in motor contactor M circuit will close and hence contactor M
will energize. Due to this its two contacts in motor circuit will close, motor will
start running to charge the closing spring. When closing spring is fully charged,
LS switch will open and hence contactor M will de-energize and motor will
stop. When contactor M energizes its two contacts in closing coil circuit opens
to ensure that closing coil cannot be energized unless spring is fully charged.

iv. When C.B is closed 52Y contacts in closing coil circuit will be in open position.
Therefore, closing coil cannot be energized if CPB pressed. (anti-slam feature).
B. OPENING OR TRIPPING OPERATION:-

i. When C.B is closed, 52a contacts will be closed. When TPB is pressed, tripping
coil 52tc will energize and circuit breaker will trip. When C.B will trip, 52a
contacts will open and trip coil 52TC will de-energized, if TPB is not released.

ii. When C.B is in open position, 52a contacts in trip coil circuit will be opened, so
trip coil cannot be energized if TPB is pressed (anti slam feature).

124
12.4: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF 66KV LK-NES SPRING OPERATED O.C.B
TYPE: MULM
60 (SPRING OPERATING MECHANISM TYPE: FTA)

In the diagram C.B is shown in open position with closing spring charged.

125
12.4.1: CLOSING OPERATION:

A. Closing operation of this breaker is possible only when followings are satisfied:
i. Opening latch is engaged.
This is monitored by contact A in closing circuit. IF tripping latch is not
engaged, then contact A will be opened and circuit breaker cannot be closed.
This is done to make sure that C.B will trip in case of fault in the circuit.
ii. Hydraulic plunger is in fully return position, (i.e. closing spring is fully
charged).

This is monitored by:-

a. Contact 52/bb in closing coil circuit, which closes only when closing
spring is fully charged and hydraulic plunger is in fully returned position.

b. Contact 52/aa. If closing spring is not fully charged and hydraulic plunger
is not in fully returned position, then 52/aa contact will be closed and
when CPB will be pressed, coil 52Y will energize thus blocking closing
operation by opening its contact Y/b.
B. When C.B is closed, 52/b contact will be opened and if someone presses CPB,
closing coil cannot be energized (anti slam feature).
C. After each closing operation, closing spring discharges charging operation of
closing spring starts, contact 52/aa closes. If CPB is pressed then 52Y coil will
energize, its contact in closing coil circuit will open and closing will be blocked. The
52Y coil will remain energize through its contact Y/a and CPB. Operator has to
release CPB to make next closing operation possible. (ANTI PUMPING FEATURE)

12.4.2: CHARGING OPERATION:-

After each closing operation closing spring discharges, so contact B closes.

Also charging spring discharges so switch LS closes. Due to this motor contactor M
energizes. Its two contacts in motor circuit close and motor will start running to charge
the closing spring. When closing/charging springs are fully charged then contact B
and LS will open and hence contactor M will de- energize and motor will stop.
12.4.3: OPENING OR TRIPPING OPERATION:-

126
i. When C.B is closed then 52/a contact in trip coil circuit will be closed and by
pressing TPB, trip coil 52TC will energize and breaker will trip.

ii. When C.B is in open position, 52/a contact will be opened and trip coil cannot
be energized if TPB is pressed (anti slam feature).

12.5: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF 132KV LK-NES SPRING OPERATED O.C.B.

TYPE

MULB-150 (SPRING OPERATING MECHANISM TYPE: FHB).

In the diagram C.B is shown open, closing spring charged.

12.5.1: CLOSING:

127
1. Closing operation of this breaker is possible only when tripping latch is engaged
i.e. tripping spring is charge. For this contact A is provided in closing coil circuit.
This contact monitors the engagement of trip latch.

2. Anti pumping/ Anti slam features are same as for previous circuit.

12.5.2: CHARGING
After every closing operation, closing spring discharges. Due to this switch
LS/b closes and also contact B in motor contactor M circuit closes and hence
contactor M energizes. When contactor M energizes its two contacts in motor circuit
close and motor starts running to charge the closing spring. When closing spring is
fully charged, contact LS/b opens to de-energize contactor M and hence motor
Contact B opens after the engagement of closing latch.
12.5.3: TRIPPING OR OPENING
It is same as for previous breaker.

12.6: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF 132KV MAGRINI PNEUMATIC O.C.B.

128
12.6.1: GENERAL

129
 In pneumatic O.C.Bs driving force for closing operation of breaker is provided
by compressed air.

If air pressure is less than minimum closing pressure (63 MCP) then closing of
breaker is blocked in or to avoid sparking/damage to breaker due to slow closing
operation. For this 63 MCP switch is always provided in the closing circuit of breaker
which monitors air pressure in breaker tank.
12.6.2: CLOSING:
In the diagram, C.B. is shown in open position with sufficient air pressure in
the tank so switch 63 MCP is closed.

Suppose local/remote switch BDL is in local position.

Sequence of operations to close the circuit breaker is as follows:-

1. PCL is pressed which energizes contactor X via 52/b and Y/b contacts.

2. When contactor X energizes: Its three contacts close i.e. (i) X contact (+ - 14)
for S.I. Feature, (ii) X contact (1-01) which provides an other path to contactor
X for very short time along with bb contact, (iii) X contact (+ -05) in closing
coil E circuit. Due to this closing coil E energizes, which closes the breaker.

3. Just before the closing of breaker contact bb opens (which cuts off 2 nd supply
path for contactor X and contactor X is now energized only through Y/b and
52/b contacts) and contact aa in Y coil circuit closes. Due to this Y coil
energizes.

NOTE: aa and bb contacts are operated by compressed air for a very short time.

4. When coil Y energizes, its contact in contactor X circuit opens and de-energize
contactor X and hence closing coil E also de-energizes.
Coil Y will also de-energize. But if operator has not released the closing
push Button PCL then Coil Y will remain energized through its contact and its
contact in contactor X circuit will remain open. So next closing pulse cannot be
given to breaker. The operator has to release PCL to make next closing
operation possible (anti pumping feature).
ANTI SLAM FEATURE: In this circuit, this feature is provided by (i) 52/b
contact in contactor X circuit and (ii) coil Y as well through 52/a contact.
12.6.3: OPENING or TRIPPING:

130
 When C.B is closed then 52/a contact will be closed. The sequence of
operation to open the breaker is as follows.

1. Opening push button PAL or PAD depending upon the position of local / remote
switch is pressed. Due to this auxiliary trip coil z energizes.

2. When coil z energizes: its two contacts (+ - 20, + - 011) close. Contact Z (+ -20)
provides SI feature and contact Z (+ - 011) provides supply path for Trip coil
BA and hence coil BA energizes which then opens or trip the breaker.

When CB trips, then all 52/contacts will open and hence coil Z and BA will de-
energize.

Note
When coil BA energizes, its two contacts in its own circuit open and then coil
BA is energized through a resistance. This is done to avoid burning of coil BA if C.B
does not open due to some fault. Because then coil BA will be energized at reduced
voltage.

12.6.4: REFILLING:
Supply switch 8 must be kept always closed. In the diagram shown pressure in
tank is 6 KG per c.m2.

When pressure drops to 5.5 kg per sq. c.m , then Switch 63L2 will open.

When pressure drops to 3 kg per sq.c.m, then switch 63L1 will close and hence
operating coil 42L will energize.

When coil 42L energizes : its three contacts in motor circuit close and motor start
running to refill the tank, its one contact in its own circuit closes to provide S.I
feature.
When pressure in tank rises to 5kg per c.m 2 , switch 63L1 opens but coil 42L remains
energized through its S.I contact and refilling will be continued.
When pressure in tank rises to 6kg per c.m 2, switch 63L2 closes and hence coil
42L1 energizes. Coil 42L1 produces flux in such a way to cancel the flux of coil 42L
and hence contacts of 42L open and refilling stops.

131
12.7: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF 132KV BBC MINIMUM OIL
HYDRAULICALLY
OPERATED CIRCUIT BREAKER TYPE TR 170.12

132
12.7.1: CLOSING:
Closing operation of this breaker is possible only if hydraulic pressure is not
less than MCP (265 bars).
MCP relay 63 monitors this through pressure switch h1.
ANTI PUMPING FEATURE is provided by anti pluming relay Y (f1).
ANTI SLAM FEATURE is provided by (i) 52/b (5-6) contact in No.2 by anti pumping
relay Y (f1) as well.

133
12.7.2: OPENING OR TRIPPING:

Tripping operation of this breaker is possible only when hydraulic pressure in

the mechanism is not less than MTP (235 bars). This is monitored by MTP relay f2
through pressure switch h2.
ANTI SLAM FEATURE is provided by 52/a (3-4) contact.
12.7.3: REFILLING: Self explanatory from the circuit.
12.8: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF 132KV BBC MINIMUM OIL,
HYDRAULICALLY
OPERATED CIRCUIT BREAKER TYPE. TR 145

134
12.8.1: CLOSING: closing of this breaker is possible only when:-

1. Hydraulic pressure in the mechanism is not less than MCP (260 Bars). This is
monitored by MCP relay K18 through pressure switch F8B.

2. N2 gas pressure in the accumulator is at required value (200 bars at 20 oc).

135
3. At 330 bars pump runs for 2 seconds. In case of N2 gas loss in the accumulator
pressure will rise immediately to 340 bars within two seconds. At 340 bars
pressure switch F8z will shift towards position 2 and hence N2 gas loss
monitoring relay K18 will energize. This relay will then energize MCP relay KB
and hence closing operation of breaker will be blocked.

ANTI PUMPING FEATURE is provided by Y (K13) relay.

ANTI SLAM FEATURE is provided by 52/b contact in closing circuit.

12.8.2: OPENING OR TRIPPING:

Tripping operation of this breaker is possible only when:

1. Hydraulic pressure in the mechanism is not less then MTP (230 bars). This is
monitored by MTP relay K10 through pressure switch F8A.

2. N2 gas pressure in the accumulator is at required value.

3. For this see 2 of closing circuit.

12.8.3: REFILLING:
Self explanatory from circuit
12.9: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS OF AIR BLAST BREAKERS
12.9.1: GENERAL:

A. In air blast breakers driving force for closing and tripping operations is
provided by compressed air. Moreover, compressed air quenches the arc and provides
insulation between the contacts when they are open and between live parts and dead or
grounded parts.

In order to monitor the satisfactory operation of air blast breakers to account

for above functions, following three features are incorporated in the control circuits of
air blast breakers:-

1. 63MCP RELAY/SWITCH:- This relay/switch blocks the closing operation of

breaker when air pressure falls below MCP. This is done in order to avoid slow
closing of breaker and hence damage to breaker due to spark over.

136
2. 63MTP RELAY/SWITCH: This relay/ switch blocks the tripping operation of
breaker when air pressure falls below MTP. This feature is added in order to
have satisfactory quenching of arc.

3. MINIMUM DI-ELECTRIC PRESSURE FEATURE (MDP FEATURE):

Whenever air pressure falls below MDP, the breaker must close automatically if
it was opened and breaker must never open, if it was closed.

This is done in order to avoid damage to breaker due to spark over between the
open contacts because compressed air provides insulation between them when
they are open.

This feature is achieved either electrically or through springs.

B. In air blast breakers, there is no mechanical linkage between the phases. Each
phase has its own operating mechanism. So phase discrepancy problem may exists in
these breakers in case of some trouble in any phase operating mechanism.

If there is phase discrepancy problem then breaker must open automatically, if

it was closed and should not close if it was open.

To achieve this phase discrepancy relay 48 (usually with a time delay device to
account for opening of any phase during lightening etc and then its reclosing through
auto re-closer) is incorporated in the control circuits of air blast breakers. This relay
operates through a special arrangement of auxiliary switches in case of phase
discrepancy.

In fig. (A) all the phases of circuit breaker are open, so there is no problem of
phase discrepancy, hence phase discrepancy relay 48 cannot be energized.

In fig.(B) all the phases of circuit breaker are closed, so there is no problem of
phase discrepancy, hence phase discrepancy relay 48 cannot be energized.

In fig. (C) R and Y phases are open but B phase is closed so there is
discrepancy between the phases. Hence phase discrepancy relay will energize and will
give tripping pulse to breaker through its contacts.

137
12.9.2: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF 220KV BBC AIR BLAST BREAKER
TYPE: DLF

138
139
A. CLOSING: Closing operation of this breaker is possible only when:
1. Air pressure is not less than MCP (395 PSIG). For this pressure switch 63b is
incorporated in auxiliary closing coil 52 x circuits. When air pressure falls
below 395 PSIG (MCP), closing of breaker is blocked.

2. There is no phase discrepancy problem in the breaker. If there is discrepancy

problem then 48-1, 48-2 relays will energize, their contacts in 52Y coil circuit
will close, energizing the later and blocking closing operation.

140
3. Key k1 is in its proper position.

52Y relay provides anti pumping feature in closing circuit.

Anti slam feature is provided by (i) 52/b contacts and (ii) 52Y coil as well.

Functions of 52Y relay in this circuit are:

a. To provide anti pumping feature.

b. To provide anti slam feature.

c. To block closing in case of phase discrepancy relay along with 48 relay.

B. Tripping or opening
Tripping of this barker is possible only when air pressure is not less than MTP
(384 PSIG). This is monitored by 63x1 relay through MTP switch 63a.

Tripping operation of this breaker can be established by any one of the

following means:

1. Through local/ remote push buttons.

2. Through key k1.

3. Through phase discrepancy relay (auto tripping)

Note
Two tripping circuits are provided in this breaker to make control circuit
reliable in order to have sure tripping in case of fault. Moreover, each trip circuit is fed
form separate battery to make control circuit most reliable. Anti slam feature is
provided by 52a contacts in tripping circuits.

C. REFILLING
1. FUNCTION OF 62 RELAY IN REFILLING CIRCUIT.
In air blast breakers, pressure is stored in a central tank/tanks which supply
compressed air to the tanks of all breakers through pipes via valves. Refilling time for
every breaker tank is fixed. But if there is some fault in the refilling system of a
breaker (leakage in pipe or fault in pressure switches) then refilling will not stop and
hence there will be wastage of air pressure from central tank. To avoid this happening,
a time delay opening relay 62 is incorporated in the refilling circuit of every breaker,
which stops refilling automatically after a pre-set time in case of fault in the refilling
circuit.

141
2. Refilling Process
i. Pressure in tank is maintained just above 443PSIG. When pressure drops
drops below 443PSIG, the cut off pressure switch 63f will close but
nothing will happen.

ii. When pressure drops below 434 PSIG, then cut in pressure switch 63x
closes and auxiliary refilling contractor 20x and 62 relay energize. 62
relay contact (4-5) opens after a pre –set tim after the energization of 62
relay.

iii. When contactor 20x energizes: Its one contact (13-14) in its own circuit
closes for S.I feature, its their contacts in connectors 20-, 1 and 20-2
circuit close to energize them.

iv. When contractors 20-1, 20-2 energize, they open refilling valve and
refilling starts.

v. When pressure rises to 434 PSIG, pressure switch 63x opens but
refilling will be continued through switch 63f.

When pressure rises to just above 443PSIG, pressure switch 63f opens
contactor 20x and hence. 20-1,20-2 de-energize and refilling stops.

If refilling is not completed in pre-set time due to some problem in the refilling
system, then 62 relay will stop refilling as explained earlier.

3. Functions of hand refilling push button PB1.

i. To avoid repeated operations of 62 relay, when refilling the tank after

drainag during maintenance.

ii. To reset 62 relay.

4. The function of resistance- capacitance (RC) combination across each coil in

the refilling circuit is to avoid damage to them due to over voltages.

142
12. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF 500KV DELLE ALSTHOM AIR BLAST
BREAKER
TYPE PK.

143
144
A. Closing
Closing of this breaker is possible only when followings are satisfied.

1. Air pressure is not less than MCP (351 PSIG). It is monitored by

63R/MCP relay.

2. There is no discrepancy among phases i.e. when all the phases are open.
If any of the phase is closed already, then it’s “a” contact will be closed
in 52Y coil circuit. Under such conditions if CPB is pressed, 52Y coil
will also energize along with 52x coil and have closing will be blocked.

3. Key Mk1 is in its proper position.

Closing operation of this breaker can be made by following ways.

i By closing push button CPB. For this, the above three conditions must be
satisfied.

ii Auto reclosing through 63R/MDP relay when air pressure falls below MDP
value.

Anti pumping feature is provided by 52Y coil.

Anti slam feature is provided by 52/b contacts in closing circuit.

B. TRIPPING OR OPENING

Tripping of this breaker is possible only when air pressure is not less than MTP
(332-PSIG.) .This is monitored by 63R/MTPI and 63R/MTP2 relays.

Tripping operation of this breaker can be made by one of the following ways.

1. Through Push buttons TPBI/TPB2.

2. Through Key MK2.

3. Auto tripping through phase discrepancy relay in case of phase discrepancy.

C. To make circuit reliable i.e. to have sure tripping in case of fault two-trip
circuits are provided in this breaker and moreover each trip circuit is fed form separate
battery.

145
12.10 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF 220 KV SF6, HYDRAULICALLY OPERATED
BREAKER TYPE FA2 (MG GRENOBLE FRANCE)

146
147
12.10.1 General
In SF6 breakers, pressurized SF6 gas (Sulpher Hexa fluoride gas) quenches the
arc produced during tripping and also provides insulation between the contacts when
they are open. Therefore when SF6 gas pressure falls below certain value required for
performing above purposes, then tripping of breaker must be blocked in order to avoid
damage to breaker.

148
 However when gap between the contacts is more, then breaker may be allowed
to trip automatically when SF6 gas pressure falls below certain value. (It is option
only in some breakers).

Also when SF6 pressure falls below certain value, classing of C.B must be
blocked because then breaker may not be able to quench the arc satisfactorily if closed
on fault. In most cases, tripping of breaker is blocked under such conditions, so there
is no need to close the breaker.

12.10.2 Closing
Closing of this Breaker is possible only when.
1. Hydraulic Pressure in the mechanism is not less than MCP (295 bars). This is
monitored by 63 R/MCP oil relay through pressure switch 63 MCP/oil (PS02).

2. SF6 gas pressure in any pole (or Phase) is not less than MTP required for arc
quenching. (5 bars at 20o C)

When SF6 gas pressure falls below MTP in any phase then 63R/MTPI gas and
63R/MTP2 gas relays energize through SF6 gas pressure switches.A contact of
63R/MTP2 gas Closes in 63R/MCP oil circuit, thus this relay energize and blocks
closing as explained earlier.

Note
52x/a contact in position 1 of contactor 52x provides S.1 through closing push
button CPB to by-pass 63MCP/oil contact if oil Pressure drops during closing
operation. This ensures that if closing operation is started at sufficient oil pressure
then closing operation will be completed even if pressure falls during operation.

 Anti Puming feature is provided by anti pumping relay 52Y1 and 52Y2

 Anti slam feature is provided by 52/b contacts in closing circuit.

12.10.3. Operating or Tripping

Tripping of this breaker can be achieved by one the following ways.

1. Single phase and 3-phase tripping through push buttons is possible only when
SF6 gas pressure in all the three poles or phases is sufficient to quench the arc.

149
 For 3-Phase tripping 63MTP2/Gas contact in position 5 and for 1-Phase
tripping 63MTP1/Gas contacts (in position 11, 14, 17) of Relays 63MTP1/Gas
and 63MTP2/Gas will be opened if SF6 Gas Pressure in any pole is less than
the pressure required for tripping (MTP/Gas = 5 Bars at 20 Degree C.

2. Auto tripping through hydraulic pressure switch 63MHP/oil in position 8, in

case when hydraulic pressure in the mechanism is less than 215 bars.

3. Auto tripping in case of phase discrepancy through phase discrepancy relay

contact 48 in position 7. However in case of phase discrepancy single phase
can be reclosed through an auto re-closer when it trips during lightening etc. by
putting a timer of re-closer in the circuit 2-54 by delaying auto tripping
provided oil pressure is sufficient for closing of breaker. If oil pressure is less
than MCP, then 63MCP/oil (5-13) contact will be closed and breaker will trip
immediately (because in that case timer will be by passed) in case of phase
discrepancy.

4. Auto tripping at low SF6 gas pressure (5 bars at 20 oC through 63 MTP2./gas

contact in position 6 only if terminals 12 and 13 are connected together.

Anti slam feature in tripping circuit is provided by auxiliary switches 52/a.

150
13. CONTROL CIRCUIT FOR TRANSFORMER COOLING SYSTEM (i.e. FAN
CONTROL CIRCUIT).
Self study

151
14. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF MOTOR OPERATED ISOLATORS

14.1 132KV MOTOR OPERATED MAGRINI ISOLATOR CIRCUIT

In the Diagram, Isolator is shown in open position

152
 PAL = Local Opening P.B, PCL= Local closing P.B.

PAD = Remote opening P.B PCD = Remote Closing P.B.

F= Brake coil, CF are brake Contacts which close only when brake is lifted,
TA= Opening contractor, TC= Closing connectors. CFA and CFC are
limit switches, PB = Door switch, 52b is circuit breaker auxiliary switch
for interlacing to make sure that isolator can be operated only
(electrically) when circuit breaker is open.

1. BRAKING: In this circuit electrically operated mechanical brake is used.

2. CLOSING: Sequence of operations to close the isolator are as follows:-

i. For this PCL or PCD is pressed, which energizes closing contractor TC.

ii. When TC energizes:

Its contact TC (6-10) closes to provide S.I feature only when brake is
lifted or released i.e. when CF contacts close, its two contacts in motor
circuit close but motor will not run yet, its one contact in break coil F
circuit closes and energizes brake coil. Brake is released and two brake
contacts CF close.

iii. Motor Starts running to close the isolator.

iv. When isolator closes, limit switch CFC (b) opens and hence contactor
TC, coil F and motor de-energize.

v. When brake coil F de-energizes, brake is applied on the rotor and motor
stops quickly.

Now Switch CFA (a) will be closed and Isolator will be ready for
opening

3. OPENING: Opening of isolator is exactly similar to closing operation. In this

case motor will run in reverse direction to that of closing operation. In this
circuit, reverse operation of motor is achieved by changing the directing of
current in the armature winding of motor.

153
14.2 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF 132KV MOTOR OPERATED BBC ISOLATOR
TYPE MT 80 AND MT 81:
Self study

154
15. TROUBLE SHOOTING PROFORMA i.e. STEPS FOR FINDING FAULT
i. Read from the schematic diagram of the equipment that what device will
operate and in what sequence to start the operation (i.e. to close or open the
breaker/isolator or raise/lower the tap changer).

ii. When operation starts:

a. What is operating?
b. What is not operating?

iii. Which circuit is not working correctly?

iv. What could cause this?

v. Test with volt meter or ohm meter to diagnose fault.

vi. What is fault or problem?

vii. Rectify fault and go back to Step No. ii.

Note
A. In general when a device is operating which is not supposed to operate, then
suspect short circuit fault and when a device is not operating which is supposed
to operate, then suspect open circuit fault.

B. When using Voltmeter for troubleshooting then there should be only one open
in the circuit. If there are more open circuits in a circuit then short all other
open circuits by a jumper and leave only open in the circuit.

C. When using ohmmeter for troubleshooting “circuit must be in de- energized

position”. Also when there are more than one coils (or resistances or contacts)
in parallel, then test should be performed very carefully.

Practical Project
Topic: Trouble shooting Project No. 1

Objective: Using schematic diagram of Magrini Isolator and following the

troubleshooting proforma locate all faults on Magrini Isolator Mechanism by Using.

1. Volt Meter and

2. Ohm meter.

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Caution
When using ohmmeter for troubleshooting Circuit must be in de-energized position.

Note
Location of One fault will be demonstrated.

PRACTICAL PROJECT

Topic: Trouble shooting Project No. 2

OBJECTIVES
Using schematic diagram of Trafounion Tap Changer and following the trouble
shooting Performa locate all faults on Trafounion trap Changer motor drive unit using
voltmeter/ Ohmmeter.

Caution
When using ohmmeter for trouble shooting circuit must be in de-energized
position

Note
Location of One fault will be de demonstrated.

PRACTICAL PROJECT

Topic: Trouble shooting Project No. 3

OBJECTIVES
Using schematic diagram of Ganz Tap Changer and following the trouble
shooting proforma locate all faults on Ganz tap Changer motor drive unit by using
voltmeter/ Ohmmeter.

Caution
When using ohmmeter for trouble shooting circuit must be in de-energized
position

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PRACTICAL PROJECT

Topic: Trouble Shooting Project No. 4

OBJECTIVES
Using schematic diagram of MR Tap Changer (Type: Diii) and following the
trouble shooting proforma locate all faults on MR Tap Changer motor drive unit by
using Voltmeter/ Ohmmeter.

Caution
When using ohmmeter for trouble shooting, circuit must be in de-energized
position

PRACTICAL PROJECT

Topic: Trouble shooting Project No. 5

OBJECTIVES
Using schematic diagram of Magrini Breaker and following the trouble
shooting Performa locate all faults in Magrini Breaker mechanism by using
Voltmeter / Ohmmeter

Caution
When using ohmmeter for trouble shooting, circuit must be in de-energized
position

PRACTICAL PROJECT

Topic: Trouble shooting Project No. 6

OBJECTIVES
Using Control Circuit of T/F fans (cooling System) and following trouble
shooting proforma, locate all faults by using Voltmeter/ Ohmmeter in Fans Control
Mechanism.

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Caution
When using ohmmeter for trouble shooting, circuit must be in de-energized
position

Vi Module on Motor

Main Objective
After completion of this module, trainee will be able to do the followings.

1. To know important points about maintenance of motors .

2. To dismantle/re-assemble a motor for checking replacement of bearings and to

perform various tests on motor to know about its condition.

3. To properly connect various starters to motors.

MOTORS/ STARTERS
IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT MOTOR MAINTENANCE
i. The basic cause of failure of motors is the accumulation of dust, oil and vapors
etc. in various parts of motor. So the first principal of motors maintenance is to
keep the parts of motor clean and dry. For cleaning always use vacuum cleaner.
If vacuum cleaner is not available then use compressed air, not exceeding 50
PSI, for removing dirt etc.

ii. All the ventilating passages must be kept open to ensure free movement of air
for cooling.

iii. Excessive side play /end play of rotor shaft indicates worn bearings.

iv. All the contacts of starters, contactors and switches etc. should be cleaned with
approved solvents.

v. Ri of motor must be checked with megger when it is installed and then repeat
the test every year, correct reading to temp. of 20oC, compare them and find
the sign of insulation deterioration. For performing Ri test of motor follow the
procedure given below.

Check Megger accuracy by performing Zero Check and infinity check. During test do
not touch guard terminal of megger, Megger leads must be in good condition.

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Note : VOLTAGE OF MEGGER SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN THAT OF
MOTOR
b. De-Energize the motor and isolate if from power circuit.

c. Make sure that motor body is solidly grounded.

D. Note ambient or motor temperature.

E. Connect H or line or + and E Terminal of Megger to the two terminals of motor

which are to be tested.

Note
The Motor terminal to which E terminal of Megger is connected must be
grounded.

F. Crank Megger and take/ record reading when megger Needle stabilized.

G. Discharge and ground the terminal of motor for about 5 minutes which was
connected to the H terminal of megger.

H. Disconnect megger terminals from motor.

Only four readings i.e. R-Y R-B Y-B and RYB-Ground or body are taken for 3-phase
motors.

For single phase motors only one reading i.e. phase to ground is taken.

vi. Centrifugal switch of motors should be checked at least once in every six
months for corrosion, broken or weak spring, burnt or pitted contacts.

vii. Capacitor value of C-motors should be checked at least one time in a year when
value of capacitor falls below 80% of its rated value, it must be replaced.

viii. The belt tension between motor and driven machine should be adjusted for
1/64inch mid deflection for every 1inch belt span.

ix. For removing bearings from motor shaft use proper puller.
When putting bearings back on shaft.
Small bearings may be pressed on the shaft by means of a brass tube by
applying pressure on the inner ring of bearing by tubing. Large bearings are first
heated to a temperature of 200deg. F for 15 minutes, and then fitted immediately to
the shaft.

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PRACTICAL PROJECT

Topic Motors/Starters Project No. 1

Objective: On a given 3-Phase Motors.

1. Perform Megger test, take 4 readings i.e. R-Y, Y-B, R-B and RYB-6.
2. Correct above readings to 20deg. C and analyze results to find problem it
exists.

PRACTICAL PROJECT

Topic Motors/Starters Project No. 2

Objective
Dismantle given 3- Phase fan motor properly, remove bearings using puller,
check their condition, lubricate bearings and put them back on shaft.

PRACTICAL PROJECT

Topic: Motors/Starters Project No.3

Objective

Correctly connect star-delta starter to 3-Phase Compressor Motor according to

the diagram shown below:

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PRACTICAL PROJECT

Topic: Motors / Starters Project No.4

Objective

Study given magnetic starter and then connect it to 3-Phase Fan Motor.

BUS BARS, CONNECTOR/CLAMPS, INSULATORS AND LIGHTENING

ARRESTERS :
MAIN OBJECTIVES
After completion of this module, trainee will be able to do the followings.

1. To inspect and perform various tests on bus bars/insulators lightening arresters

to know about their condition and to maintain them properly.

2. To install and torque bus connecters clamps properly.

OUTDOOR STATION BUS BAR

TYPES
 Two types of bus bars are used in grid station i.e,

a. The flexile or stranded bus and

b. The rigid bus (may be tubular or solid)

a. Flexible or stranded Bus: it is used where:-

i. Longer spans are involved.

ii. Where sufficient clearances are needed to allow for conductor sways and.

iii. It is used as a long drop from horizontal bus to equipment bushing.

In the flexible bus sag must be enough to account for temperature variations
without affecting the clearances between phases and phases to ground.

b. Rigid Bus :it is used where:

i. Heavy currents are involved and

ii. Short or less Spacing is available.

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 To account for thermal expansion /contraction of rigid bus provision must be
made by means of expansion joints and clamps to permit bus to slide both ways in
order to avoid damage to equipment bushing and isolators etc.

2. CONNECTOR/ CLAMPS:
Connector is a device attached to two or more conductors to provide electrical
continuity besides providing mechanical strength.

Clamp is mainly used to provide mechanical support and is not supposed to have good
electrical properties.

But the connector must have (i) good electrical properties i.e. it should have high
conductivity and low contact resistance (ii) Good mechanical properties i.e. it should
be strong, should have good tensile strength. should be malleable and elastic.

Malleable means to deform or move with pressure without damage i.e.

cracking or breaking etc.

iv. Connector should be also resistant to corrosion.

2.1 TYPES OF CONNECTORS

Connectors are classified according to method of jointing i.e. bolted,
compression, soldered, welded and threaded stud type. Connectors are also classified
according to position of jointed conductor i.e. L type, parallel, straight and T etc.

Connectors are also classified according to their application i.e. expansion terminal
and reducer etc.

Compression joint is used on flexible buses, on rigid bus mostly bolted joints are used.
Welded joint may be also used on rigid bus when many connections are involved.

Note
a. Oxide inhibiting compound or non- oxide Compound: ( penetrox,
Lithium paste, and white Vaseline etc). These are very good electrical
conductors, resistant to corrosion, fills the air gaps left between contact
surfaces and also they avoid formation of corrosion and galvanic cell.

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 b. Emery Paper or Emery cloth is good electrical conductor. It removes
corrosion and make contact surfaces coarse smooth to have good
connection.

c. Connectors/clamps are tightened upto the correct torque by Torque

wrench in order to have no air gaps left and hence to have low contact
resistance to avoid heating etc.

Generally wrenches are designed for dry bolts, so grease or lubricant should
not be used otherwise excessive pressure will be applied which may damage
the bolt and clamp etc.

2.2 JOINT PROCEDURE

1. Clean the contact surfaces with emery cloth to make them coarse
smooth and to remove corrosion from them.

2. Apply oxide inhibiting compound on the contact surfaces.

3. In case of bolted connectors tighten them to correct torque with a Torque

wrench.

Note
Torque values for different size of bolts of various materials are given in
electrical maintenance procedure book page Nos. 171 & 172.

Belleville ( Straight and Flate ) spring washers etc. should be used to have
sufficient pressure on the joint.

Two copper conductors can be jointed temporarily with aluminium connector when
copper connector is not available. But then it must be replaced with copper connector
when copper connector is available.

In case of welded connectors only longitudinal welding is allowed otherwise

bus could be weakened or fractured.

2.3 COPPER TO ALLUMINIUM JOINT PROCEDURE:

1. Always use P.G (Parallel Groove) connectors.

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2. Apply a thin layer of tin in that groove where copper conductor will be inserted
to avoid galvanic cell formation or corrosion. Also to reduce galvanic cell
corrosion massive aluminum may be used.

3. Aluminum should be above and copper below because aluminum oxide is not
dangerous to copper but copper oxide is dangerous to aluminum.

After this follow joint procedure as explained in topic 2.2.

3. RESISTANCE TESTING OF BUS BAR BY MICRO OHM METER (OR

DUCTOR)
3.1 PURPOSE:
The main purpose of this test is to check for loose or corroded joint.
3.2 PROCEDURE:
In this test current of at least100Amp. is passed through the bus containing
joints. Due to this high current joint will heat up if it was loose or corroded and
hence it will give high micro ohm reading.
3.3 INTERPRETATION:
Clamps /connectors are installed correctly only when they do not affect the
resistance of bus. The most satisfactory way of judging the correctness of a connector
is to compare the resistance of a definite length bus with no joints to the resistance of
a bus with joints, resistance reading should be same in both cases.
Note: Looseness of connections /proper installation of connectors can also be checked
by Thermogun.
4. BUS BAR MAINTENANCE/ INSPECTION /TESTING

i. Check that connectors/ clamps are properly installed and they are of proper size
and type , if not , replace with proper one.

ii. Check that provision is made for expansion/contraction of rigid bus, check for
correct sag for flexible bus.

iii. Check connectors/clamps for correct tightness with torque wrench. If they are
not properly tightened, then remove corrosion etc. from them with emery paper, apply
no oxide compound and tighten them to correct torque by torque wrench.

iv. Perform micro ohm meter test on bus compare readings with previous readings.
Take necessary steps if readings are not satisfactory.

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PRACTICAL PROJECT

Topic : Bus Bar Project No.1

OBJECTIVE:

1. On a given 4” aluminum bus perform micro Ohmmeter test by tightening

connectors approximately, without cleaning and applying no oxide compound.

2. Repeat 1. After correctly tightening the connectors to correct torque by torque

wrench, after cleaning and applying oxide inhibiting compound.

3. Compare the results of 1 and 2 .

Note
For torque values see Electrical maintenance Procedure Book Page
No.171/172.

5. BUS INSULATORS
5.1 MAINTENANCE/TESTING OF INSULATORS

1. (a) Visually inspect insulators for cracks, flashover burns and corrosion etc.

(b) Perform Ring test for invisible cracks,( bad or poor sound indicates
invisible cracks.

2. Perform insulation resistance test by megger.

The purpose of this test is to know about the quality / condition of insulation of
insulators.

Insulation resistance of insulators must never be less then 2000 Mega ohms at
200 C when insulator is clean and dry.

For Ri. testing of insulator 1000 V or 5000 V Megger having resistance range
well over 2000 mega ohms should be used.

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Procedure for Megger Testing of Insulators

i. About Megger
a. Megger leads must be in good condition.

b. Accuracy of Megger must be checked by performing zero check and

infinity check.

c. Never touch guard terminal of Megger during test and never press
Megger leads under feet during test.

ii Isolate and de-energize the bus or equipment on which insulator to be tested is

installed according to P.T.W.

iii. Clean and dry the insulator thoroughly.

iv. Note ambient temperature or insulator temperature.

v. Make connections as shown in the fig.

vi. Crank Megger and take reading when needle stabilizes.

vii. After test discharge and ground the conductor for about 10 minutes
which was connected to H terminal of Megger.

3. Remove deposits from insulator surface with appropriate solvent. Various

solvents used are.

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i. Varsol (Petroleum solvents): It is used to remove deposits from insulators
installed near railway and industrial areas.

ii Tribasic sodium phosphate: It is used to remove deposits from insulators installed

near salt factories.

iii Muriatic acid: It is used for removing deposits from the insulators installed near
cement factories and limekilns.

iv Ammonium acetate or sodium fluoride: It is used to remove deposits from the

insulators which are installed near cement factories.

Note
a. Rubber Gloves, goggles, aprons and rubber boots must be worn to avoid
skin infections when using solvents for removing deposits from
insulators.

b. In some areas silicone grease is applied on insulators because (i) it

prolongs interval between cleanings and (ii) it makes easier to remove
contamination and deposits from the insulators.

c. Insulators are designed to carry the load of bus, conductor or equipment

etc. so climbing on insulators is prohibited because due to this person
may slip or insulator may crack or damage.

4 repair or replace defective insulator.

5.2 Identification of Defective insulator

An insulator is said to be defective when:

1. It is mechanically damaged.

2. Its Megger reading when corrected to 20deg c is below 2000 Mega ohms when
clean and dry.

3. It is so badly contaminated that contaminations cannot be removed without

damaging it.

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5.3 RULES FOR REPLACEMENT OF DEFECTIVE INSULATORS
A Upto 44kv: If one is defective, replace it in routine maintenance. If more than
one are

defective then replace immediately.

Above 44kv: If two are defective replace in routine maintenance. If more than
two are

defective then replace immediately.

B If insulator is damaged in such a way that the loss of creepage distance is up to

3 inch, then replace it in routine maintenance if loss of creepage distance is more then
3 inch then replace immediately.

QUESTIONS
1. Ri reading of an insulation was measured to be 5000 mega ohm at 5deg.c. Is it
a good insulator? Explain.

6. MAINTENANCE/TESTING OF LIGHTENING ARRESTERS:

It includes the following:

i Clean, dry and inspect porcelain for cracks and burns etc.

ii Inspect foundation

iii Check ground connection and perform earth resistance test to know about
ground resistance value.

Ground resistance should be very very low (less than 2 ohms).

iv Perform megger test for checking of insulation resistance. Compare reading

with previous results and take necessary action, if readings are doubtful.

VIII. MODULE ON CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Main Objectives
After completion of this module, trainee will be able to do the followings.

1. To understand importance of operating duty cycle of O.C.Bs.

2. To describe various operating times of circuit breakers.

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3. To describes sequence of operations of hydraulic and pneumatic circuits of
various circuit breakers.

4. To perform various tests like minimum trip test, visicorder test, and micro-ohm
Meter test on breakers and to interpret their results to know about their
condition.

1. STANDARD OPERATING CYCLE OF O.C.BS

Standard operating duty cycle of O.C.Bs is co-15sec- co, which means that
when a breaker is closed on fault it will trip immediately by clearing its rated capacity
fault safely and then after 15 seconds breaker can be re-closed on fault it will trip
again immediately by appearing its rated capacity fault safely and then breaker can be
immediately closed again and it is will carry its normal full load current continuously.

It should be noted that a breaker can perform this duty only when its routine
maintenance i.e. oil filtration, contacts maintenance, moving parts lubrication etc. is
being carried out time to time.

Whenever duty cycle of breaker is changed from standard one,its capacity decreases.
Table I shows capacity of breaker for various duty cycles.

TABLE-1

Reclosing intervals interrupting capacity in percentage of rated

in seconds between capacity for various voltage breakers

CO operations. 11KV 33KV Above 33 KV

15(i.e.co-15-co) 100% 100% 100%

20-20-20 90% 85% 80%
30-30-30 90% 85% 80%
15-30-75 90% 85% 80%
0-15-120 65% 50% can not be used
0-30-71 65% 50% -------do-------
60-60 90% 85% 80% 0
75% 65% 60%

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Example:-
132kv O.C.B has rated interrupting capacity of 80% MVA and has standard operating
Duty cycle as CO-15-CO. If its duty cycle is changed to 15-30-75 one, t hen:-
(a) what will be its capacity at this new cycle?
(b) To clear the fault of 80 MVA at this new cycle, what capacity breaker is required ?
Solution: using Table-1
(a) Capacity of C.B at duty cycle of 15-30-75 = 80 80/100 = 64 MVA.
(b) C.B required to clear the fault of 8oMVA at duty cycle of 15-30-75 = 80
100/80 = 100 MVA.
2. Various operating times of Breakers
2.1 Closing time: It is the time taken from the energization of closing coil up to the
making of arcing contacts.

2.2 Contact parting time: It is the time taken from the energization of trip coil up to
the parting of arcing contacts.

2.3 Arcing time: It is the time taken from the parting of arcing contacts upto the
extinction of arc.

2.4 Interrupting time: It is the time taken form the energization of trip coil up to the
extinction of arc.

2.5 Reclose time: It is the time taken from the energization of trip coil of fully
closed breaker up to the making of arcing contacts on reclose stroke.

2.6 Trip Free time: it is the time taken from the making of arcing contacts up to the
parting of arcing contacts on a trip free stroke.

3. Main features of circuit Breaker control circuits

See control devices /control circuits module.

4. Electrical control circuits schematic diagrams of various circuit breakers

See control devices /control circuits module.

5. Minimum trip test of Circuit breakers

5.1 Definition: The minimum voltage at which a circuit breaker trips is called its
minimum trip voltage.
All circuit breakers should trip at 50% of their reacted trip voltage.

5.2: PURPOSES:

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1. To check the ability of breaker to trip at low voltage.

2. To know about shorted turns in trip coil.

3. To know about latch functioning and operating mechanism defects etc.

5.3: PROCEDURE:

In this test, d.c. voltage is given to trip coil of breaker through a rheostate and
voltage is increased gradually until breaker trips.

The voltage at which breaker trips will be the minimum trip voltage of breaker
and this test is called minimum trip test.

Minimum trip test of a breaker will be demonstrated.

6. PNEUMATIC CIRCUIT OF 220KV BBC AIR BLAST BREAKER

TYPE DLF:

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6.1: Opening 0r Tripping:

1. By pressing opening push button (Local or remote) trip coil 3130 ( S2 )

or 3140 ( S3 ) energizes or both will energize, due to which valve M or
N opens or both of these valves will open. ( Local P.B operates trip coil
S3 and remote P.B operates both trip coils )

2. Through valve M/N compressed air comes under lower control valve
piston 3105 and pushes it upward, due to which lower control valve is
operated.

3. When lower control value operates then.

i. Its seat a closes to atmosphere and hence compressed air cannot go to

atmosphere.
ii. Its seat B opens.

4. Then through seat B Compressed air goes operate position indicator and
also air comes under control rod piston 1112 and pushes it upward,
which then operates upper control valve 5200.

5. When upper control valve operates then.

i. Its seat R Closes to atmosphere via exhaust cover and hence

compressed air cannot go to atmosphere.
ii. Its seat Q opens.

6. Through seat Q compressed air goes to:-

i. To driving mechanism 5400 of the interrupting chamber through control tube

5180 and

ii. Blast valve 5300.

7. i. In driving mechanism compressed air pushes piston disc 5428 and piston wall
5455 towards left side.

Moving contact is connected to piston wall via driving mechanism tube 5428;
exhaust valve 5420 is connected to piston disc. Therefore moving contact and exhaust
valve opens.

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 ii. At the same time blast valve also opens by the action of compressed air on
piston 5340 lower portion F because air enters in portion F rapidly through valve 5315
but enters slowly in its upper portion G via valve 5312.

Because of separation of moving contact from the fixed contact, arc is

produced. This arc ionizes compressed air and then ionized air is exhausted to
atmosphere through blast valve and exhaust valve, which is called extinction of arc in
air blast breaker. Thus we can say that both blast valve and exhaust valve extinguish
the arc.

8. Through a hole of piston disc 5428 volume C is gradually filled by compressed

air. When pressure reaches to a pre set value in volume C ventilating valve 5490
opens. Through this valve compressed air rushes in volume C and closes or resets
exhaust valve and opens the moving contact fully.

9 At the same time upper portion G of blast valve piston is filled by compressed
air and blast valve closes or resets by spring pressure.

Also the position indicator at this time will show C.B in open position.

6.2 Closing
1. By pressing closing push button, closing coil 3120 (S1) energizes due to
which valve P opens.

2. Through valve P Compressed air under lower control valve piston 3150
exhausted to atmosphere, hence piston comes down and lower control
valve resets.

3. When lower control valve resets then:-

i- Its seat B closes and shuts off compressed air supply to position indicator and
to control rod piston 1112.

ii- Its seat A opens.

4. Through seat A the compressed air from position indicator and from under the
control rod piston is ventilated to atmosphere through valve 3060. The control rod
comes down and hence upper control valve resets.

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5. When upper control valve rests, then:-

i. Its seat Q closes and shuts off compressed air supply to blast valve and
operating mechanism.

ii. Its seat R Opens.

6. Through seat R compressed air from (i) blast valve and (ii) operating mechanism
via control tube, comes under exhaust cover, lifts it up and exhausted to atmosphere.

7. i. When compressed air from the operating portions of driving mechanism is

exhausted to atmosphere through exhaust cover via seat R, Circuit breaker closes by
the action of compressed air in volume E and by spring 4552 pressure.

Sleeve 5451 and disc 5472 provides damping or cushioning action to moving
parts at the end of closing stroke in order to avoid damage to moving parts ( specially
elkonite tips).

ii .The blast valve opens for a very short time to blow out any arc produced during
closing of breaker by the action of compressed air on piston 5340 in portion F because
now compressed air is exhausted from this portion slowly and form portion G rapidly.

8. When blast valve portion F is also ventilated, it closes or resets by spring

pressure.

9. When all the air under exhaust cover is ventilated, it resets as well.

Position indicator will show circuit breaker closed at this time.

6.3 Refilling
1. When air pressure falls below certain pre- set value, a contact of multi pole
pressure switch 8800 in control cubical closes which complete circuit of
solenoid B, which then opens valve B1.

2. Through valve B1 compressed air from the upper portion of pressure reducing
valve 9500 is exhausted to atmospheres and hence pressure reducing valve
opens by the action of compressed air in its lower portion.

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 3. Then through pressure reducing valve compressed air from the centre tank
enters to the breaker tank via feed pipe 9450, air filter 9458 and non-return
valve 9468.

4. When air pressure in the breaker tank reaches to required level solenoid B
Supply is cut off by pressure switch, so valve B resets and seals its seat to
atmosphere. Due to this pressure developes in the upper portion of pressure
reducing valve, it re-closes by spring pressure and refilling stops.

5. Hydraulic circuit of 132kv BBC minimum oil breaker type Tr 170.12

In this diagram, the numbers represent following:

6210 Oil filter

6230 Motor pump
6280 Hand pump
6310 Non-Return Valve
6320 Pressure Relief Valve or Safety Valve. It operates at 370 5 bars
6350 Damping Element
6360 Pressure Switch
6370 Pressure Gauge
6650 Connecting Valve for calibration or for auxiliary accumulator, n=closing
oil,01= tripping coil.
6460 Tripping valve
6630 Drain valve
6620 Blocking valve for filling hydraulic system
6520 Exhaust accumulator
6600 Pressure Release Valve
6680 Return Piping R (Low Pressure)
6670 Control Piping S
6660 High Pressure Piping P
6500 Control Valve
6420 Self Retention orifice
6810 Auxiliary Switch

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6530 Auxiliary Switch Operating Cylinder
6540 Orifice for Auxiliary Switch Synchronization
6640 Blocking Valve for Separation of accumulator from high pressure system.
5340 Throttle orifice for pole synchronization
5300 Main Valve
5320 Blocking arrangement
5330 Throttle orifice for venting
5430 Accumulator
5410 Non-Return orifice
5200 Actuating Cylinder
7500 Main Tank of oil (Low pressure)
7510 Closing Pressure relief valve (N2 gas can escape through this valve in case of
leakage)

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7.1 Closing

1. Energization of closing coil n will open closing valve 6450.

2. Through closing valve 6450 high pressure oil enters in the pipe and operates
control valve. Control valve seat C1 closes and blocks the communication of
high pressure oil with low pressure pipes, control valve seat C2 opens.

3. Through control valve seat C2 High pressure oil enters in pipe S and operates
main valve. (This high pressures oil also operates auxiliary switch).

The main valve seat M1 closes and blocks communication of high pressure oil
with low pressure return pipe and the main valve seat M2 Opens.

4. Through main valve seat M2 high-pressure oil pushes the piston 5200 upward
and hence circuit breaker closes.

Through the sides of piston 5200 high pressure oil leaks and operates non-
return orifice 5410, which regulates the closing speed i.e. it provides damping action.

After the completion of closing operation, closing coil n will de-energize thus
closing valve 6450 closes or resets but control valve and main valve will remain in
operated position.

7.2 Tripping or opening

1. Energization of trip coil 01 will open tripping valve 6460.

2. Through tripping valve 6460 the high pressure oil operating the control valve
will be vented to low pressure return pipe and hence control valve will reset
i.e. (i) its seat C2 will close, shutting off high pressure oil supply and (ii) it seat
C1 will open.

3. Through seat C1 all the high pressure oil operating the main valve and
auxiliary switch drive will be vented to low pressure return tank, thus the main
valve and auxiliary switch will re-set.
4. i. The main valve seat M2 closes, shutting off high pressure oil supply to the
lower proton of driving piston 5200 and.
ii. The main valve seat M1 opens and through it all the pressure under piston
5200 and behind orifice 5410 is vented to low pressure return pipe.

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 Therefore the high pressure oil through sides of orifice 5410 brings piston
5200 downward and hence circuit breaker opens.

Orifice 5410 will also re-set or close.

8 Hydraulic Circuit Of 220kv Sf6 Breaker Type: Fa (Mg Grenoble France)

Diagram 1 shows C.B in position with no hydraulic pressure.

Diagram 2 shows C.B in open position with hydraulic mechanism pressurized.

8.1 closing:-

1. By pressing local or remote P.B closing coil is energized.

2. Due to this both valves 1 and 2 are pushed downward. Valve 2 closes
and blocks the communication of cylinder with low oil pressure and
valve 1 opens.

3. Through valve 1 high pressure oil opens valve 6 and comes on the top of
piston 11, pushing the piston downward.

Due to this:-

i. Valve 4 closes and blocks communication of cylinder with low

pressure oil and

ii. Value 3 opens.

4. Through valve 3 high pressure oil from system operates auxiliary

switches and pushes piston 9 towards right direction.

Note: PURPOSE OF FLOW LIMITERS:- If due to any reason

closing coil supply is cut off, valve 1 will close to shut off high pressure
oil supply to piston but closing will be continued due to high pressure
oil already there for operation of piston 11 and 9 as oil from 2 flow
limiters flows at limited rate. Therefore, it can be said that the 2 flow
limiters provide hydraulic seal-in.

5. Due to movement of piston 9 towards right direction, drain valve 8

closes further (it is already closed) blocking communication of high
pressure oil with low pressure oil tank and valve 7 opens.

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6. Through value 7:-
i. The energy stored in the accumulator will push oil to move piston
10 upward to close the circuit breaker and charging the tripping
spring, and

ii. Making pressure equal on both sides of piston 9, so piston 11

returns to its original position (as in diagram 2) by spring
pressure.

Oil under piston 10 will hold it in upward position and thus keeps
the breaker closed.

7. At the end of closing operation, closing coil supply will be cut off, so
valve 1 will close to cutoff high pressure oil supply and valve 2 will
open.

Through valve 2, pressurized oil will folw to low pressure tank and
hence valve 6 will close, all the pressurized oil now on left side of valve
6 will flow to low pressure tank.

Valve 3 and 4 will remain in operated position.

8.2: OPENING OR TRIPPING

1. By pressing local or remote P.B trip coil will energize.

2. Due to this valve 5 will open and through it pressurized oil form the top
of piston 11 will flow with low pressure tank, hence piston 11 moves
upward i.e resets.

3. Due to this (i) valve 3 will close shutting off pressurized oil supply and
(ii) valve 4 opens.

4. Through valve 4 pressurized oil from auxiliary switches piston and from
the left side of piston 9 will be evacuated (high pressure oil will also be
evacuated through valve 5).

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 5. So due to high pressure on its right side piston 9 will move towards left
side and hence valve 7 will further close (it is already closed) and valve
8 will open.

6. Through valve 8 all the pressurized oil under piston 10 will flow to low
pressure tank, so piston 10 comes downward and hence breaker will
open by spring pressure.

7. Now there will be no pressure on both sides of piston 9, so it will reset

by spring pressure and hence valve 8, will close.

At the end of tripping, trip coil will de-energize and so valve 5 will
close.

FUNCTION OF ACCUMULATOR (N2 gas cylinder):It stores energy

like spring and then this energy is used for closing of breaker.

9. VISICOREDER TESTING OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

9.1. PURPOSES:

1. To record operating times of beakers.

2. To detect synchronism problem among the contacts of same phase of an air blast
breaker or between phases of breakers.

9.2 Procedure
1. Isolate and de-energize the breaker according to P.T.W.

Note:
Portable temporary grounds are put on both sides of C.B. but during testing
one side grounds must be disconnected.

2. a. Connect power supply cable to control box and make power supply
connection between control box and visicorder.

b. press power line/ power lamps push buttons to apply power to magnetic
banks, transformers, cooling fans and recording lamps etc. This is necessary to warm
up the test set well before taking test because galvanometers operated at temperature
below 490 C or 1200F will not give flat frequency response.

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3. Take a blank paper and draw breaker contacts diagram on it according to their
physical location. Then show channel connections to contacts but remembering that
channel no. 1 & 2 must be used and must be connected to those contacts which
indicate the actual position of breaker.

Note:
Visicorder works through channel no.1 & 2 and performs various important functions
through channel no.1 & 2 likes cutting of paper supply after completion of operation,
to perform CO/OCO operations satisfactorily and to block any wrong operation
selected.

4. Take an other blank paper and show on it expected chart for closing / opening.
Channel no.28 which indicates tripping coil / closing coil energization period
must be on top of the paper. For this push button marked channel 28 must be
pressed.

NOTE:

Channel No 25 which records 120HZ reference timing signal must be on bottom

of paper. Use of channel no.25 for this purpose is an option because times can
be calculated from paper drive speed very accurately. If channel no.25 is to be
used for this purpose then push button marked channel 25 on control box must
be pressed.

5. Do following connections between control box and visicorder.

i. Four cables for 28 channels.

ii. One cable for local / remote and put local/ remote switch on remote
position.

6. Do following connections between control box and circuit breaker:

i. Channels which are indicated in step number 3.

Red lead for odd channels, white lead for even channels and green lead for
common.

ii. Connections to trip coil / closing coil and to positive of battery.

193
7. Connect ground lead between control box and station ground.

8. KEEP TRACE INTENSITY CONTROL KNOB ON MID. For faster drive

paper speed rotate it towards clock- wise and for slower drive paper speed
rotate it towards counter clock-wise.

9. Select paper drive speed according to type of breaker.

For O.C.Bs recommended speed is 10-20 inch per second. For sequence type
air blast breaker recommended speed is 20- 40 inch per second. For modern air
blast breakers recommended speed is 60-80 inch per second.

For selection of speed atleast one speed per inch P.B and one multiplier P.B
must be pressed to operate the paper drive.

10. For spacing between timing lines or vertical lines, a time mode switch is
provided. When this switch is on manual position, then timing lines interval
can be set by pressing the timer second P.B (marked 0.01, 0.1 and 10). When
timer mode switch is on auto position then time is automatically selected in
accordance with paper drive speed. In this case there is no need to press timer
second P.B. the intensity of timing lines can be controlled by grid intensity
control knob in same manner as that of trace by trace intensity control knob.

NOTE

With the help of timing lines spacing various operating times can be
determined. But operating times can be determined very accurately by paper
driver speed. So step no. 10 is also an option.

11. Check amount of paper in cradle and insert new roll, if needed.

12. By inserting a small screw driver into the slots provided on top of each
galvanometer bring the required channels to line on paper at suitable spacing
according to the sequence given to them on expected chart and remove those
channels from paper which are not in use.

194
13. Select the auxiliary resistance on control box matching to the resistance
connected across breaker contacts. If breaker has both closing as well as
tripping resistors then select their mid value.

14. Press the power P.B on control box. The power lamp and ready P.B must light.

15. Press paper drive P.B.

16. Select desired breaker operation on control box.

17. Sound breaker noise warning in case of ABBS only.

18. Push ready P.B on control box.

19. Select next breaker operation and repeat until all tests are completed.

NOTE

After each test press ground P.B to avoid any damage to electronic components
due to pickup in leads by induction.

20. Interpret the charts obtained to know about breaker performance.

NOTE

The record on paper develops on day light. On a dull day it may take up to 1
minute to develop. On bright day it will develop in few seconds.

Sun light should never be allowed to fall directly on paper. In strong sun light
the best record is obtained by taking the paper straight from the machine and
turning its face down on a table for few minutes.

Photo copies of this paper can be made. The recording paper is sensitive to heat
and light, so it must be stored in dark and cold place.

VISICORDER TEST WILL BE DEMONSTRATED.

PRACTICAL PROJECT

TOPIC: CIRCUIT BREAKERS

OBJETIVE: On D.B.G Air Blast Breaker:-

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 1. Perform Visi corder Test on Phase A.

2. From the chart Obtained calculate:-

i. Minimum time to trip.
ii. Maximum variation of Opening time and
iii. Minimum close time.

10. MICRO-OHM-METER TESTING OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

10.1 PURPOSES:
1. To know about circuit breaker contacts condition.
2. To know about gaskets/springs for contact grip condition.
10.2: PROCEDURE/ INTERPRETATION

In this test atleast 100 Amp current at small voltage is given to circuit breaker (breaker
being closed) through Micro- Ohm-meter test set and resistance reading is recorded.
Then this reading is compared with previous readings or with the readings provided
by manufacturer. If there is increase in reading then circuit breaker interrupter must be
dismantled for maintenance of contacts, for checking of gaskets condition and for
checking of springs for contact grip etc

DEMONSTRATION OF MICRO-OHM-METER TESTING WILL BE MADE.

PRACTICAL PROJECT

TOPIC: CIRCUIT BREAKERS PROJECT NO.

OBJECTIVE:

On D.B.G Air Blast Breaker perform Micro-Ohm-Meter Test and record readings. Do
you think readings acceptable?

IX. MODULE ON TRANSFORMERS

Main Objectives: After completion of this module, trainee will be able to do the
following:

196
 1- To perform various tests like: Megger,

C&DF and Ratio Test on Transformer to know about its condition

and to maintain it properly

2- To Test/ Calibrate Buchholz’s Relay.

3- To maintain Transformer’s Cooling System.

IX. TRANSFORMERS

On a given 132kv bushing perform:-

1. Overall C&DF test.

2. Hot collar C&DF test.

3. Record readings and interpret the result.

XIII. MODULE ON POWER CABLES

MAIN OBJECTIVES:- After completion of this module trainee will be able to do

the following

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 1. To know main parts of cable and to understand shielding
purpose / shield grounding.

2. To perform various tests like. Continuity, megger Hi- pot and

capacitance on cable to know about cable condition and to
maintain cable properly.

3. To know important points about inspection / maintenance of

cables.

XIII POWER CABLES

1. MAIN PARTS OF CABLE

There are four main parts of cable:-

1. conductor

2. insulation

3. shield or sheath

4. protective covering.

2. SHIELD OR SHIELDING

2.1 Definition:-

The application of conducting (copper etc) and semiconducting (metabolized paper

tap or containing carbon or silicon etc) materials over the conductor insulation
is called shielding.

2.2 Purposes Of Shielding / Shield Grounding :

The main purpose of shield is to keep even voltage gradient across the
insulation in order to avoid damage to insulation by corona or ionization.
Now the shield may have induced voltages in it, so shield must be grounded in
order to discharge these induced voltages. When shield is ground it provides some
more advantages as well which are:-

1. Provides earth return path in case of phase to ground fault.

2. Human safety

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 3. To protect the cable from external voltages such as produced by
lightening etc.

Shield must be grounded at one place only (specially in single phase cable) in
order to avoid flow of current in shield and hence damage to it due to
overheating. Shielding idea was given by martin hochsadter in 1915. He gave
idea that put shield around the conductor of each phase and then ground all
shields. Such cable are H-cables. Such cable fails phase to ground. In these
cables it is very rare that cable may fail phase to phase.

In a very long cable, sectionalized are used. In sectionalized shield each

section is insulated from each other and then each section is grounded at one
place only.
Demonstration of shield current will be made when cable shield is grounded at
two places.

3. Identification of cable terminals or fault location tests:-

These tests be performed in following sequence:-

1. Insulation resistance test by megger at both ends.
2. Continuity test by ohmmeter at both ends.
3. If these tests indicate fault, then find the location of fault of fault by
visual inspection if location of fault cannot be found, then:-
4. Perform capacitance test for finding the location of open circuit fault.
5. Perform Hi- pot test to extend the minor fault to know its location.
4.1 MOISTURE TEST ON CABLE

For checking moisture in cable insulation proceed as following:-

Heat cable oil (or T/F oil) up to 125C, remove a small piece of insulation from
cable and put it in heated oil. Bubbles or froth appearing on insulation will indicate the
presence of moisture in cable insulation.

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 For assurance that no moisture is present, take another moisture free sample
atleast one foot apart from first sample.

4.2 INSULATION RESISTANCE TEST BY MEGGER

For cable testing 1000V or 5000V megger having a range atleast upto 2000 M
Ohm must be used.

4.2 Purooses

1. To know about cable condition ( 1 M Ohm reading per Kv at 20 C is

considered satisfactory. )

2. For detecting short circuit faults in cable.

3. For finding location of fault if and only if there is open circuit fault.

4.2.2: Procedure

1. About Megger

i. Megger leads must be in good condition.

ii. Accuracy of megger must be checked by performing zero and

infinity tests.

iii. During test do not touch guard terminal of megger and beat
megger leads etc. also do not press megger leads under feet.

2. Isolate and de-energize the cable according to P.T.W.

3. Disconnect cable from all equipment at both ends.

4. Make sure that cable shield is grounded at one plate only.

5. Identify cable terminals at both ends by continuity test, if not already identified
or marked.

6. Note cable shield temperature because Ri readings are corrected to 20C.

200
7. The end where test is not carried out, cable terminals or phases must be
separated from each other and from shied to a suitable distance.

8. Take 6 readings:- R-Y, Y-B, B-R, R-S, Y-S, and B-S.

For reading R-Y:- connect H or / line or + terminal of megger to red phase of

cable, connect E or earth terminal of magger was connected (in this case R
phase conductor). Then crank the megger until its needs stablizes and note
reading.

9. After the test discharge and ground the conductor to which H terminal of
megger was connected (in this case R phase conductor) to avoid electric shock
hazard because cable is a charged capacitor and it may have adsorbed energy
due to dielectric absorption phenomenon.

NOTE

On a faulty cable megger test must be performed at both ends because of following
reason:-

In the diagram shown, magger reading for Y-B test will be O.K. at end A. But
when test will be performed at end C, then fault will be indicated.

4.2.3 INTERPRETATIONS OF RESULT I.E LOCATION OF FAULT BY RI

READING:
Ri1/L i.e Ri decteases with increase of cable length and Ri2 1/L2
OrRi1= Ri2 L2
If initially Ri = 100 M ohm, l1 = 300 meter.
During fault Ri2 =600M.ohm
Then L2 =100300/600=50 meter.
i.e fault will be at a distance of 50 meter.
4.3 HI- POT TESTING OF CABLE:

Hi-pot test should not be carried out if Ri – readings taken with megger are not
satisfactory.

4.3.1 Purposes

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1. For faulty cable when location of fault cannot be found by
other means or tests then Hi- pot test is carried out to extend or break the fault for
visible sifns. In this test voltage is increased gradually until breakdown occurs.

2. For new and repaired Hi-pot test is carried out to pass the
cable for energizartion.

3. In general Hi-pot test is a voltage withstand test in which a

specific high voltage is applied to an insulation for a specified time and if the
insulation with stands that high voltage for that time then insulation is O.K and can
be put in service safely.

4.3.2 procedure / precautions

1. Isolate and de- energize the cable according to P.T.W.

2. Disconnect cable from all equipment at both ends and ground those
equipment solidly.

3. Put adequate barrier along with warning signs around both ends of cable
to protect other persons from danger of high voltage. Also depute a safety man
to stand and watch other persons not to cross the barrier.

4. All the conductors at the end where test is not performed must be left
separated from each other and from shield to suitable clearances.

5. Make sure that cable shield is grounded and is grounded at one place
only.

6. Ground all other conductors which are not under test.

For all H- cables,

Only one test RYB-S

As shown in Fig. Is necessary.

For other cables three

Tests i.e R-YBS, Y-BRS

And B-RYS must be performed.

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7. Select the test voltage and the time upto which voltage will be applied
from tables according to cable rated voltage.

The voltage incable ate for cable temperature of 25C. if cable temperature is
above 20C then reduce the voltage by factor given in table is above in table.

For low voltage cables reduce the test voltage by factor F, given in the table.

Make connections between the instrument and cable according to the test to be
performed as explained in a step No.6. Turn the Hi- pot set on allow the set to warm
up for about one minute, raise the voltage gradually upto the voltage as selected in
step no 7. During test, the test cables must never be touched and pressed under feet.
Voltage should be kept applied upto the specific time as described in step No.7.

After the specified time is over, turn the Hi- pot set off.

After completion of test, solidly ground the tested conductor for about half
hour with a ground stick so that it may be discharged and released the energy which it
has absorbed due to di- electric absorption phenomenon. Remove warning signs and
barrier etc.

4.4 CONTINUITY TEST BY OWN METER

4.4.1:- PURPOSES

1. To trace out open circuit fault in cable conductor.

2. To identify cable phases or terminals as explained in topic No.3.

4.4.2 procedure for location of open circuit fault of cable conductor

1. Isolate and de-energize the cable according to P.T.W.

2. Disconnect cable from all equipment.

3. Connect all terminals of cable at one end together a.w.shield as

shown in fig. 1.

4. Then at the other end check continuity between each phase and
between each phase and shield by ohmmeter i.e check continuity
from R-Y, R-B, R-S, Y-B, Y-S and B-S.

203
NOTE

When locating fault, continuity test must be performed at both ends A, no fault
will be indicated. But when test is performed from end C as shown in Fig.2, then there
will be no continuity from R-B,Y-B and hence existence of fault will be indicated.

4.5 CAPACITANCE TEST

4.5.1 Purposes

1. for new cables capacitance test is performed to frame readings for future
reference when locating the exact location of open circuit fault in a cable
to avoid digging work.
2. For faulty canles capacitance test is performed to locate the exact
location of open circuit fault to avoid digging work, when there is no
visible of fault.
Note
For the capacitance test to be more effective at least one conductor must show
high Ri reading with other conductor or with shield. If all the conductors are
shorted together and to the shield then capacitance test is useless.

If Ri reading is less than 0.1 mega ohm then capacitance test should not be
performed because in this case capacitance value cannot be measured.

4.5.2 Procedure:

1. Isolate and de-energize cable according to P.T.W.

2. Disconnect cable from all equipment.

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 3. All the conductors at the end where test is not performed should be left
separated from each other and from shield to a suitable distance.

4. Make sure that cable shield is solidly grounded and grounded at one
place only.

5. for three phase cable, following 12 readings are taken:-

R-Y, R-B, R-S Y-B, Y-S, B-S,

R-YB, Y-RB, B-RY, R-YBS, Y-BRS, and B-RYS.

1ST six reading must be taken. The other six readings are taken only to
verify the first six readings.

6 perform test according to instrument instruction book.

NOTE

The conductors which are not under test must be left open circuited.

4.5.3: Interpretation of results I.E location of fault distance.

CL

C1 L1, C2L2

or

C1/C2, L1/L2 or L2= C2 L1/ C1.

Example

Let C1 is capacitance reading during installation test from end a for Y-

B=20PF ,

205
 L1= length of cable from end A to C = 50 meter.

Let during fault C2 = 12PF for Y-B from end A.

Then L2= 12 = 30 meters

So fault is at a distance of 30 meter from end A

IMPORTANT POINT ABOUT INSPECTION MAINTENANCE OF CABLES

If cable is installed correctly it is supposed to give no trouble. However with
aging over loading, overheating, vibrations and temperature variations etc. some
troubles may appear in it which can be removed easily and with less expenses if a
little attention is given to cable in regular intervals. This is called PREVENTIVE
MAINTENANCE OF CABLES which means catch and correct cable minor faults
before they develop and cause cable breakdown.

Cable maintenance includes:-

1. Performing maintenance tests yearly.

2. checking of shield ground connection / corrosion / breakage of shield

yearly.

3. Checking of corrosion and cracks etc. in protective covering of cable

yearly.

In protective covering corrosion is identified by cracks or pit cracks or

red, green and yellow deposits etc. if a crack is found then clean
protective cover, remove it and fill it with epoxy resin and then wrap
PVC cover around it because PVC is moisture and corrosion resistant.
This is called repair of a cable by using sacrificed pad.

In steel armoire cable to avoid rust clean and dry it and then coat
it with asphalt roof coating or paint it with aluminum paint.

QUESTIONS

Q1. The capacitance reading (R-S) of a 30 meter long cable at the time of
installation was found to be 200 PF from end A. then during fault

206
 reading for R-S was measured to be 120 PF from end A. find distance of
fault?

Q2. What is purpose of Hi- pot test for a new repaired and faulty cable?

Q3. What is main purpose of shielding?

PRACTICAL PROJECT

TOPIC:- POWER CABLE TESTING PROJECT NO 1

OBJECTIVE:- On given 3 phase 11kv cable perform continuity test by

ohmmeter for terminals or phase identification.

PRACTICAL PROJECT
TOPIC:- POWER CABLE TESTING PROJECT NO 2

OBJECTIVE:- On a 3-phase, 11kv canle perform megger test record readings

and aculeate results.

PRACTICAL PROJECT

TOPIC:- POWER CABLE TESTING PROJECT NO 3

OBJECTIVE:- on a given 3-phase 11kv vable practice Hi-pot test.

Caution:-

After test ground cable conductor with grounding stick atleast for 10 minutes.

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XIV. MODULE ON STATION BATTERIES
MAIN OBJECTIVES:- after completion of this module, trains will be able to so the
followings.

 To properly maintain lead acid batteries and to recognize battery deterioration.

 To maintain alkaline batteries.

XIV.STATION BATTERIES

TYPES OF BATTERIES

Two types of batteries i.e (i) lead acid batteries and (ii) alkaline batteries are
used in grid stations. But lead acid batteries are most commonly used in grid stations.

1.LEAD ACID BATTERIES

1.1 MAIN PARTS OF LEAD ACID BATTERY

The main parts of lead acid battery are plates, separator, electrolyte and
container.

1.2 TYPES OF LEAD ACID BATTERY:-

There are three types of lead acid battery are plates, (i) lead antimony batteries
(ii) lead planti battery and (iii) lead calcium battery.

But mostly lead antimony batteries are used in grid station because these
batteries are suitable for cycling i.e for frequent charging / discharging and also these
batteries are less expensive.

1.3: SPECIFIC GRAVITY (S.G) OF LEAD ACID BATTERIES:

S.G = density of subsance/density of water = weight of substance / weight of

equal volume of water.

1.3.1:S.G of water = 1, S.G of concentrated H2SO4 =1.834 and S.G of all lead acid
batteries used in grid stations is from 1.200 to 1.220 at 77F or 25C electrolyte
temperature.

S.G of all lead acid batteries used in grid stations is from 1.200 to 1.220 at 77F
or 25C electrolyte temperature.

208
 The specific gravity of new lead acid batteries must be in the ange of 1200 to
1220 at 77F. Generally the S.G of a new battery slightly increases from its initial
vales for first few year (2 year) and then gradually decreases till its and of life.

1.3.2: Adjustments in S.G of New batteries:-

when a battery is newly received slight adjustment in its S.G may be made as
follows:-

To increase S.G remove electrolyte and add acid / electrolyte of gravity 1200 to
1350.

To decrease S.G remove small amount of electrolyte from battery and add
distilled water.

Note that it is the only time when acid / electrolyte is added or electrolyte is
removed. In no other time acid is to be added or electrolyte is to be removed / added.
IN ALL OTHER TMES ADD ONLY DISTILLED WATER.

When preparing new electrolyte, ALWAYS ADD LITTLE QUANTITY OF

ACID IN LARGE QUANTITY OF WATER. NEVER ADD WATER IN THE ACID.

1.3.3: HOW TO TAKE S.G READING WITH HYDRO METER:-

S.G reading of battery is taken with hydro meter. When taking S.G reading
with hydro meter its bulb should be squeezed gently but fully several times before
taking sample i.e it should be clean and dry. The float of hydro meter should not touch
the sides of meter. The correct reading is the line of contact of electrolyte with the
stem of float.

The electrolyte taken from a cell must be returned to same cell.

S.G should not be taken if there is gassing and atleast two hours should be elapsed
when water was added in order to give time that waer has been mixed with the
electrolyte completely.

Each time when S.G reading is taken if a cell, electrolyte level must be same in
it

209
1.3.4: Temperature effect on S.G

S.G varies with temperature inversely at the rate of 1 point for every 3F.
Hence specific gravity reading must be contacted to 77F electrolyte temperature.

EXAMPLE:

S.G at 95F is 12224. What is its corrected value?

SOLUTION

Change in temperature = 95 –77 =18F

So change in S.G ==6 points.

Therefore S.G at 77F = 1224 + 6 = 1230

EXAMPLE:

S.G at 59F 1236. What is its corrected value?

SOLUTION

Change in temperature =77- 59 = 18F

So change in S.G ==6

Therefore S.G at 77F 1236 – 6 = 1230

1.3.5: Importance of S.G In Lead Acid Batteries:-

1. S.G indicates the state of charge of battery i.e it indicates that the battery
is fully charged or not.

2. S.G tells when to put battery / cell on equalize or boost charging.

3. S.G tells hat whether battery will deliver it full rated ampere hour
capacity or not.

4. Freezing point of electrolyte varies inversely with S.G.

5. S.G tells about the condition/ life of battery/ cell.

6. If S.G of any is found out of rang from 1190 to 1235 at 77F electrolyte
temperature, it must be reported.

210
 NOTE

When any cell is suspected to be very poor then remove it from the battery,
fully charge it, note its S.G and then leave it open circuited for 30 days. After
30 days, check its S.G. If its S.G has dropped more than 25 points then this cell
must be discarded.

1.4: TERMINAL VOLTAGE OR NOMINAL VOLTAGE:-

The terminal voltage of a fully charged lead antimony battery at open circuit is
2.15 v/cell.

The terminal voltage of a fully charged lead planti and lead calcium batteries at
open circuit is 2.17 v/ cell.

Therefore the terminal voltage of 100 cells lead antimony battery will be
2.15100=215 volts and the terminal voltage of 100 cells lead calcium / lead planti
battery will be 2.17 100 = 217 volts.

Voltage of a good condition battery also varies with S.G. voltage increases
slightly when S.G increases.

NOTE:- voltage also tells about the state of charge of battery but the voltage
itself depends upon S.G. hence voltage is not an effective mean for determining the
state of charge of lead acid batteries. But S.G. IS AN EFFECTIVE THE STATE OF
CHARGE OF LEAD ACID BATTERIES.

1.5: pilot cell:-

The poorest cell in the battery is called pilot cell. It has lowest S.G. lowest
voltage and more sediment at bottom etc.

Advantages of having a pilot cell/ cells in a battery are:-

i. It tells about the state of charge and condition of whole battery.

ii. It minimizes the labor and helps to maintain batter continuity of records.
The electrolyte level of pilot cell must be maintained on full matk al the
times.
The pilot cell/ cells must be identified in the battery.

211
1.6: DAMAGE CELL REPLACEMENT BY PARALLEL CELL METHOD:

The most effective mean to replace a defective cell in a battery is parallel cell
method. In this method 6,8 or 12 volt battery is connected across the number of cells
of battery, containing damage cell, whose total voltage is same as that of battery
connected in parallel.

Procedure:

i. Connect 12v or required voltage battery to the station battery cell

according to correct polarity. Before making the final connection check
voltage between the two with D.C voltmeter. This voltage must be
neatly zero. This is necessary to avoid any sparking etc. Then complete
connections

ii. Remove defective cell

iii. Put new cell in its place and

iv. Disconnect 12v battery.

REPLACEMENT OF DAMAGED CELL BY PARALLEL CLL MATHOD

WILL BE DEMONSTATED.

PRACTICAL PROJECT

TOPIC: STATION BATTERIES PROJECT NO .1

OBJECTIVE:- on 27 no. given cells (9 batteries):-

i. Take specific gravity and voltage readings.

ii. From above readings select pilot cell.

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PRACTICAL PROJECT
Topic:- STATION BATTERIES PROJECT NO.2

OBJECTIVE:- In the substation workshop battery:- practice

replacement of damage cell by the method of parallel cell method using 24
volts battery.

7.1: FLOAT CHARGING OR TRICKLE CHARGINR

Batteries are genially kept on float voltage which is equal to the nominal
voltage of battery.

For lead antimony batteries float voltage is 2.15 volts/ cell and for lead plant /
lead calcium batteries float voltage is 2.17 volts / cell.

This voltage is sufficient to maintain the 3.0 m most of the cells at fully
charged state.

Float voltage must be as accurate to its calculated value as possible because

very smell changes in float voltage causes considerable increase / decrease in charging
current and hence causing OVER CHARGING / UNDER CHARGING OF
BATTERY WHICH ARE THE MAIN TWO FACTORS OF REDUCING BATTERY
LIFE.

Consider a 60 cells lead antimony battery let the internal resistance of battery is
0.06 ohms. Then:-

Calculated nominal voltage of battary 602.15 129 volts.

Let float voltage of battery 130 volts.

So normal charging current of battery = (130-129) / 0.06=6 Amp

Now let us consider cases when float voltage is more/less than the nominal
float voltage and its causes:-

(130.5  130)
* 100  0.4%
% increase in voltage = ( 130 )

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 New charging current = (130.5-129)/0.06 = 25 Amp.

( 25.16)
% age increase in charging current = 100= 36%
16

suppose float voltage is reduced to 129.5 volts

130  129.5
Then % decrease in voltage = 100=0.4%
130

129.5  129
New charging current = = 8 Amp.
0.06

16  8
%decrease in current = 100=50%
16

from the above two examples. It is obvious that very minor changes in float
voltage causes very high changes in charging current resulting in considerable over
charging and under charging of battery. Therefore float voltage must be kept as
accurate to its calculated value as possible.

FLOAT VOLTAGE OF BATTER is adjusted by current limiting resistors

provided to the rectifier. But for this panel volt meter should not be relied upon. For
this accurate volt meter should be used and then panel volt meter should be celebrated
by marking line on that the various voltage in accordance reading of accurate volt
meter. 5 serially for float voltage line must be marked in panel volt meter.

1.8 CAUSES OF OVER CHAREING

Over charging result when float voltage of battery is more than its
calculated value. The main causes of overcharging are:-

1. scrubbing of active material from pleas by oxygen gas and acid fumes / acid.

2. Corrosion of +ive plates due to oxygen and damage to –ive plates and
separators due to acid.

3. Buckling i.e turning of +ive plates which may damage separators resulting in
whole circuit of battery etc.

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1.8.1: INDICATIONS

1. buckling of +ive plates (or both plates)

2. low electrolyte level.

3. Corrosion of terminals (specially on +ive plates side)

4. High s.e. and low voltage.

5. Cracking of +ive plate frame and disintegration of +ive plate grid.

6. Dark chocolate color on positive plates.

7. Sediments at bottom of all cells.

1.9: CAUSES OF UNDER CHARGING:

Under charging result when float voltage of battery is less than its calculated
vale. A battery operation under charged for a long time causes following:

1 Sulphation – ive plates mainly (i.e appearance of white powder on – ive

plates:)

2 Reduction in Amp – hour capacity of battery.

3 Rise in freaking point due to low s.G.

1.9.1:INDICATIONS:

1. Sulphation and

2. Low S.G and voltage.

1.10: EQUALIZE CHARGING OR BOOTS CHARGING

1.10.1:PURPOSES:

In equalize charging battery is over charged for a certain period for following
purposes:-

1. To ensure that S.G and voltage of each cell will be raised to their
maximum value.
2. To ensure that every cell will gas free at equal rate.
3. To ensure that every plate in each cell will be fully charged.

215
1.10.2: WHEN TO PUT LEAD ACID BATTERY ON EQUALIZE CHARGING:

1. For lead antimony battery : After every 3 months for lead planti / lead
calcium batteries:- after every 6 months.

2. Whenever there is indication of under charging i.e indication of

sulphation or white power on plates.

3. When the voltage difference between the highest voltage cell and the
lowest voltage cell (or pilot cell) is more than 0.05 volts.

4. When the S.G reading difference between the present value and present
value and previous value of pilot cell is more than 10 points.

5. When battery has performed heavy discharge duty.

6. After the prolong failure of charger (i.e rectifier).

1.10.3:EQUALIZE VOLTAGE FOR ALL LEAD ACID BATTERIES IS 2.33

VOLTS/CELL

FOR EXAMPLE:-

For 60 cells battery equalize voltage will be 60 2.33 = 139.8 volts.

1.10.4:PROCEDURE

Add distilled water in all cells to the maximum mark level, count number of
cells and calculate equalize voltage for them. Then put battery on equalize charging
for 24 hours.

Sometimes pilot cell or any other cell may be so badly deteriorated that it will
take long time for charging and it may affect the life of other cells must be removed
from the battery and charged separately.
CAUTION
During equalize charging there is too much gassing and hence explosive hazard
will always be present near the cells vent. So adequate ventilation of battery room
must be there and no flame etc. be brought near cell vent. Moreover tightening and
interconnections work should not be done during this time as it may produce spark
resulting in explosion.

216
NOTE:

1. No electrolyte should be removed from any cell because of excessive gassing.

2. Pannel voltmeter must be calibrated for equalize charge voltage in similar way
as that for float charge voltage.

3. A battery may be charged at any cell temperature does not exceed 110F,
current rating of rectifier is not exceeded and there is not excessive gassing.

1.11: FRESHENING CHARGE:

Freshening charge is given to that battery which is received newly or which has
remained inactive for long period.

1.11.1:PURPOSES:

1. TO frame initial maximum S.G and voltage readings of each cel for
future reference.

2. To choose pilot cell

3. To fully charge all cells after long shipping or inactive period.

1.11.2: voltage for freshening charge is same as that for equalize charging i.e 2.33
volts per cell

1.11.3:PROCEDURE

Procedure for freshening charge is same as that for equalize charging but
freshening charge is continued up to 73 hours with a break of half hour after every 24
hours.

After 73 hours battery is put on float charge. Then after 24 hour S.G and
voltage reading of each cell is taken and recorded. From these readings pilot cell / cell
is chooses. These are the maximum initial S.G and voltage readings for future
reference. Them if during service S.G of any cell is found outside the range of 1190 to
1235, when corrected to 77 F electrolyte temperature, should be reported.

Precautions during freshening charging are same as those for equalize

charging .

217
1.12: CAPACITY OF LEAD ACID BATTERIES:

Capacity of battery is made in Ampere hours, mostly at 8 Hr rate.

Capacity of battery is defined as the product of current which it will deliver to

discharge each cell to 1.75 volts (for pilot cell 1.7 volts) and the time for which it will
deliver that current in doing so, keeping electrolyte temperature at 775.

100 A.H battery can deliver 12.5 A for 8 hours, 25 A for 4 Hours and 100A for
1hour without reducing the voltage of each cell less than 1.75 V.

The battery may be discharge rate are the current capacity of terminals inter
connections and conductors etc.

1.12:2: TEMPERATURE EFFCT ON CAPACITY OF BATTERY

Capacity of battery is directly proportional to temperature i.e it increases with

the increase of temperature and decreases with the decrease of temperature. Following
table shows the effect of temperature on capacity of battery:-

Temperature in F Capacity
110 115%
100 112%
90 106%
77 100%
70 95%
60 90%
50 85%

1.12.3:CAPACITY TEST

1. PURPOSE:

218
 The main purpose of capacity test is to know about the condition of a
battery / cell.

Initially capacity of an new battery is 85% of its rated value. After first
two years of service it increases to 100% and then gradually decrease with
age till the end of battery life.

When capacity of battery becomes less than 75% of its rated value at
77F electrolyte temperature then the battery life ends and battery is
replaced.

2.PROCEDURE:

I. Top up electrolyte level in all cells to the maximum marked level.

II. Put battery on equalize charge for 24 hours.

III. Calculate load for 8 hours discharge rate or for any other suitable
discharge rate.

NOTE : If temperature of electrolyte is not 77F is then either adjust hours

or current according to table 1 (or curves if provided) for that temperature.

IV. After equalize charging put battery on discharge through calculated

load.

V. Take voltage reading of each cell hourly. If during the test voltage of
any cell drops below 1.75v before time (in this case before 6 hours),
jumper that cell.

NOTE: In field generally capacity test once in year is performed as follows:

Rectifier is put off and a small load is put on battery. Battery must maintain
approximately constant voltage across the load.

1.13: MAINTENANCE OF LEAD ACID BATTERIES

WEEKLY:

219
 For all batteries:- check electrolyte level of pilot cell.

MONTHLY:- For all batteries:-

1. Calibrate voltmeter for float charging.

2. Check S.G and voltage of pilot cell and put battery on equalize charge if
necessary.

3. Visually inspect all cells.

4. Top up electrolyte level in all cells.

5. Record D.C system voltage.

6. Clean cell / cells, if necessary.

Quarterly : For Lead Antimony And Half Yearly For Lead Plantti / Lead Calcium :

1. Do M1

2. Put battery on equalize charge for 24 hours after calibrating the pannel
voltmeter for equalize charge voltage.

3. Clean and dry all cells;

YEARLY:-FOR ALL BATTERIES:

1. Tight all connections to proper torque by torque wrench.

2. Calibrate pannel voltmeter for float/ equalize charge voltage

3. Top up electrolyte level in all cells and put battery on equalize charge for 24
hours.

4. Put battery on float charging after completion of equalize charging, then

5. After 24 hours take S.G and voltage readings of all cells and choose pilot cell/
cells for next year.
6. Thoroughly clean and dry all cells and apply oxide inhibiting compound on
terminals. For cleaning use baking soda.
7. Paint metallic parts with acid resistance paint if necessary.
1.14: SAFETY

220
1. Approved rubber gloves, apron, goggles and boots must be worn during battery
maintenance.

2. Do not smoke in battery room.

3. Put exhaust fan on before entering into the battery room.

4. Floor of batter room must be kept clean, dry and free of grease and oils etc. to
avoid slipping.

5. During equalize/ freshening charging:-

6. When preparing electrolyte always add small quantity of acid to large quantity
of water. Never add water to acid.

QUESTIONS

1. S.G reading of a lead acid battery cell measured at 89F is 1210. It is a good
cell? Explain.

2. S.G of a lead acid cell is 1204 at 56F. what is the condition of this cell?

3. How the capacity of a lead acid cell, whose capacity is not known, can be
found?

4. What:-

i. Float voltage and

ii. Equalize charge voltage for 105 cells of lead acid antimony and lead
acid calcium batteries?

ALKALINE BATTERIES

The main points about alkaline batteries are:-

TYPES:-
1. Edison (Ni-Fe),
2. Ni-Cad (USA), Ni-Cad (NIFE British)
Nominal float voltage for these are 1.40 v/cell for low current batteries and
1.44v/cell for high current battery.

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 3. SAFT BATTERIES:- these are sealed altogether but some may spring
loaded valve for releasing pressure in case of excessive over charging to
avoid damage to battery.

2.2:SPECIFIC GRAVITY:

The electrolyte of these batteries is solution of potassium hydroxide (caustic

soda) and water.

Specific gravity of these batteries is from 1150 to 1200 at 68F or 20C

electrolyte temperature.

S.G of thes batteries is effected by temperature in same way as that for lead
acid batteries.

S.G of these batteries is not affected by over charging /inner charging and it
does not tell any thing about the state of charge/ condition of battery. But still S.G
reading of these batteries is taken for following purposes.

i. When to replace electrolyte. When S.G of a cell falls below 1150 at

68F then its electrolyte must be teplacd.

ii. To know about the impurities dissolved by electrolyte.

2.3: STATE OF CHARGE OF ALKALINE BATTERIES

it can be determined by following;-

i. By voltage method:- for this put battery on equalize charge, current and voltage
both will start rising.

If voltage rises rapidly and becomes constant after few minutes then battery
was fully charged.

If voltage rises slowly and keeps on rising after 30minutes to then battery was
under charged I,e it needs charging. In this case equalize charging must be
continued until voltage stops rising in order to fully charge the battery.

ii. by amount or quantity of water addition requirements and interval between

water additions.

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 The new battery needs more water in the beginning but after few months of
operation water requirement becomes stable.

If water must be added within one month, then charging rate is high.

If battery needs water after a period of more than 2 months then battery is
being under charged.

iii. Excessive gassing: Excessive gassing indicates that battery is fully charged and
current is no longer doing any useful work and hence should be stopped.

iv. Corrosion of cell terminals also indicate that battery is being over charged since
long period.

2.4:OVER CHARGING / UNDER CHARGING has no effect on active material of

Alkaline batteries.

Due to over charging, electrolyte level decreases which can be made up.

2.5:CONTAINER of these batteries are not transparent, so visual inspection of these

batteries cannot be made.

2.6:PROCEDURE FOR ELECTROLYTE PEOLACEMENT:

when S.G of a cell is below 1150 at 68F then its electrolyte must be replaced
according to the following procedure:-

1. Discharge battery at 5 hour rate (i.e I = AH/5) to 0.8v/cell.

2. Take out electrolyte from cell without removing the crates.

3. Re-fill cell immediately with new electrolyte (ALREADY PREPARED).

4. RE-assemble the cell and put is on 7hourcharge rate for 15 hours or 14 hour
charge rate for 30 hours or until voltage stops rising.

5. CAPACITY:-

Capacity of alkaline batteries is rate in A.H usually at 5hour rate.

Capacity of these batteries is affected by temperature in same way as that for

lead acid batteries.

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 Capacity test of these batteries should be performed yearly. When capacity of
an alkaline cell/battery becomes less than 50% of its rated value at 68F then
cell / battery must be discarded and replaced.

Capacity test of these batteries is performed in same manner as that for lead
acid batteries.

For ni-cad batteries voltage of cell should not drop below 1.14v (1.0 v for pilot
cell).

For soft batteries voltage of cell should not drop below 1.12v (1.0 v for pilot
cell).

In general for 125v battery voltage should not drop below 100v in any case.

2.8 CHECKING / TOPPING UP OF ELECTROLYTE IN A CELL

for thos a filler device equipped with a plastic bottle and plastic bottle is
squeezed and then unsqueessed. If electrolyte can be sucked up, it will indicate that
electrolyte is sufficient in the cell, other wise not.

Electrolyte level in a cell can also be checked with a glass tube. The glass tube
is inserted till it reaches on top of plates, then its other and is closed by tube and then
it is withdrawn from the cell. If there is electrolyte in the glass tube it will indicate that
electrolyte level is correct in the cell, otherwise not.

For maintenance of alkaline batteries, see electrical maintenance procedure

book.
NOTE:-

These were only few guidelines about alkaline batteries, in case when
manufacturer’s instructions are not available then follow these strictly.

QUESTION
S.G of an alkaline cell is 1140 at 92F. what is its corrected value? Does its
electrolyte need replacement?

224
TYPE oF MAINTENANCE

XV. P R E V E N T I V E MAINTENA N CE

There are two types of maintenance:-

1. Breakdown maintenance and

2. Preventive maintenance.

1. BREAKDOWN MAINTENANCE

The maintenance which is performed after major faults or failure or damage of

equipment is called breakdown maintenance”

The main disadvantages of breakdown maintenance are:-

(a). these are costly because of following reasons:-

i. Lot of repair work on equipment and some times replacement of

equipment.

ii. Loss of customer’s revenue because it will take lot of time to

repair equipment after major faults.

(b) loss of goodwill because consumers will be deprived of the electric supply for
long time.

We do not want breakdown maintenance’s, but these ate done due to

following reasons:-

(i) Substandard material supplied by supplier,

(ii) Wrong operations performed by operators,

(iii) Natural happenings such as earth quakes and storms etc.and

(iv) Lack of preventive maintenance.

2. PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

“The best preventive maintenance means to make a preplanned periodic

programmer for the inspections, testing, minor and major overhauling of every

225
 equipment and then execute it by skilled persons to catch and correct minor
defects or faults so that they may not develop and cause breakdowns”.

Preventive maintenance or simple maintenance practices can be best

understood by the following topics or considerations:-

IN SERVICE INSPECTION:-

It means to understand about the operation/ maintenance of equipment during

its installation period. In WAPDA new equipment is installed by construction crew or
some things by consultants and then the equipment is maintained by G.S.O
maintenance staff. The maintenance staff must be prtsent during the installation of
new equipment. Due to this in future it will be easy for then to perform maintenance
work in a batter way and in less time.

MAINTENANCE CYCLE:-

Maintenance cycle means the complete periodic maintenance programmed of

equipment. It is told by the manufacturer (i.e given in the equipment instruction book)
or by the department. But it should be noted that MAINTENANCE CYCLE IS NOT
RIGID. But it is flexible i.e maintenance cycle can be changed. It can be best
understood by the following example:-

Suppose 10 breakers are installed in a G/S in 1967 and it is told by the

manufacturer that their major overhauling must be done in 1992. Now it is impossible
for the maintenance staff to execute the major overhauling of all the 10 breakers in
one year i.e in 1992. So the supervisor must chalk out overhauling programmed in
such a way that all the 10 breakers must be overhauled up to 1992. For this
overhauling work of breakers should be started from, say 1990.

In 1990 three C.Bs should be overhauled. In 1991 other three breakers should be
overhauled and the remaining four breakers should be overhauled in 1992. This
method of maintenance is called “STAGGER PRINCIPLE”

After this maintenance programmer of each breaker will be fixed.

Other examples of changing maintenance cycle are as under:

226
(i) After its overhauled it will be clear that whether maintenance was
carried out at correct time, or it was done before or it was done rate.

(ii) Suggestions and comments for improvement in techniques and

procedures by experts or experienced persons.

(iii) Equipment trounle reports from other stations help to distribute

experience e.g a reports on failure of an equipment at some station may
help to prevent it from occurring at other stations.

(iv) Routine and emergency work report (i.e monthly statements of all
stations in headquarter.) point (i) accounts for changing maintenance
cycle by own experience.

Point (ii) accounts for changing maintenance cycle thrown “FREE BACK”

 so briefly about maintenance cycle it can be said that the written

procedures for maintenance program are only guides and must never be
followed blindly. A good engineer or foreman (i.e maintenance incharge)
is one who keeps open his eyes for the things which require attention he
should use his knowledge and experience to perform the preventive
maintenance when necessary *

(a) PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES (PMPA):-

Generally these are for the major overhauling of equipment. Programme for
major overhauling of equipment should be made atleast one year earlier
before the execution of work. A good way to develop a programmer is as
follows:-

i. write each steps to be done during overhaul and review each steps
whether it is justified or not?

ii. Write the name of tools which will be needed during work.

iii. Write about the allocation of work to each crew member.

227
 iv. Think whether job could be done easily by local staff or not. If
not then arrange for presence of manufacturer representative/
expert from other G/S at the time of work.

v. Order for necessary spare parts.

All the work must be executed under the supervision of

supervisor. After completion of work all the work.

NOTE :

All the work must be executed following safety precautions to avoid any
hazard any hazard.

THE MAIN ADVANTAGES OF PREVENTATIVE MAINTENANCE ARE:-

i. Equipment gives long service life.

ii. It is cheap because minimum repair cost is involved an less loss of customer
revenue due to less time involved.

Reliability of service to consumers and hence their goodwill and faith to department.

228
SUBSTATION GROUNDING SYSTEM

Fundamental theory:
The sole purpose of substation grounding/earthing is to protect the equipment
from surges and lightning strikes and to protect the operating persons in the
substation. The substation earthing system is necessary for connecting
neutral points of transformers and generators to ground and also for
connecting the non current carrying metal parts such as structures, overhead
shielding wires, tanks, frames, etc to earth. Earthing ofsurge arresters is
through the earthing system. The function of substation earthing system is to
provide a grounding mat below the earth surface in and around
the substation which will have uniformly zero potential with respect to ground
and lower earth resistance to ensure that
 To provide discharge path for lightning over voltages coming via rod-
gaps, surge arresters, and shielding wires etc. .
 To ensure safety of the operating staff by limiting voltage gradient at
ground level in the substation
 To provide low resistance path to the earthing switch earthed terminals,
so as to discharge the trapped charge (Due to charging currents even the
line is dead still charge remains which causes dangerous shocks) to earth
prior to maintenance and repairs.
Types of Faults on a Three Phase System
The types of faults that can occur on a three phase A.C. system are as
follows:

Figure 1.5

229
Types of Faults on a Three Phase System.
(A) Phase-to-earth fault
(B) Phase-to-phase fault
(C) Phase-to-phase-to-earth fault
(D) Three phase fault
(E) Three phase-to-earth fault
(F) Phase-to-pilot fault *
(G) Pilot-to-earth fault *
* In underground mining applications only
It will be noted that for a phase-to-phase fault, the currents will be high,
because the fault current is only limited by the inherent (natural) series
impedance of the power system up to the point of faulty (refer Ohms law). By
design, this inherent series impedance in a power system is purposely chosen
to be as low as possible in order to get maximum power transfer to the
consumer and limit unnecessary losses in the network itself in the interests of
efficiency. IDC Technologies Tech Briefs (Electrical) Electrical Power
Protection. On the other hand, the magnitude of earth faults currents will be
determined by the manner in which the system neutral is earthed. Solid
neutral earthing means high earth fault currents as this is only limited by the
inherent earth fault (zero sequence) impedance of the system.
It is worth noting at this juncture that it is possible to control the level of earth
fault current that can flow by the judicious choice of earthing arrangements for
the neutral. In other words, by the use of Resistance or Impedance in the
neutral of the system, earth fault currents can be engineered to be at whatever
level is desired and are therefore controllable. This cannot be achieved for
phase faults.

Components of Grounding System:

Grounding systems typically include the following:
1. equipment grounding conductors - the conductors used to connect the
metal frames or enclosures of electrical equipment to the grounding electrode
conductor;
2. grounding electrode conductors
- the conductors connecting the grounding electrode to the equipment
grounding conductor; and
3. grounding electrodes
- usually driven rods connected to each other by suitable means, buried metal,
or other effective methods located at the source, to provide a low resistance
earth connection.

230
EQUIPMENTS GROUNDING:
Un earthed Systems:
It is used no more. The neutral is not connected to the earth, also called as insulated neutral
system.
Solid grounding or effective grounding:
The neutral is directly connected to the earth without any impedance between neutral and
ground.
Resistance grounding:
Resistance is connected between the neutral and the ground.
Reactance grounding:
Reactance is connected between the neutral and ground.
Resonant Grounding:
An adjustable reactor of correctly selected value to compensate the capacitive earth
current is connected between the neutral and the earth. The coil is called Arc
Suppression Coil or Earth Fault Neutralizer.
Different Grounding Equipment in Electrical Substation
 Earthing Electrodes
 Earthing Mat
 Risers
 Overhead shielding wire (Earthed)

Earth Resistance Test:

1.Fall-of-potential method, or three-terminal test.
2.Dead Earth method (two-point test).

Fig.11: Fall-of-potential or three-terminal earth resistance test

231
 Fig. 12: Dead earth method or two-point earth resistance test

Earth Integrity Test:

Most people believe they are carrying out the testing properly if
they are using a Multimeter or an Insulation Tester, but these types
of instruments will not usually pick up an earth fault unless there is
a complete break in the conductor.

There is another type of tester available which is relatively new on

the market that people, including many electricians, are not aware
of – it is called a Portable Appliance Tester or “PAT” for short. The
PAT is specifically designed to test electrical safety and does all the
different tests necessary to ensure the electrical safety of the
appliance and makes testing easy.
The difference between using a Multimeter and a PAT is that a
Multimeter does a Continuity Test where as a PAT does an Earth
Bond or Earth Integrity Test.
There is a VERY BIG DIFFERENCE between the two tests.
To see the difference between testing with a Multimeter or an
Insulation Tester compared with a Portable Appliance Tester (PAT),
try doing this simple test:

232
In these two diagrams the battery charger represents a PAT Tester,
something that produces a low voltage high current electrical
supply. The 10 amp fuse in both cases represents the last remaining
strand of a multi-core earth wire.

If you test with a Multimeter or any type of Continuity Meter/buzzer

or Insulation Tester you will see that the meter indicates that the
earth conductor is OK and therefore the earth conductor is
presumed to be safe – however sadly this is not the case. Now try
the same test with a battery charger – the fuse will blow. Now you
know that your earth is faulty and you can fix it.

Doing safety tests with just a Multimeter or similar type of

instrument is like carrying an umbrella around in case it rains; only
to find when it does rain that the umbrella leaks!! An earth
conductor substantially damaged or not there means that in a
situation where a fault occurs the operator becomes the earth i.e.
the operator becomes the means by which the active 230Volts
supply returns to earth – likely killing the person in the process!! It
is essential that when an earth conductor is needed that it is able to
pass the earth current required otherwise you or someone else will
become the earth.

You should by now be able to see the difference between an Earth

Bond and Earth Continuity Test i.e. an earth bond test shows
whether the earth conductor is in a satisfactory condition; whereas
an Earth Continuity Test using multimeters and the like will possibly
only show the earth is connected, not its condition.

Safety Precautions:
 Examine earthing devices periodically and always
prior to their use.
 Use only earthing switches or any other special
apparatus when provided for earthing.
 Verify that the circuit is dead by means of discharging
rod or potential indicator.
 Earthing should be done in such a manner that the
person doing this job are protected by earth
connections on both sides of their working zone.
 All the three phases should be effectively earthed and
short-circuited may be proceeding on one phase only.

233
GRID STATION
POWER SUBSTATION:

An Electrical Power Substation receives electric power from generating station

via transmission lines and delivers power via the outgoing transmission lines.
Substations are integral parts of a power system and form important links
between the generating stations, transmission systems, distribution systems
and the load points. Various power substations located in generating stations,
transmission and distribution systems have similar layout and similar electrical
components. Electrical power substation basically consists of number of
incoming circuit connections and number of outgoing circuit connections
connected to the busbars. Busbars are conducting bars to which number of
circuit connections is connected. Each circuit has certain number of electrical
components such as circuit breakers, Isolators, earth switches, current
transformers, voltage transformers, etc.
In a Power Substation there are various indoor and outdoor switchgear and
equipment. Transformers are necessary in a substation for stepping up and
stepping down of a.c voltage. Besides the transformers, the several other
equipment include busbars, circuit breakers, isolators, surge arresters,
Substation Earthing System, Shunt reactors, Shunt Capacitors etc . Each
equipment has certain functional requirement. The equipment are either
indoor or outdoor depending upon the voltage rating and local conditions.

In a large power System large number of Generating stations, Electrical

Power Substations and load centers are interconnected. This large
internetwork is controlled from load dispatch center. Digital and voice signals
are transmitted over the transmission lines via the Power substations. The
substations are interlinked with the load control centers via Power Line Carrier
Systems (PLCC). Modern Power System is controlled with the help of several
automatic, semi - automatic equipment. Digital Computers and
microprocessors are installed in the control rooms of large substations,
generating stations and load control centers for data collection, data
monitoring, automatic protection and control.
FUNCTIONS OF ELECTRICAL POWER SUBSTATIONS ARE:

 Supply electric power to the consumers continuously

 Supply of electric power within specified voltage limits and frequency
limits
 Shortest possible fault duration.
 Optimum efficiency of plants and the network
 Supply of electrical energy to the consumers at lowest cost

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TYPES OF ELECTRICAL POWER SUBSTATIONS:
BASED ON SUBSTATION DESIGN:

Outdoor Electrical Power Substations:

In Outdoor Power Substations , the various electrical equipments are installed

in the switchyard below the sky. Electrical equipment are mounted on support
structures to obtain sufficient ground clearance.

Indoor Electrical Power Substation:

In Indoor Power Substations the apparatus is installed within the substation

building. Such substations are usually for the rating of 66kV. Indoor
Substations are preferred in heavily polluted areas and Power Substations
situated near the seas (saline atmosphere causes Insulator Failures results in
Flashovers)

Indoor Substation
BASED ON DESIGN CONFIGURATION:

AIR INSULATED ELECTRICAL POWER SUBSTATION:

In Air Insulated Power Substations busbars and connectors are visibe. In this
Power Substations Circuit Breakers and Isolators, Transformers, Current
Transformers, Potential Transformers etc are installed in the outdoor. Busbars
are supported on the post Insulators or Strain Insulators. Substations have
galvanized Steel Structures for Supporting the equipment, insulators and
incoming and outgoing lines. Clearances are the primary criteria for these
substations and occupy a large area for installation.

235
Gas Insulated Electrical Power Substation:

In Gas Insulated Substation Various Power Substation equipments like Circuit

Breakers, Current Transformers, Voltage Transformers, Busbars, Earth
Switches,Surge Arresters, Isolators etc are in the form of metal enclosed SF6
gas modules. The modules are assembled in accordance with the required
Configuration. The various Live parts are enclosed in the metal enclosures
(modules) containing SF6 gas at high pressure. Thus the size of Power
Substation reduces to 8% to 10% of the Air Insulated Power Substation.

Gas Insulated Substation

Hybrid Electrical Power Substation:

Hybrid Substations are the combination of both Conventional Substation and

Gas Insulated Substation. Some bays in a Power Substation are Gas
Insulated Type and some are Air Insulated Type. The design is based on
convenience, Local Conditions available, area available and Cost.

The Concept of Smart Grid:

The 'smart grid' is commonly presented as an indispensable part of

the future power system. It is claimed that a true liberalised
electricity market with a high penetration of distributed generation
will only be able to supply a high degree of power reliability if grids
are made smart.
But what exactly is a 'smart grid'? Reading through some literature
on the subject, one quickly discovers that it can mean many
different things to many different people, often leading
discussions to end in confusion.
A smart grid is neither a clearly defined single concept nor a single
technology. Rather it is like a basket containing various
combinations of balls. The context and the interpretation depend

236
upon the user. Carnegie Mellon University recently published an
article describing all of the various balls typically found in this
metaphorical basket. Some of them represent innovations that are
still in the development phase, while others stand for technologies
which have already been applied for years.
Some of the balls found in the smart grid basket include:
At customer level
 Meters that can be read automatically: this avoids sending
out meter readers and can facilitate a fast and exact billing of
consumption. It is already widely adopted by many power
companies.
 Time-of-day and time-of-use meters: the former are
meters that change the electricity price depending on the time
of the day, the latter are meters that integrate the actual
electricity price at any given moment in time.
 Meters that can communicate with the customers: a
display shows the customers their current rate of electricity
use, allowing them to adjust their consumption level in real
time.
 Control of customer’s load: control systems that react to
time-of-day or time-of-use meters to automatically switch
certain circuits on or off.
At distribution grid level
 Distribution system automation: A first step is the
operating of the distribution grid from a central control room,
avoiding the need to send people into the field for switching
actions. Such systems have already been installed in several
places around the world. A second step is to change the tree
layout of the grid into a meshed layout. By also adding sensors
and remote control switches, incidents can be isolated and cut
off, minimising problems for electricity consumers.
 Selective load control: selectively switching off customers to
avoid a complete black out. A step further is the ability to turn
individual loads on or off within customer’s premises.
 'Islanding' of micro-grids supplied by distributed generation
units. This concept can, in its turn, have several different

237
 meanings. The basic idea is that local DGs locally increase the
reliability of supply.
At transmission grid level
 Phase measurements: the efficiency and stability of power
system operation could be improved with the addition of phase
measurement at various key locations on the transmission grid
and combined with advanced communication and control
systems.
 FACTS: Flexible AC Transmission Control Devices or FACTS
are advanced systems that can change the flow of power in
transmission lines. A phase shift transformer is an example of
a FACT.
 Distributed and autonomous control: models demonstrate
that advanced automatic control systems that cooperate with
each other could in some cases do a better job than a
centralised human operation of the system.

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 BUS BAR SCHEMES

Introduction:

The selection of any bus bar system depends upon the following:

1. Amount of flexibility required in operation.

2. Immunity from total shutdown.

3. Initial cost of the installation.

4. Load handled by the busbar.

Busbar systems are of the following types:

Single bus single breaker scheme:

Such busbar scheme is shown in the fig. below:

Advantages of single busbar system:

1. It is a cheapest arrangement as only one circuit breaker is required for each

outgoing circuit.

239
 2. Due to the absence of the transfer breakers & disconnectors the operation has
become simple. For de-energizing

3. Low maintenance cost.

4. It is possible to utilize busbar potential for the line relays.

Disadvantages:

1. The biggest disadvantage of this scheme is complete shutdown of the station in case
of a busbar fault.

2. It is not possible to carry out any regular maintenance on the energized busbar thus
for this essential job, it becomes necessary to de-energize the system.

3. When a breaker on any circuit of a single busbar system fails, there will be
complete shutdown of the station, for however; reenergizing first the effected circuit
breaker is disconnected from the busbar with the help of isolator.

4. For maintaining or repairing a circuit breaker, the circuit is required to be

disconnected from the busbar.

5. A circuit addition to the existing system shall require busbar to keep de-energized
during the period the work is carried on.

DOUBLE BUSBAR SINGLE BREAKER SCHEME:

240
DOUBLE BUSBAR DOUBLE BREAKER SCHEME:

ONE & HALF CIRCUIT BREAKER SCHEME:

241
 CAPACITOR BANKS
Fundamental Theory:
A capacitor bank is a grouping of several identical capacitors interconnected in
parallel or in series with one another. These groups of capacitors are typically used to
correct or counteract undesirable characteristics, such as power factor lag or phase
shifts inherent in alternating current (AC) electrical power supplies. Capacitor banks
may also be used in direct current (DC) power supplies to increase stored energy and
improve the ripple current capacity of the power supply.
Single capacitors are electrical or electronic components which store electrical energy.
Capacitors consist of two conductors that are separated by an insulating material or
dielectric. When an electrical current is passed through the conductor pair, a
static electric field develops in the dielectric which represents the stored energy.
Unlike batteries, this stored energy is not maintained indefinitely, as the dielectric
allows for a certain amount of current leakage which results in the gradual dissipation
of the stored energy.
The energy storing characteristic of capacitors is known as capacitance and is
expressed or measured by the unit farads. This is usually a known, fixed value for
each individual capacitor which allows for considerable flexibility in a wide range of
uses such as restricting DC current while allowing AC current to pass, output
smoothing in DC power supplies, and in the construction of resonant circuits used in
radio tuning. These characteristics also allow capacitors to be used in a group
or capacitor bank to absorb and correct AC power supply faults.
The use of a capacitor bank to correct AC power supply anomalies is typically found
in heavy industrial environments that feature working loads made up of electric
motors and transformers. This type of working load is problematic from a power
supply perspective as electric motors and transformers represent inductive loads,
which cause a phenomenon known as phase shift or power factor lag in the power
supply. The presence of this undesirable phenomenon can cause serious losses in
terms of overall system efficiency with an associated increase in the cost of supplying
the power.
The use of a capacitor bank in the power supply system effectively cancels out or
counteracts these phase shift issues, making the power supply far more efficient and
cost effective. The installation of a capacitor bank is also one of the cheapest methods
of correcting power lag problems and maintaining a power factor capacitor bank is
simple and cost effective. One thing that should always be kept in mind when working
with any capacitoror capacitor bank is the fact that the stored energy, if incorrectly
discharged, can cause serious burns or electric shocks. The incorrect handling or
disposal of capacitors may also lead to explosions, so care should always be exercised
when dealing with capacitors of any sort.

242
CONSTRUCTION DESIGN:

Tests:
After the plant and ancillary equipment has been erected and connected on site, the
installation contractor shall, under the supervision of the manufacturer, carry out tests
to the satisfaction of CEB. Details of site tests shall be agreed with CEB, but shall
include.

System measurements of harmonics to ensure that the addition of the bank has not
affected the system.

Visual checks of all equipment (for damage, leaks etc).

Earthing, earth switches, door operated earth switches.

a) Continuity of cable connections, ad phasing as appropriate

b) Insulation to earth
c) Insulation between phases
d) Fuse ratings
e) Correct operation of protection relays
f) Correct operation of controllers
The Site Acceptance Test (SAT) format for the capacitor banks shall be forwarded by
the capacitor bank manufacturer.

243
CONNECTION SCHEMES:

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

Capacitors and transformers are entirely different in their operation. When

a transformer is disconnected from the line, it is electrically dead. Unlike the
transformer and other devices, the capacitor is not dead immediately after it is
disconnected from the line. It has the peculiar property of holding its charge
because it is essentially a device for storing electrical energy. It can hold this
charge for a considerable length of time. There is a voltage difference across its
terminals after the switch is opened. Capacitors for use on electrical lines, however,
are equipped with an internal-discharge resistor. This resistor connected across the
capacitor terminals, will gradually discharge the capacitor and reduce the voltage
across its terminals. After 5 minutes, the capacitor should be discharged. To be
perfectly safe, however, proceed as follows:

Before working on a disconnected capacitor, wait 5minutes. Then test the capacitor
with a high-voltage tester rated for the circuit voltage. If the voltage is zero, short-
circuit the terminals externally using hot-line tools and ground the terminals to the
case. Now you can proceed with the work

244
 STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR (SVC)

Fundamental Theory
A static var compensator (svc) is an electrical device for providing fast-acting reactive
power on high-voltage electricity transmission networks. SVCs are part of the Flexible
AC transmission system device family, regulating voltage and stabilizing the system.
Unlike a synchronous condenser which is a rotating electrical machine, a static VAR
compensator has no significant moving parts (other than internal switchgear). Prior to
the invention of the SVC, power factor compensation was the preserve of large
rotating machines such as synchronous condensers or switched capacitor banks.
The SVC is an automated impedance matching device, designed to bring the system
closer to unity power factor. SVCs are used in two main situations:

 Connected to the power system, to regulate the transmission voltage

("Transmission SVC")
 Connected near large industrial loads, to improve power quality ("Industrial
SVC")
In transmission applications, the SVC is used to regulate the grid voltage. If the power
system's reactive load is capacitive (leading), the SVC will use thyristor controlled
reactors to consume VARs from the system, lowering the system voltage.
Under inductive (lagging) conditions, the capacitor banks are automatically switched
in, thus providing a higher system voltage. By connecting the thyristor-controlled
reactor, which is continuously variable, along with a capacitor bank step, the net result
is continuously-variable leading or lagging power.
In industrial applications, SVCs are typically placed near high and rapidly varying
loads, such as arc furnaces, where they can smooth flicker.
The benefits of an SVC can be seen within a steel plant as stable power factor despite
of varying loads of the plant, and externally when the disturbances don’t affect the
supplying grid. In short, the SVC affects the following:

flicker reduction

voltage stabilization

reactive power compensation; improved power factor

increased voltage on the load bus

reduction of harmonics

245
CONSTRUCTION DESIGN

Typically, an SVC comprises one or more banks of fixed or switched

shunt capacitors or reactors, of which at least one bank is switched by thyristors.
Elements which may be used to make an SVC typically include:

 Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR), where the reactor may be air- or

iron-cored
 Thyristor switched capacitor (TSC)
 Harmonic filter(s)
 Mechanically switched capacitors or reactors (switched by a circuit
breaker)

One-line diagram of a typical SVC configuration; here employing a thyristor controlled reactor,
a thyristor switched capacitor, a harmonic filter, a mechanically switched capacitor and a
mechanically switched reactor

By means of phase angle modulation switched by the thyristors, the reactor may be
variably switched into the circuit and so provide a continuously
variable MVAR injection (or absorption) to the electrical network.[2] In this
configuration, coarse voltage control is provided by the capacitors; the thyristor-
controlled reactor is to provide smooth control. Smoother control and more flexibility
can be provided with thyristor-controlled capacitor switching.[7]

The thyristors are electronically controlled. Thyristors, like all semiconductors,

generate heat and deionized water is commonly used to cool them.[5] Chopping

246
reactive load into the circuit in this manner injects undesirable odd-
order harmonics and so banks of high-powerfilters are usually provided to smooth
the waveform. Since the filters themselves are capacitive, they also export MVARs to
the power system.

More complex arrangements are practical where precise voltage regulation is required.
Voltage regulation is provided by means of a closed-loop controller.[7] Remote supervisory
control and manual adjustment of the voltage set-point are also common.

Connection
Generally, static VAR compensation is not done at line voltage; a bank
of transformers steps the transmission voltage (for example, 230 kV) down to a
much lower level (for example, 9.5 kV).[5] This reduces the size and number of
components needed in the SVC, although the conductors must be very large to
handle the high currents associated with the lower voltage. In some static VAR
compensators for industrial applications such as electric arc furnaces, where there
may be an existing medium-voltage busbar present (for example at 33kV or 34.5kV),
the static VAR compensator may be directly connected in order to save the cost of
the transformer.

The dynamic nature of the SVC lies in the use of thyristors connected in series and inverse-
parallel, forming "thyristor valves"). The disc-shaped semiconductors, usually several inches
in diameter, are usually located indoors in a "valve house".

Advantages

The main advantage of SVCs over simple mechanically-switched compensation

schemes is their near-instantaneous response to changes in the system voltage. For
this reason they are often operated at close to their zero-point in order to maximise
the reactive power correction they can rapidly provide when required.

They are, in general, cheaper, higher-capacity, faster and more reliable than dynamic
compensation schemes such as synchronous condensers. However, static VAR
compensators are more expensive than mechanically switched capacitors, so many
system operators use a combination of the two technologies (sometimes in the same
installation), using the static VAR compensator to provide support for fast changes
and the mechanically switched capacitors to provide steady-state VARs.

247
 HIGH VOLTAGE DC TRANSMISSION
INTRODUCTION
High voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission is widely recognized as being
advantageous for long- distance, bulk-power delivery, asynchronous interconnections and
long submarine cable crossings. HVDC lines and cables are less expensive and have lower
losses than those for 3-phase ac transmission. Typical HVDC lines utilize a bipolar
configuration with two independent poles and are comparable to a double circuit ac line.
Because of their controllability HVDC links offer firm capacity without limitation due to
network congestion or loop flow on parallel paths. Higher power transfers are possible over
longer distances with fewer lines with HVDC transmission than with ac transmission. Higher
power transfers are possible without distance limitation to HVDC cables systems using fewer
cables than with ac cable systems due to their charging current.

HVDC FUNDAMENTALS

1. Converter

Conventional HVDC transmission schemes utilize line-commutated, current-source

converters. Such converters require a synchronous voltage source in order to operate.
The basic building block used for HVDC conversion is the 3-phase, full-wave bridge
referred to as a 6-pulse or Graetz bridge The term 6-pulse is due to the characteristic
harmonic ripple in the dc output voltage, which is at multiples of 6 times the
fundamental frequency

248
 Each 6-pulse bridge is comprised of 6 controlled switching elements or
thyristor valves. Each valve comprises a number of series-connected thryristors to
achieve the desired dc voltage rating. Converter dc output voltage is controlled by
means of a delayed firing angle. Valve switching is synchronized to the ac source
voltages via a phase-locked loop.

The bridge is coupled to the ac bus via a converter transformer.

FIG. A Simple 6-pulse bridge convertor.

The 6-pulse converter bridge can be used in rectifier operation with positive output
voltage, 0 ≤ α≤90 , converting ac to dc or in inverter operation with an output voltage
that is negative with respect to the direction of dc current flow, 90 ≤ α ≤180 . By
connecting two converters in series at opposite ends of a transmission line, one
controlling dc voltage and the other controlling dc current, dc power transmission is
achieved. The characteristic current harmonics ( f₌ 6n ± 1) are filtered on the ac side
and the characteristic voltage harmonics ( f ₌ 6n) are filtered on the dc side to meet
voltage distortion and telephone interference requirements.

Most modern HVDC transmission schemes utilize 12-pulse converters to reduce the
additional harmonic filtering requirements required for 6-pulse operation, for
example, fifth and seventh on the ac side and sixth on the dc side. This is because
although these harmonic currents still flow through the valves and the transformer
windings, they are 180 out of phase and cancel out on the primary side.

249
 FIG. Simplified single line diagram for monopole HVDC Convertor (12 pulse)
station.

2. Station Layout and System Configuration

A simplified single-line diagram for one pole with a 12-pulse converter is shown in
Fig. above. A CAD drawing and a photo of a mono polar converter station are shown
in Figs., respectively.

An HVDC converter station comprises the following major subsystems:

• Thyristor valves

• Converter transformers

• AC harmonic filters

• DC harmonic filters

• Valve cooling

• Control and protection

• Auxiliary power

• Valve hall building

The converter station layout depends on a number of factors such as the station
configuration, that is, mono polar (Fig. ), bipolar (Fig.) or back-to-back
asynchronous tie (Fig. ), valve design, ac system interconnection, filtering
requirements, reactive power compensation requirements, land availability, and the
local environment. In most cases, the thyristor valves are air-insulated, water-cooled,

250
and enclosed in a converter building often referred to as a valve hall. For back-to-back
ties with their characteristically low dc voltage, thyristor valves can be housed in
prefabricated electrical enclosures in which case a valve hall is not required.

To obtain a more compact station design and reduce the number of insulated high
voltage wall bushings, converter transformers are often placed adjacent to the valve
hall with valve winding bushings protruding through the building walls for connection
to the valves. Double or quadruple valve structures housing valve modules are used
within the valve hall. Valve arresters are located immediately adjacent to the valves.
Indoor motor-operated grounding switches are used for personnel safety during
maintenance. Closed loop valve cooling systems are used to circulate the cooling
medium through the indoor thyristor valves with heat transfer to dry coolers or
evaporative cooling towers located outdoors.

FIGURE CAD drawing of monopolar converter station.

251
3. HVDC OPERATING CONFIGURATIONS/ MODES

Fig: HVDC Operating Configurations/ Modes

Mono polar systems with ground return are the simplest and least expensive systems
for moderate power transfers since only two converters and one insulated cable or line
conductor is required. Such systems are commonly used with low voltage electrode
lines and sea electrodes to carry the return current in submarine cable crossings.

In some areas conditions are not conducive to mono polar earth or sea return. This
could be the case areas in heavily congested areas, fresh water cable crossings, or
areas with high earth resistivities. In such cases a metallic neutral or low voltage cable
is used for the return path and the dc circuit uses a simple ground local ground
reference.

Back-to-back stations are used for interconnection of asynchronous networks and use
ac lines to connect on either side. In such systems power transfer is limited by the
relative capacities of the adjacent ac systems at the point of coupling.

252
As an economic alternative to a mono polar system with metallic return, the midpoint
of a 12-pulse converter can be connected to earth directly or through an impedance
and two half voltage cables or line conductors can be used. The converter is only
operated in 12-pulse mode, so there is no earth current.

The most common configuration for modern overhead HVDC transmission lines is
bipolar with a single 12-pulse converter for each pole at each terminal. This gives two
independent dc circuits each capable of half capacity. For normal balanced operation
there is no earth current.

Monopolar earth return operation, often with overload capacity, can be used during
outages of the opposite pole. Earth return operation can be minimized during
monopolar outages by using the opposite pole line for metallic return via
pole/converter bypass switches at each end. This requires a metallic-return transfer
breaker in the ground electrode line at one of the dc terminals to commutate the
current from the relatively low resistance of the earth into that of the dc line
conductor. Metallic return operation capability is provided for most dc transmission
systems. This is not only effective during converter outages but also during line
insulation failures where the remaining insulation strength is adequate to withstand the
low resistive voltage drop in the metallic return path.

4. Control and Operation of HVDC Links

The fundamental objectives of an HVDC control system are:

• To control basic system quantities such as dc line current, dc voltage, and transmitted
power accurately and with sufficient speed of response

• To maintain adequate commutation margin in inverter operation so that the valves

can recover their forward blocking capability after conduction before their voltage
polarity reverses

• To control higher level quantities such as frequency in isolated mode or provide

power oscillation damping to help stabilize the ac network

• To compensate of loss of a pole, a generator, or ac transmission circuit by rapid

readjustment of power

253
• To ensure stable operation with reliable commutation in the presence of system
disturbances

• To minimize system losses and reactive power consumption

• Ensure proper operation with fast and stable recoveries during system faults and
disturbances With HVDC transmission one terminal sets the dc voltage level, while
the other regulates the dc current by controlling its output voltage relative to that
maintained by the voltage-setting terminal.

Since the dc line resistance is low, large changes in current and hence power can
be made with relatively small changes in firing angle. Two independent methods exist
for controlling the converter dc output voltage. These are (1) by changing the ratio
between the direct voltage and the ac voltage by varying the delay angle or (2) by
changing the converter ac voltage via load tap changers (LTC) on the converter
transformer. Although the former method is rapid, the latter method is slow due to
slow response of LTC.

5. STATION DESIGN AND EQUIPMENT

i. Thyristor Valves

For HVDC conversion, the thyristor valve must perform the following functions:

• Sequentially connect selected ac phases to the dc system per control pulses

• Conduct high current with low forward drop

• Block high voltages in both the forward and reverse directions

• Controllable and self monitoring

• Even voltage distribution and current turn-on

• Damp switching transients

• Fault tolerant and robust

• Accommodate cooling medium in high voltage environment

Thyristor valves are built up of series-connected thyristor modules and saturable

reactors to limit valve turn-on di/dt. Each module contains a number of series-

254
connected thyristors mounted on heat sinks. Each thyristor level is paralleled by an
RC network for even voltage distribution and damping of commutation overshoots.
Voltage measurement across each thyristor level is provided for thyristor monitoring,
forward protection, and recovery protection.

Fig: 12-Pulse quadruple thyristor valve arrangement.

ii. Converter Transformers

Converter transformers are the link between the ac and dc systems. They provide
isolation between the two systems, preventing dc voltage and current from reaching
the ac system. They also provide the phase displacement necessary for 12-pulse
operation through wye- and delta-valve winding connections. Converter transformers
have regulating windings with load-tap changers to maintain the ac voltage and
converter firing angle within a narrow band across the entire converter operating
range.

Converter transformer impedance also limits the valve short-circuit levels to

within their handling capability.

255
 Converter transformer losses are those due to the fundamental frequency of load
current plus those due to harmonics. The insulation design for converter transformers
must take into account the direct voltage stresses superimposed on the normal ac
voltage stresses. The ac stresses distribute as it would in a capacitive network while
the dc voltage stresses distribute as according to a resistive network.

Transformer design depends on the bridge rating and type of converter

connection and takes into account spare parts requirements and transport restrictions.
For a small back-to-back, for example, a 3-phase bank with double secondary (wye
and delta) may be used, that is, nine windings on a single core structure in a common
tank for each 12-pulse converter bridge. For larger converters, three, single-phase
transformers with double secondary windings may be used for each 12-pulse bridge.
For the largest converter ratings where there may be some transport limitations,
single-phase, two-winding transformers may be used, that is, six transformers per 12-
pulsebridge (Fig ).

FIG. Single - phase, three-winding converter transformer for a 3100 MW bi pole.

256
iii. Smoothing Reactor
A smoothing reactor is connected in series with the converter on the dc side to
reduce the harmonic ripple in the dc current as well as reduce transient currents during
faults. The smoothing reactor also protects the converter valves from voltage surges
coming in on the dc line. The dc smoothing reactor together with shunt-connected dc
filters serve to limit telephone interference disturbing currents from flowing on the dc
line. Most smoothing reactors are air-core, naturally air-cooled.

iv. AC Filters
Converters inject harmonic currents into the ac network. AC filters are used to prevent
these harmonic currents from flowing into the ac network impedance causing voltage
distortion and induced telephone interference in the audible frequency range. AC
filters provide a low-impedance path to ground at the harmonic frequencies. The ac
filter comprises high-voltage capacitor banks and lower- voltage reactors, resistors,
and capacitors, which together form a circuit tuned to the characteristic harmonic(s).
The lower-order filters are single- or double-tuned, band-pass filters, while the higher
harmonics are often taken care of by high-pass filters (Fig ).

AC harmonic filter design involves calculating the harmonic currents generated and
estimating harmonic impedance characteristics of the ac network across the whole
range of operating conditions and tolerances. A filter design is then developed to meet
the required performance requirements. Filter components are then rated with an
adequate margin the particular application.

FIG. (a)Band pass filter,(b)high pass filter,(c) double band pass filter, (d) impedance
vs. frequency.

257
v. DC Filters
Filters are required on the dc side for dc to limit interference with
communication circuits, which are inductively coupled to the dc line, for example,
parallel telephone lines. The design criterion for dc harmonic filters is a function f
relating to the flow of harmonic currents at any point along the dc line to the
interference with adjacent telephone lines. Significant parameters are the relative
location of telephone lines with respect to the dc line, their shielding, the presence of
any ground wires, and the earth’s resistivity. This criterion is typically expressed as
equivalent disturbing current Ieq .Disturbance levels are lower in normal balanced
bipolar mode ,due to cancellation effects ,than in mono polar mode.

DC filter design must take into account the entire dc network with all harmonic
sources and operating modes. DC harmonic filters consist of band-pass and high-pass
filters connected in shut out- side the smoothing reactor. Many modern HVDC links
use a single 12th harmonic band-pass filter on each pole with active filtering for the
higher order harmonics (Fig. 15-22). Active filtering consists of measuring the actual
dc-side harmonics from the converter and counter-injecting the same amount with
opposite polarity.

258