Jesus Preaches to the Spirits

1 Peter 3:18-22

A PRESENTATION SUBMITTED TO:

Prof. Michael Pahl

Prairie Bible Institute

Issues in New Testament Studies

Bible 481
Fall 2006

BY

Sarah Billet

Box 4831
 Jesus Preached to Spirits in Prison?!

“19
through whom also he went and preached to the spirits in prison 20who disobeyed long ago

when God waited patiently in the days of Noah while the ark was being built. In it only a few

people, eight in all, were saved through water” I Peter 3:19, 20 (NIV)

I Peter 3:19 and 20 is considered one of the more difficult passages to interpret in the

New Testament. Martin Luther wrote in regards to this passage, “This is a strange text and

certainly a more obscure passage than any other passage in the New Testament. I still do not

know for sure what the apostle meant”1 We can see why even the legendary theologian would

find himself at a loss. Where are other New Testament scriptures that speak about spirits in

prison, let alone Jesus going and preaching to them? Was there an oral tradition that the First

Century believers were aware of?

A letter is different from an essay in that it assumes previous background knowledge,

background knowledge that future readers may not have.2 This seems to be the case with these

verses. But is this background knowledge that of Jewish tradition and apocryphal works such as I

Enoch, or does it stem from Christian teachings that have been lost in the subsequent centuries?

The research and opinions regarding the latter are too complicated to explore in this paper so we

will stick with surveying thoughts and interpretations concerning who the spirits were, what

Jesus preached, what and where the prison is, when Jesus did this, and the importance of these

verses both to Christians in the First Century and to those of the Twenty First Century.

1
Luther 1967 [1523], 30:113=Weimarer Ausgabe 12:367
2
Boring 135
WHO ARE THE SPIRITS?

This is one of the more essential questions to understanding this passage. Opinions vary

and none are completely convincing and airtight. The main interpretations are:

1a. These were the people of Noah’s day.

1b. These are all the people who lived before Christ, the righteous or the unrighteous or both.

Calvin, for instance believed that the unrighteous and righteous were imprisoned together,

awaiting Christ. “He penetrated even to the dead, pious souls enjoying an immediate view of that

visitation for which they had anxiously waited, whilst on the other hand the reprobate more

clearly knew themselves shut out from all salvation.”3

2. Fallen angels, either in general or specifically those mentioned in Genesis 6:1-4.

3. The offspring of the “sons of God” and “daughters of men” spoken of in Genesis 6.

Analysis:

• The word for “had not obeyed” is the same word translated “do not believe” in 3:1.4

Though this may not make a difference, there are possible implications of changing the

translation.

• The most important linguistic fact in verse 19 is that the Greek word interpreted “spirits”

never refers to human souls in the New Testament, but to supernatural beings. Pneuma is

nowhere found as a designation of humans as a category of created beings. Instead it

refers to a person’s God-consciousness.5 “The plural ‘spirits’ is only once in the NT used

of human beings: ‘spirits of just people made perfect’ (Heb 12:23)…On the other hand,

‘spirit’ is frequently used in the NT, for supernatural beings, especially the demons that

3
Kelly, 44
4
Arichea 316
5
Wuest, 98
 Jesus confronted in his ministry…Matt. 8:16; Luke 10:20; Matt. 10:1, Mark 1:27; 3:11;

Matt 12:45”6 The evidence for the fallen angels being the spirits spoken of then is the

wording. The evidence against it is verse 20a: “who disobeyed long ago when God

waited patiently in the days of Noah while the ark was being built.”

• We must take into account the relation of these verses to 2 Peter 2:4-6 when Peter once

again refers to imprisoned and punished angels and also once again links them with a

reference to Noah, but in a completely different way.

• Jews had long thought that the ‘sons of God’ spoken of in Gen. 6:1-4 were disobedient

angels who had been imprisoned.7

1 Enoch 21:6 “These are among the stars of heaven that have transgressed the

commandments of the Lord and are bound in this place.”

1 Enoch 21:10 “This place is a prison house of the angels; they are detained here forever.”

• Jewish and early Christian tradition held that the “sons of God” brought about the flood

as God’s judgment on a sinful world.8 Examples of Jewish apocalyptic literature that

makes reference to this are the books of 1 Enoch and Jubilees.

• “The modern reader may be puzzled by what appears to be a jump to the time of Noah,

the reference to the ark and the threatening waters, but once one sees the connection to

the evil spirits of Gen 6 and the Enoch myth that lies behind the imagery, the association

is natural.” 9

• 1 Enoch could be referring not to the fallen angels of Gen. 6, but to their evil offspring.10

6
Michaels pgs. 206-07
7
Davids 138
8
Michaels 206
9
Boring 141
10
Michaels 208
 • “But now the giants who are born from (the union of ) spirits and the flesh shall be called

evil spirits upon the earth, because their dwelling shall be upon the earth and inside the

earth. Evil spirits have come out of the bodies…They will become evil upon the earth and

shall be called evil spirits. The dwelling of the spiritual beings of heaven is heaven, but

the dwelling of the spirits of the earth, which are born upon the earth , is in the earth”

(OTP, 1:21-22)11

• The evidence that the offspring of the “sons of God” and “daughters of men” in Genesis 6

were evil and the true cause of the flood is slim. Mention of them elsewhere in Scripture

is nonexistent, let alone in reference to being ‘spirits’ and in prison or refuge. Genesis

6:5-7 clearly indicates the cause of the flood and God’s grief was due to man and

mankind.

Conclusion: Linguistically, the argument for the spirits being human is weak. Verse 20 is in

favor of this interpretation, however. Language, Jewish tradition, and 2 Peter 2:4 and Jude 6 are

evidences in favor of the spirits being fallen angels. Evidence against is 3:20. The possibility of

the spirits being the offspring of the fallen angels in Gen. 6 has only Jewish tradition and

apocryphal writings in its favor. Scripture is completely silent on such a possibility. The real key

to who the spirits are is found in the discussion of what Jesus preached, in my opinion.

WHAT DID JESUS PREACH?

1. Salvation for those of Noah’s day or before Christ.

or

2. Victory over the fallen angels.

Analysis:
11
Ibid., 207
 • The people during Noah’s time would be singled out due to the Jewish belief that they

were the worst of sinners for whom there is no hope of salvation. “The generation of the

flood have no share in the world to come, nor shall they standing the judgment” Mishnah

Sanhedrin 10.3

• Luther: Though hesitant to give firm opinions regarding these Scriptures Luther objected

to the idea that man’s state before God could change after death.12

• “Kerusso was used in secular Greek of an official announcement or proclamation made

by representative of a government. In the NT the word is either qualified (the gospel) or

the contents give (Rev. 5:2) or used along without the content of the message given,

Romans 10:15…euaggelizomai is the distinct word which refers to preaching the

gospel.”13

• Kerysso normally refers to a proclamation of the gospel or kingdom of God, but is also

used just as announce or pronounce. Also, while Peter mentions gospel proclamation four

times very clearly, he does not use this same word. The NT never speaks of evangelizing

spirits, but does speak of Christ’s victory over spirits. 14

• 1 Enoch 16:3 is a proclamation of judgment to the spirits in prison.

• If the message was indeed salvation, angels would not be the recipients. Hebrews 2:16

(NIV) says: “For assuredly He does not give help to angels, but He gives help to the

descendant of Abraham.”

12
Kelly 85
13
Wuest
14
Davids, 140
 • The gospel of salvation, making salvation available to those who lived before Christ.

Found in the Gospel of Peter and promoted by Clement and Origen. Origen was an

advocate of universal salvation.15

• “Clement of Alexandria…applies the baptism carried on by the apostles after death,

not…only to the godly before redemption, but to heathen philosophers or moral men as

well. In the sixth book (637 et seqq.) he recurs to a similar strain, and yet more openly

treats it as certain that our Lord descended to Hades for no other reason than to preach the

gospel, and this that they might believe and be saved; that such as lived uprightly, Jews or

Greeks, even though imprisoned in Hades, on hearing His voice either in person or

through the apostles, were presently brought to conversion and faith; that there is the

same dispensation below as on earth for souls to manifest their repentance or their

unbelief. Thus the awful consequences of living and dying impenitent in this world are

explained away by this Clementine notion of a further offer of salvation by Christ and the

apostles after death”16

• Victory and subjection. 3:19 and 4:6 not related.

• While the New Testament does not speak anywhere of preaching the gospel to spirits, it

does speak of the victory of Christ over the spiritual world (for example, 2 Cor 2:14; Eph

6:11-12; Col 2:15; Rev 12:7-11).17

Conclusion: Jesus preaching either salvation or victory is problematic. A message of salvation is

problematic in regards to righteous believers because several scriptures, such as Genesis 15:6

and Hebrews 11, make it clear that pre-Christ believers were already made righteous based on

15
Boring
16
Kelly, 81
17
Hard Sayings of the Bible
their faith in God and the coming Messiah. There was therefore no need for them to hear the

gospel. A message of salvation preached to the unrighteous, those who rejected God, is

problematic for anyone who sees universal grace as unscriptural.

A message of victory would be inappropriate applied to human spirits. Scripture does not

indicate that God gloats and boasts over people being condemned. Therefore, if the message was

one of victory the natural conclusion is that the spirits are fallen angels. “Yet if they were already

‘in prison,’ what precisely could further defeat and subjection mean? A possible answer to this

question is provided by Revelation 18:2, where “Babylon the great” (or Rome) is seen under

God’s final judgment as “a haunt for every unclean spirit” (REB). The word translated “haunt” in

the RSV is the same word translated “prison” in 3:1.”18 Overall, this latter conclusion makes the

most sense within the whole of First Peter, the context of chapter three, and taking into account

verse 22, which concludes the section verses 19 and 20 are in. [Jesus Christ] “who has gone into

heaven and is at God's right hand—with angels, authorities and powers in submission to him.”

WHERE IS THE PRISON?

1. Under the earth, i.e., Hades, Sheol, Tarturas, the Abyss, the Pit

2. Between heaven and earth

3. In heaven

Analysis:

• In the lower regions/Sheol/Hades: the place of the dead. This makes sense if “spirits”

refers to people. “Sheol” is sometimes spoken of as a prison house. Can also make sense

with the fallen angels.19

18
Holman Bible Dictionary
19
Arichea, 116
 • In the Book of Enoch Gehenna is the place of dead apostate Jews and Tartarus of fallen

angels. 22:2. Homer speaks of Hades as the place for dead men and Tartarus of fallen

immortals.20

• “When our Lord was about to cast out the demons from the maniac of Gadara, they

besought Him not to cast them into the deep, the abusson (Luke 8:31). The words

‘bottomless pit’ of Revelation 9:1 are literally ‘the well of the abusson,” same Greek

word as used in Luke 8:31, which fixes the Bottomless Pit as the prison house of

demons.”

• Luke 8:30, 31: “30Jesus asked him, ‘What is your name?’ ‘Legion,’ he replied, because

many demons had gone into him. 31And they begged him repeatedly not to order them to

go into the Abyss.” (NIV)

• 2 Peter 2:4: “4For if God did not spare angels when they sinned, but sent them to hell,

putting them into gloomy dungeons to be held for judgment;” (NIV)

• Rev. 9:1-11: “1The fifth angel sounded his trumpet, and I saw a star that had fallen from

the sky to the earth. The star was given the key to the shaft of the Abyss. 2When he

opened the Abyss, smoke rose from it like the smoke from a gigantic furnace. The sun

and sky were darkened by the smoke from the Abyss. 3And out of the smoke locusts

came down upon the earth and were given power like that of scorpions of the earth.

4They were told not to harm the grass of the earth or any plant or tree, but only those

people who did not have the seal of God on their foreheads. 5They were not given power

to kill them, but only to torture them for five months. And the agony they suffered was

like that of the sting of a scorpion when it strikes a man. 6During those days men will

seek death, but will not find it; they will long to die, but death will elude them.
20
Wuest, 100
 7The locusts looked like horses prepared for battle. On their heads they wore something

like crowns of gold, and their faces resembled human faces. 8Their hair was like

women's hair, and their teeth were like lions' teeth. 9They had breastplates like

breastplates of iron, and the sound of their wings was like the thundering of many horses

and chariots rushing into battle. 10They had tails and stings like scorpions, and in their

tails they had power to torment people for five months. 11They had as king over them the

angel of the Abyss, whose name in Hebrew is Abaddon, and in Greek, Apollyon.” (NIV)

• Neither “descent” nor “hell” is mentioned here.21

• Tertullian: “Abraham’s bosom, a region between Hades and Heaven, which houses all the

saints before and after Christ who are waiting to be resurrected at Jesus’ coming.”22

• In the upper regions, for those who prefer to think Jesus did this during his ascension.23

• The Jewish belief of levels in heaven. Jewish writings speak of a prison-like place being

kept in one of these divisions of heaven.24

• Refuge or prison?: If the spirits are the offspring of angels and are understood as demons

then the Greek word can be seen as a haven or refuge for evil spirits rather than a prison.

The word refers to the act of guarding or to a place that is guarded, usually a prison. 1

Enoch doesn’t use the same Greek word 1 Peter does, though there are many referenced

to bindings, prison, and confinements. The proclamation could have been that their

refuge was no longer inviolate, but they too must now submit to his sovereignty (cf. v 22,

“angels and authorities and powers”).25

21
Elliot, 638
22
Kelly, 81
23
Arichea, 116
24
Marshall, 125
25
Michaels 208
 • Somewhere in the heavens: In 2 Enoch Enoch is taken “to the second heaven” a place of

“a darkness greater than earthly darkness” and “prisoners under guard, hanging up,

waiting for the measureless judgment”.26

Conclusion: That the prison is below the earth somewhere seems most probable, however, “The

point is simply that Christ went and announced his sovereignty to these spirits wherever they

might be, in every place where they thought they were secure against their ancient divine Enemy.

The location of their strongholds…is not Peter’s main concern.”27

WHEN DID JESUS DO THIS?

1. The pre-existent Christ preached through Noah.

2. Sometime between the crucifixion and resurrection.

3. Sometimes after the resurrection, most likely during or after Jesus’ ascension.

Analysis:

• Augustine was the first to propose that Christ embodied Noah.28

• Although the pre-existent Christ is mentioned in the NT, the passage starts at the

sufferings of Jesus, not the incarnation.29

• Between resurrection and ascension follows the logical sequence.30

• There is no sense of a shift in time in the passage.31

• 3:18b-19a: “He was put to death in the body but made alive by the Spirit, 19through

whom also he went and preached to the spirits in prison.” (NIV)

26
Ibid., 210
27
Ibid
28
Kelly, 61
29
Arichea, 114
30
Ibid.
31
Michaels, 210
 • In His disembodied state after his spirit left him on the cross. In his human spirit.32

• “Peter inserts into the normal creedal order an expansion; namely, it was in the latter

mode of existence, that of the spirit, that Christ ‘went and preached to the spirits in

prison.’… More likely the interpretation is that Peter is using the construction in a

general sense such as ‘in the process’ (Selwyn) or ‘ in his spiritual mode of existence,’

that is, post-resurrection (Kelly)…It was, then, in his post-resurrection state that Christ

went somewhere...”33

Conclusion: The idea that the spirit of Christ preached through the body of Noah holds no

weight. The other two theories seem to be on equally shaky ground. The second theory nudges

out the last mostly because verses 18-22 seem to follow a chronological order and verses 19 and

20 are situated between the crucifixion and the resurrection and glorification of Christ.

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF THE PASSAGE?

1. To encourage believers to be bold in preaching the gospel, particularly to their persecutors.

2. To encourage believers to remain strong under persecution and to cling to the promise that

they will share in the glory and inheritance of Christ.

Analysis:

• Those who think Christ inhabited Noah, or preached to those of Noah’s day, this was the

gospel. Some would also say all the deal. “Preach” can mean no more than ‘make

proclamation.” If the above theories are correct the only lesson to be learned is to

persevere in preaching to the worst of sinners, the persecutors, following in Christ’s

example.34
32
Wuest, 98
33
Davids, 138
34
Marshall, 128
 • Peter’s point is not that the disobedient spirits were “imprisoned” in the sense of being

inactive when Christ came to them, but that He came to them in their “haunts” or

“havens” to notify them that their power over humanity was finally broken and that now

they must surrender to His universal dominion.35

• Christ announced his victory and their defeat. They are now subject to him (3:22). So

Christians need not be afraid of the evil powers that are behind their persecutions.36

• “1 Peter 3:18-22...opens with a reference to Christ and provides a Christological basis for

the foregoing call for doing what is right despite suffering.”37

• Peter perceived the persecution of Christians to be caused by demonic forces. We are in a

battle in which the power of God is pitted against the power of Satan.38

• “If we interpret the passage in this way, we see that Peter aimed to present Christ as an

example of suffering for doing good, to show how his death brings believers to God, to

stress the fact that though Christ died he was brought to life (as believers will be), to

emphasize how Christ proclaimed his triumph to the spirits who corrupted the people of

Noah’s time, and to stress that Christ, now enthroned alongside God, is superior to all

supernatural powers. Consequently, Christians can confidently stand up to hostility and

bear a courageous witness, knowing that they will be vindicated just as Christ was.”39

Conclusion: Peter is linking the life and sufferings of Christ with those of the first century

believers. Just as Christ suffered and was glorified, claiming his victory over his evil foes, so will

believers be glorified and claim victory. Scripture is clear that we are in a spiritual battle

35
J. Ramsey Michaels, Holman Bible Dictionary
36
Marshall, 128
37
Elliot, 638-39
38
Marshall, 117
39
Ibid., 128
(Ephesians 6). In the latter part of this letter Peter likens the devil to a prowling lion, waiting to

devour those who are weak.

FINAL CONSIDERATIONS:

1. 1 Peter 4:6: “For this is the reason the gospel was preached even to those who are now dead,

so that they might be judged according to men in regard to the body, but live according to God in

regard to the spirit.” (NIV)

• Different verb. The one used for preach is euangelizo, clearly preaching the gospel. Also,

this proclamation is a past completed act, completed by the very fact that they are dead,

hence the use of the aorist. Peter indicates by this choice of tense that he is not speaking

of something ongoing.40

• The odd use of “the dead” is necessitated by 4:5 because Peter is concerned with how

people now dead will be ultimately judged. Not parallel circumstances.41

2. Jewish traditions, apocrypha, and the Books of Enoch

 “The significant advance instigated by Spitta was to identify the body of literature

—the apocryphal and pseudopigraphical writings of the intertestamental period

and their amplification of the Flood narrative of Genesis—that provided the

closest and clearest conceptual background for understanding the references to the

Flood and its surrounding events present in 1 Peter 3:19-20. As proponents of the

fourth view have long recognized, a reading of these Petrine verses in the light of

this extensive Flood tradition provides the most productive basis for deciphering

these enigmatic verses.”42

40
Davids, 154
41
Marshall, 127
42
Elliot
  There is agreement on virtually all sides that Jewish traditions about Enoch

(occasioned by Gen. 5:24), especially in 1 Enoch, have influenced Peter’s

thought (and possibly his language) at this point.43

3. Contemporary Significance:

 The need to believe in final justice

 The need to live in light of that justice.

 “Perhaps we have been worn down by the seeming lack of justice in our world,

worn down into living in apathy about justice—and especially final justice.

Justice in our world seems to be haphazard, even chaotic, and it seems extremely

slow in its realization…Before long we can slide into a state of not believing in

ultimate justice…we live in a day when many people have surrendered their belief

in justice to the winds of modernity and realism.

 We must attempt to regain a belief in justice, but we must transfer our hope away

from governmental officials to God, to his actions both in this world and

especially in the next. It is in that future that we need to focus our hope for final

vindication and justice…My contention is that Peter wants you to focus on the

final day when God will bring about ultimate justice. He wants you to say: (1) I

will not conform to the sinful habits of my peers and friends; (2) I will remain

faithful to the teachings of Jesus by living faithfully and obediently; (3) I will

endure lonely nights and few friends; (4) I will find my friends in those who seek,

with me, to be obedient; and (5) I will look forward to the day when God shows

that faithfulness rather than acceptance is the truer virtue…we need to get our

eyes off the problems of acceptance and get them focused squarely on God’s final
43
Michaels, 207
 day of vindication, when all will be made right and all true virtues will appear for

what they are: the will of God, now done on earth as it is in heaven.”44

4. Linguistics (see attached)

Where the prison is and when Jesus preached or in what form is really not as important as to

whom He preached and what He preached. I have already stated my preference for fallen angels

being the spirits, cemented by the fact that I cannot get on board with Christ preaching salvation

to those who rejected him previously and therefore offering them a “second chance” or preaching

victory to them, the latter because there is no clear relevance to believers that lines up with

Scripture. Reading through 1Peter in one setting front to back would lead one to conclude that

Peter is encouraging believers who are being persecuted and suffering. Therefore, I believe the

purpose of this passage is to strengthen believers and reiterate to them the hope to which they

have been called and their glorious inheritance which will “never perish, spoil or fade.” (1 Peter

1: 4) The message was one of victory and triumph, of declaring Himself Lord. I see this very

clearly in the conclusion of the passage being that all angels, powers and authorities are

submitted to Him.

Examples of important language considerations:

(From the NAS Hebrew and Greek Dictionary)

IN THE FLESH
44
McKnight, 221-22
G4561

sarx; a prim. word; flesh:—bodily (1), bodily condition (1), body (2), earth (1), earthly (1),

fellow countrymen (1), flesh (129), fleshly (4), life (3), man (1), mankind (1), nation (1),

personally (1).

ALSO

G2532

καί

kai; a prim. conjunc.; and, even, also:—accompanied (1), actually (2), after (2), again (1),

again *(1), along (4), also (535), although (1), although *(1), besides *(1), both (37), both *(1),

certainly (1), continue (1), either (2), else (1), even (132), forty-six *(1), if (1), including (1),

indeed (20), indeed *(2), just (3), likewise (1), more *(2), moving about freely *(1), nor (4), now

(2), only (2), only *(1), or (11), same (1), so (30), than (2), than *(4), then (105), though (1),

though *(6), together (1), too (34), until (1), very (3), well (13), when (7), whether (1), while (1),

whose *(1), without *(4), yet (9).

HE WENT

G4198

πορεύομαι

poreuomai; from πόρος poros (a ford, passage); to go:—accompany *(1), am on my way

(1), depart (1), departed (1), departure (1), following (3), go (69), go on their way (1), go away

(1), goes (7), going (15), going away (2), gone (3), indulge (1), journey (1), journeying (2), leave

(1), proceed (1), proceeded (2), pursued a course (1), sets (1), started (3), traveling (3), walking

(1), way (6), went (22), went His way (1), went on their way (1), went their way (1).
MADE PROCLAMATION

G2784

̄
kerusso;̄ of unc. or.; to be a herald, proclaim:—made proclamation (1), preach (16),

preached (10), preacher (1), preaches (2), preaching (11), proclaim (8), proclaimed (6),

proclaiming (6).

SPIRITS

G4151

πνεῦμα

pneuma; from G4154; wind, spirit:—breath (3), Spirit (239), spirit (103), spirits (32),

spiritual (1), wind (1), winds (1).

PRISON

G5438

φυλακή

phulakē; from G5442; a guarding, guard, watch:—guard (1), imprisonment (1),

imprisonments (2), prison (34), prisons (3), time of the night (1), watch (4).

G5442

φυλάσσω

phulassō; from a root φυλακ- phulak-; to guard, watch:—abstain (1), guard (8), guarded (1),

guarding (1), guards (1), keep (5), keeping (2), keeps (1), kept (4), kept under guard (1), maintain

(1), observe (2), preserved (1), protect (1), watching (1).

G1

Α, α

alpha; first letter of the Greek alphabet; alpha, as num. G1 or G1000, as pref. (1) negative

(2) copulative (3) intensive (see also G256a).

G3982

πείθω

peithō; a prim. vb.; to persuade, to have confidence:—assure (1), confident (3), convinced

(7), followed (2), have confidence (2), having confidence (2), listen (1), obey (3), obeying (1),

persuade (4), persuaded (8), persuading (1), put...trust (1), put confidence (1), put...confidence

(1), relied (1), seeking the favor (1), sure (2), took...advice (1), trust (2), trusted (1), trusting (1),

trusts (1), urging (1), win...over (1), won over (2).

Bibliography

Achtemeir, Paul J. 1 Peter: A Commentary on First Peter. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. 1996.
Arichea, Daniel C. and Eugene A. Nida. A Translator’s Handbook on The First Letter From
Peter. Stuttgart: United Bible Societies. 1980.

Boring, M. Eugene. 1 Peter. Nashville: Abingdon Press. 1999.

Butler, Trent C., Editor. Holman Bible Dictionary. Holman Bible Publishers, 1991.

Dalton, William Joseph. Christ’s Proclamation to the Spirits. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute.
1965.

Davids, Peter H. The First Epistle of Peter. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.
1990.

Elliott, John H. 1 Peter. New York: Doubleday, 2000.

Kaiser, Walter C. Jr., Peter H. Davids, F.F. Bruce, Manfred T. Brauch. Hard Sayings of the
Bible. Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press, 1996. Electronic Edition STEP files, Hiawatha:
Parsons Technology, Inc., 1997.

Kelly, W. The Preaching to the Spirits in Prison. Sunbury: Believers Bookshelf. 1970.

Marshall, I. Howard. 1 Peter. Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press. 1991.

Michaels, J. Ramsey. 1 Peter. Waco: Word Books. 1988.

Thomas, Robert L., Editor. NAS Hebrew and Greek Dictionary. La Habra: The Lockman
Foundation, 1981, 1998. Wuest, Kenneth S. First Peter in the Greek New Testament.
Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. 1947.