Cabello Et Al 2016 Global Change Monitoring Handbook

Global Change Monitoring Handbook
A PROPOSAL FOR ARID AND SEMIARID ENVIRONMENTS
Javier Cabello, María Jacoba Salinas, María Trinidad Torres, Hermelindo Castro (Editors)
AUTHORS:
Domingo Alcaraz-Segura
Eva Arnau
Francisco Javier Arrebola
Javier Cabello
J. Jesús Casas
Antonio J. Castro
Hermelindo Castro
Jorge Curiel
Francisco Domingo
Ingrid Fanés
Juan Ramón Fernández-Cardenete
Sonia Fernández-Montes
Francisca Fuentes-Rodríguez
Marina García-Llorente
Antonia Garrido
Esther Giménez FUNDING:
Emilio Guirado
This document was written under the «POCTEFEX-TRANSHÁBITAT:
Andrew S. Kowalski Desarrollo sostenible del espacio transfronterizo Red Natura 2000 y
Ana López-Ballesteros hábitats de interés común Andalucía-Marruecos» Project [Sustainable
Enrique López-Carrique Development of the cross-border Natura 2000 Network and habitats
Almudena López-Escoriza of Andalusian-Moroccan shared interest] (Junta de Andalucía, ERDF).
It is an adaptation of the teaching material used in the course entitled
María Dolores López-Rodríguez
“Evaluation and monitoring of global change in semiarid regions,” which
Patricia Lourenço was given by the Centro Andaluz para la Evaluación y Seguimiento del
José Luis Martínez-Vidal Cambio Global [Andalusian Centre for Global change Evaluation and
José Luis Molina-Pardo Monitoring (CAESCG) at the Multidisciplinary College of Nador (Université
Mohammed Premier, Morocco) in October 2013, within the framework of
Eulalia Moreno
action taken under this project.
Raúl Ortega
Cecilio Oyonarte
Cristina Quintas HOW TO CITE:
Juan Miguel Requena-Mullor
The complete study:
Andrés Reyes
Fernando S. Rodrigo
Cabello J., Salinas M. J., Torres M. T., Castro. H. 2016. (Eds.). Global Change
María Jacoba Salinas Monitoring Handbook. A proposal for arid and semiarid environments.
Enrique P. Sánchez-Cañete Fundación Patrimonio Natural, Biodiversidad y Cambio Global. Almería.
Penélope Serrano pp. 110.
María Trinidad Torres
Subchapters and sections (e.g.):
EDITORIAL DESIGN: Fernández-Montes S., Rodrigo F. S. 2016. Cambio climático. En: Cabello
Emilio Guirado J., Salinas M. J., Torres M. T., Castro. H. (Eds.), Global Change Monitoring
Sol Ravassa Handbook. A proposal for arid and semiarid environments, pgs. 23-31.
Fundación Patrimonio Natural, Biodiversidad y Cambio Global. Almería.
© 2016 Fundación Patrimonio Natural,
Biodiversidad y Cambio Global. ISBN: 978-84-606-6297-6
CONTENTS
PART I. PRESENTATION ................................................................ 07
Who we are ................................................................ 09
PART II. INTRODUCTION ................................................................ 11
1. Ecosystems global-scale monitoring. A window for developing countries ................................................................ 14

2. Sharing knowledge for monitoring arid and semiarid ecosystems in
Northern Morocco ................................................................ 17
PART III. MONITORING METHODOLOGIES ................................................................21
Chapter 1. Drivers of Change ................................................... 23 3
1. CLIMATE CHANGE ................................................................ 23
Sonia Fernández-Montes, Fernando S. Rodrigo

1.1. Evolution of temperatures ................................................................ 25
1.2. Evolution of precipitation regime ................................................................ 26
1.3. Analysis of extreme phenomena ................................................................ 27
1.4. How easy the implementation of climate change monitoring is? ................................................................ 31
2. LAND-USE CHANGES ................................................................ 32

Javier Cabello, Juan Miguel Requena-Mullor, María Trinidad Torres, Cecilio Oyonarte
2.1. Desertification ................................................................ 33
2.2. Habitat fragmentation ................................................................ 36
2.3. Land use change rates ................................................................ 39
2.4. How easy the implementation of land-use changes monitoring is? ................................................................ 41
3. WATER POLLUTION ................................................................ 43

José Luis Martínez-Vidal, Antonia Garrido, Francisco Javier Arrebola
3.1. Water quality. Monitoring physicochemical parameters ................................................................ 43
3.2. How easy the implementation of water pollution monitoring is? ................................................................ 47
4. BIOLOGICAL INVASIONS: PLANT SPECIES ................................................................ 48

María Jacoba Salinas, Javier Cabello, Almudena López-Escoriza, María Trinidad Torres
4.1. Sources of introduction and naturalisation rates ................................................................ 48
4.2. Monitoring invasive species ................................................................ 51
4.3. Extent of habitat invasion ................................................................ 55
4.4. How easy the implementation of invasive plant monitoring is? ................................................................ 57
Chapter 2. Conservation status of biodiversity and ecosystems ................................................... 59
1. ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY OF RIVERS ................................................................ 59

J. Jesús Casas, Francisca Fuentes-Rodríguez, Ingrid Fanés
1.1. Monitoring biological parameters ................................................................ 61
1.2. Monitoring hydromorphological parameters ................................................................ 64
1.3. How easy the implementation of integrity of rivers monitoring is? ................................................................ 65
2. TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS ................................................................ 67

2.1. Monitoring points of amphibian reproduction ................................................................ 67
José Luis Molina-Pardo, Juan Ramón Fernández-Cardenete
2.2. Monitoring reptiles ................................................................ 69
José Luis Molina-Pardo, Juan Ramón Fernández-Cardenete
2.3. Populations of birds of prey ................................................................ 71
Enrique López-Carrique, Eulalia Moreno
2.4. Plant populations ................................................................ 73
María Jacoba Salinas, Javier Cabello
4 ................................................................ 74
2.5. Flowering phenology
Esther Giménez, Javier Cabello, María Jacoba Salinas
2.6. Species composition in plant communities ................................................................ 76
Javier Cabello, María Jacoba Salinas
2.7. Changes in the conservation status of endangered species ................................................................ 77
Javier Cabello, María Jacoba Salinas
2.8. How easy the implementation of terrestrial ecosystems monitoring is? ................................................................ 78
Javier Cabello, Esther Giménez, Enrique López-Carrique, José Luis Molina-Pardo, Eulalia Moreno, Juan
Ramón Fernández-Cardenete, María Jacoba Salinas
Chapter 3. Ecosystem functions ................................................... 81
1. EVALUATING ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONING WITH REMOTE SENSING TOOLS ................................................................ 81

Javier Cabello, Domingo Alcaraz-Segura, Andrés Reyes, Patricia Lourenço, Raúl Ortega, Emilio Guirado
2. DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF SOIL-ATMOSPHERE CARBON EXCHANGE ................................................................ 87
Cecilio Oyonarte, Francisco Domingo, Penélope Serrano, Enrique P. Sánchez-Cañete, Eva Arnau,
Andrew S. Kowalski, Jorge Curiel, Ana López-Ballesteros
3. ESTIMATING OF ORGANIC CARBON STOCKS IN TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS ................................................................ 90
Cecilio Oyonarte, María Trinidad Torres, Javier Cabello, María Jacoba Salinas
4. HOW EASY THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONING MONITORING ................................................................ 92
IS?
Domingo Alcaraz-Segura, Eva Arnau, Javier Cabello, Jorge Curiel, Francisco Domingo, Emilio Guirado,
Andrew S. Kowalski, Ana López-Ballesteros, Patricia Lourenço, Raúl Ortega, Cecilio Oyonarte, Enrique
P. Sánchez-Cañete, Andrés Reyes, María Jacoba Salinas, Penélope Serrano, María Trinidad Torres
Chapter 4. Ecosystem services ................................................... 95
1. ECOSYSTEM SERVICES EVALUATION ................................................................ 97

Antonio J. Castro, Marina García-Llorente, Cristina Quintas
2. IDENTIFICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF SOCIAL STAKEHOLDERS ................................................................ 98
3. HOW EASY THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES MONITORING IS? ................................................................ 99
Chapter 5. Adaptive governance ..................................................101
1. SCIENCE-POLICY INTERFACES FOR IMPROVING ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE ..................................................102

María Dolores López-Rodríguez, Javier Cabello, Hermelindo Castro
2. HOW EASY THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE ..................................................
MONITORING IS? ..................................................107
María Dolores López-Rodríguez, Javier Cabello, Hermelindo Castro
...................
Acknowledgments ...........................................
..................................................108
5
Manual para el seguimiento del Cambio Goblal:
Propuesta de indicadores
Parte III: Metodologías de seguimiento
Capítulo 1: Clima
PART I
PRESENTATION
• Who we are
A proposal for arid and semiarid environments
8
Part I: Presentation
Who we are
«Aerial view of Cabo de Gata», Cabo de Gata-Níjar Natural Park (Southeast Iberian Peninsula ).
Photo: CAESCG.
WHO WE ARE
The Centro Andaluz para la Evaluación y el Seguimiento del Cambio Global [Andalusian
Centre for Global Change Monitoring and Evaluation] (CAESCG) is a research centre
promoted by the Regional Ministry of Economy, Innovation, Science and Employment and
the Regional Ministry of Environment and Territorial Zoning of Andalusia, located at the
University of Almeria. Its purpose is to serve as a platform for meeting and collaboration
for research in Global Change and Management of the Natural Environment. It is therefore
committed to collective intelligence and transfer of knowledge to managers, and in
general, to all of society, through the diffusion and impact of its findings. Its Research,
Development and Innovation (RD&I) can thus assist in reorienting environmental
management policies in the framework of global change, using protected spaces as
laboratories and observatories for testing dynamic, adaptive management models.
The CAESCG vision is a new context in which environmental problems derived from Global
Change are dealt with through the interaction of scientists, managers and the general
public under the paradigm of sustainable development of socio-ecological systems.
At the CAESCG we work to achieve leadership in applying science for monitoring and
adaptation to Global Change. Our goals are to generate knowledge related to Global
Change ecology and establish new frameworks where scientists, managers, educators,
politicians and the general public can work together to manage socio-ecological systems
rationally and responsibly.
Capítulo 1: Clima
PART II. INTRODUCTION

1. Global Change Monitoring. A window for develo-
ping countries
2. Sharing knowledge for monitoring arid and semiarid
ecosystems in northern Morocco
12
Part II: Introduction
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
The adequate management of the changes undergone by ecosystems as a
consequence of the increase in human activity, is one of the major challenges faced by
humanity today. Both ecosystems quality and biodiversity are at the basis of our well-
being. This problem is already global, but it is particularly critical in arid ecosystems, where
human populations require enormous technological investment and consumption of
critical resources (water and biodiversity) for their development.
Considering the current environmental scenario, management schemas for the so-
called “socio-ecosystems” must be put into practice to maintain their natural component
(ecosystems) in an adequate conservation status, while support human development at the
same time. The first step in this task is to implement long-term monitoring programmes of
global effects on the ecosystems. From such programmes, we could derive key knowledge
to understand ecosystems dynamics under human pressure, and hence, re-orient our
activities accordingly. This handbook must be considered in this context. Its basic goal
is to contribute with contents and techniques to the development of these programmes
in the world’s arid and semiarid ecosystems, by proposing indicators that we have been
tested in Andalusia drylands. Monitoring programmes often emphasize the acquisition
of infrastructures more than the education and training of personnel, and although the 13
first question is obviously basic, the second is critical, particularly in countries where the
academic and scientific structure is still under development.
This document is part of a study carried out in the framework of the “POCTEFEX-
TRANSHABITAT” Project: Sustainable development of the cross-border Natura 2000
Network and habitats of shared Andalusian-Moroccan interest». Its general goal was to
unify all the criteria for an environmental management of the habitats of community
interest shared by Andalusia and Marocco. These case studies play an important role in the
knowledge of the ecological characteristics and management of these habitats, and form
the basis for their transmission to the Moroccan frontier territory. The CAESCG specifically
contributed to this project in four actions whose goals were to: 1) map land cover and use
to facilitate territorial zoning and management of habitats, 2) set the basis for cross-border
conservation and habitat management, 3) transfer scientific and technical knowledge for
training professionals in the management of ecosystems under human influence, and 4)
develop social processes generating cooperative knowledge related to identification of
problems and solutions for sustainability of protected areas.
This handbook summarizes the knowledge we shared with our Moroccan colleagues
(scientists, technicians and students) when the above four actions have been carried
out, but in particular, it is the product of systematic organisation of subject matters and
contents explained in the Global Change Monitoring training course which we taught
at the Multidisciplinary College of Nador. The result is a document which summarizes
the knowledge and techniques we consider basic to monitoring Global Change in arid
ecosystems.

The experience acquired during the Project and Exchange of ideas, knowledge and
realities with our Moroccan colleagues helped make the proposal more realistic.
1. ECOSYSTEMS GLOBAL-SCALE MONITORING.

A WINDOW FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Maintaining monitoring programmes is a great challenge for developing countries.
On one hand, knowing the state of biodiversity and ecosystems is critical to their
development, and on the other, there are difficulties associated with funding,
equipment and personnel training to ensure data acquisition and publicising results.
In particular, there is a need to maintain what has been called “institutional memory”,
that is, a type of training that transcends individuals to institutions. This is essential
to maintenance of long-term monitoring programmes. This handbook is therefore
intended to contribute to training professionals who can then support their institutions
and countries.
There are two tools through the international community with which the
14 international community is contributing to monitoring global change: 1) development
of global databases, and 2) advances in space technology.
In a world that is culturally and environmentally globalized, acquiring the data

necessary for monitoring and management of ecosystems involves a strong collective
effort for the international community.
Environmental information helps us to understand how the planet’s ecosystems

are changing and what role human activities have in these changes. Thus production
of environmental databases on a global scale is a huge challenge to environmental
professionals and leads enormous benefits to society, whose development and
well-being depend on conservation. Nowadays many organisations are involved in
generating and recording environmental data for global databases. For example, there
are multi-thematic platforms such as The European Earth Observation Programme
(formerly the GMES), better known as the Copernicus programme. This programme is
the European Union’s contribution to the Global Earth Observation System of Systems
(GEOSS), which provides global environmental information. Other platforms like this
one are the UNEP Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) and the Long-
term Ecological Research Network (LTER). The first reports on climate, pollution,
oceans and renewable energies, and provides technical assistance to ensure the
participation of countries that lack the personnel or equipment necessary to collect
data. The LTER is a network of scientists and managers committed to research in
functioning of the planet’s ecosystems, which collects, manages and analyses long
environmental data series on different scales. In addition to these programmes, there
are also platforms offering data on particular subjects, such as, for example, the Global
Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), which collects biodiversity data from around
the world, the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA-IUCN), a spatial database
on the world’s protected areas, or WORLDCLIM, which offers high-spatial-resolution
global climate information.
Part II: Introduction
Monitoring on a global scale. A window
for developing countries
In spite of the difficulty involved, current technological development has made

it possible to carry out many projects that were unthinkable only a few years ago.
In particular, space technologies are performing a fundamental role in this type of
global monitoring network. Monitoring the Earth by remote sensing makes it possible
to acquire real-time data on a multitude of facets anywhere in the world and compile
them in databases accessible for all types of users.
Environmental information on a global scale can be used for many purposes by

different groups involved:
• Scientists: In addition to being the main generators of data, they are the most direct
beneficiaries of this type of information, which can be useful for a wide diversity of
projects. It also encourages inter and cross-disciplinary scientific studies.
• Managers: Global information facilitates monitoring by managers and their
knowledge about what measures are being carried out anywhere in the world, in
any region or ecosystem, and facilitare the comparison of the results.
• Government authorities: Global information has a fundamental role in developing
environmental legislation and policies for conservation, use, zoning and rehabilita-
tion of ecological resources and ecosystem services.
• Stakeholders : (Farmers, livestock raisers, entrepreneurs, ecotourists, associations,
etc.): Due to its accessibility, society can make use of global databases at any time. 15
SCIENTISTS
GLOBAL
STAKEHOLDERS DATABASES MANAGERS
GOVERNMENT
AUTHORITIES
REFERENCES
Collen B., Pettorelli N., Baillie J. E. M., Durant S. M. (Eds.). 2013. Biodiversity monitoring
andconservation: bridging the gap between global commitment and local action. Wiley-
Blackwell. Cambridge, UK.
Gowa E. K. 2009. Best practices in environmental information management in Africa: the

Uganda case study. UNEP/GRID-Arendal, NEMA Uganda. Arendal. Norway.
Gwynne M. D. 1982. The Global Enviroment Monitoring System (GEMS) or UNEP.

Environmental conservation 9: 35-41.
Soberón J. M., Peterson A. T.. 2009. Monitoring biodiversity loss with primary species-
occurrence data: toward national-level indicators for the 2010 Target of the Convention
on Biological Diversity. Ambio 38(1): 29-34.
Verburg P. H., NeumannnK., Nol A. 2011. Challenges in using land use and land cover data
for global change studies. Global Change Biology 17(2): 974-989.
LINKS
16
Group of Eath Observations: www.earthobservations.org
ILTER: www.ilternet.edu
LTER Europa: www.lter–europe.net
LTER España: www.lter–spain.net
The European Earth Observation Programme: www.copernicus.eu
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs. Natural Resources Management and
Environmental Monitoring: www.oosa.unvienna.org/oosa/SAP/rs/index.html
Part II: Introducción
Sharing knowledge for monitoring arid and
semiarid ecosystems in northern Morocco
2. SHARING KNOWLEDGE FOR MONITORING ARID AND

SEMIARID ECOSYSTEMS IN NORTHERN MOROCCO
This document is a proposal for indicators for monitoring the effects of global change
on ecosystems in Northern Morocco, derived from our experience in the development
of a monitoring programme of this type for arid and semiarid ecosystems in Andalusia
(GLOCHARID Project). The main principle that governed our work was the configuration
of an indicator scheme transferrable to other semiarid contexts in general, to the Moroccan
Rif in particular, and that could be employed in the implementation of a monitoring
system.
The proposal includes chapters on the following environmental subjects: climate

change drivers, biodiversity and ecosystems status, ecosystem functions, ecosystem
services and adaptive governance. Each one of the subchapters and sections that make
up these chapters includes a relatively brief introduction to the conceptual framework on
which this proposal for indicators was based and the availability and nature of databases
useful for the Rif. In continuation, ecological processes and environmental phenomena
to be monitored in each environment are described. The purposes of monitoring,
measurement frequency, methodology to be used for it and indicators to be evaluated
17
are given for each of these processes and phenomena. Occasionally, an example of the
application of these indicators in the southeast Iberian Peninsula is also given.
Radar graphs including seven variables that we think characterise and unify the
indicators proposed (regardless of the process or factor) have been plotted to show at a
glance how easy it would be to install a global change monitoring network. Each variable
has been weighted from 1 to 3, where 3 represents the easiest. Thus, the larger the area of
the graph, the easier it is to start up monitoring. The variables and their ranges are:
• Availability of databases: Spatial range of databases necessary to start up the moni-

toring programme.
Local 1
Regional 2
Global 3
• Technological capacity: Need for field infrastructures, high-technology laboratories,
computers and specific software, etc. (valued in €).
High-level facilities (>100.000) 1
Medium-level facilities (100.000–6.000) 2
Low-level facilities (<6.000) 3
• Spatial resolution: Estimated by sampling unit area.
High (from point to 250 m) 1
Medium (250 m–5 km) 2
Low ( >5 km) 3
• Temporal resolution: estimated by data recording frequency.

High (hours–16 days) 1
Medium (17 days–3 years) 2
Low (>3 years) 3
• Human resources: minimum number of people needed to start up the monitoring
programme.
High (>3 people) 1
Medium (3–2 people) 2
Low (1 people) 3
• Personnel qualifications: Training necessary.
High (specialist) 1
Medium (basic training) 2
Low (no training required) 3
• Minimum length os a time series to derive knowledge.
Long (>20 years) 1
Medium (19–6 years) 2
Short (5–1 years) 3
In some cases, the graph summarizes the set of indicators for a single process, while in
others the same graph shows a set of related processes.
18
Changes in land use Evaluation of ecosystem functioning with remote

Larger area, easier to implement sensing tools
Much smaller area, more limitations
3 3
1999 2000 1999 2000
2 2
1 1
0 0
Databases Spatial resolution Human resources Minimum length os a time

series to derive knowledge
Technological capacity Temporal resolution Qualifications
19
Capítulo 1: Clima
PART III
MONITORING
METHODOLOGIES
• Chapter 1. Drivers of change
• Chapter 2. Conservation status of biodiversity and ecosystems
• Chapter 3. Ecosystem functions
• Chapter 4. Ecosystem services
• Chapter 5. Adaptive governance
22
Part III: Monitoring methodologies
Chapter 1: Climate change
Chapter 1
DRIVERS OF CHANGE
23
«Cloud systems over the Iberian Peninsula». Photo: Javier Cabello
1. CLIMATE CHANGE
Cimate change has undergone significant acceleration in recent decades as a result
of human activities. The study of variations and trends in certain climate variables
enables us to monitor and predict these changes. By concentrating on temperature
and precipitation, the main climate variables, the climate conditions can easily be
analysed. Furthermore, the study of extreme phenomena provides more detailed
information to complete monitoring.
MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE
Temperte winters Modulated by the Atlantic influence Hot dry summers

DATABASES
On a global scale, for example, the database of the National Climatic Data Center in
the United States (NCDC) collects national and global information. Historical data from the
Global Historical Climatology Network (GHCN) are also available on its Website.
In Spain, the main source of information is the AEMET (Agencia Estatal de Meteorolo-
gía) weather station network’s website, which provides long reference daily (temperature)
and monthly (cumulative precipitation) series, in addition to the daily online database
(resolution 20x20 km) Spain02).
50 N
1007,5
1012 101
.5 0
24
101
5
101
7.5
1020
30 N
30 W 0 30 E
Study area location. The map shows the predominant anticyclonic conditions with slight northeasterly flows.
1.1 EVOLUTION OF TEMPERATURES

GOALS METHODOLOGY
The goal is to detect changes in
local and regional temperatures, and 1. Database
evaluate their trends, in order to mo- • Data are acquired from the meteorological station network.
nitor climate change and be able to • The spatial diversity must be covered.
design measures to help counteract • The time series must be long enough (at least 50 years).
it.
Along with the evolution of the

precipitation regime, different subre-
gions can be distinguished to reflect 2. Check the homogeneity of the series to make sure the data
the importance of the altitude factor are representative
(differentiating between mountains • The easiest way is to use a reference series acquired as part of
and coast) and geographic longitude neighbouring series with similar climate.
(W-E gradient). • Nonparametric tests can also be applied (do not apply hypotheses
to the statistical distribution of data) or parametric (generally
assume normal or Gaussian traits of the distribution functions
representative of climate variables). 25
FREQUENCY
Data found may be daily or
hourly depending on the database
and measurement sensors used. 3. Use Principle Components Analysis (PCA)
Although processing depends • Study of the space-time variability and reduction of the dimen-
on the indicators to be applied, sions of the problem (many stations and long time series).
temperature data is most • This enables classification and regionalisation of climate variables,
commonly monthly. that is, spatial representation (raster format).
INDICATORS
TYPE: State SCALE: Regional/Local
VARIABLE DEFINITION
T Mean temperature for a certain period (annual, monthly, daily)
TX Maximum temperature in a given period
TN Minimum temperature in a given period
Thermal amplitude: DTR TX–TN for a given period
T: temperature; TX: maximum temperature; TN: minimum temperature

1.2 EVOLUTION OF PRECIPITATION REGIME

GOALS METHODOLOGY
Monitoring the precipitation regime provides information on climate The methodology is the same as
change. It also assists in understanding the water balance, and thereby, better for temperature evolution.
management of water resource, as important as it is scarce in arid and semiarid
zones.
FREQUENCY
Databases usually provide daily data, but in some semiarid zones, where
precipitation is scarce, values may be monthly.
26
«Cape Tres Forcas», Northeast Morocco.

Photo: Cecilio Oyonarte.
INDICATORS
VARIABLE DEFINITION
Px Maximum precipitation (mm)
IP Intensity (mm/day)
PT Total cumulative precipitation for a given period
P: Precipitation
1.3 ANALYSIS OF EXTREME PHENOMENA

GOALS METHODOLOGY
Climate is not only described by
1. Database
its variables (temperature, precipi-
tation, wind, atmospheric pressure,
• Daily time resolution.
etc.), but also by its extreme pheno-
• The time series must be long enough to establish return periods
of at least 20 years.
mena, over a long period, so the pro-
babilities of their reoccurring can be
assigned effectively.
2. Check the homogeneity of the series
When extreme weather pheno-
mena are analysed, even when their
probability of occurrence is low, the
magnitude and duration of these 3. Apply extremes indices (According to ETCCDI)
events can be determined as either
the consequence of large-scale chan-
ges in climate, or occasional, chance
situations in time and space.
27
FREQUENCY
Depending on the indicator or
measurement sensor, hourly or daily
data can be found.
«The effects of a flash flood in a Mediterranean Rambla (dry river bed), Southeast Iberian Peninsula
Photo: Enrique López-Carrique.
INDICATORS
TEMPERATURE
VARIABLE DEFINITION
TX absolute Maximum temperature recorded at a site over a long period
TN absolute Minimum temperature recorded at a site over a long period
Tropical Nights: NT20 Number of nights in a given period when TX > 20ºC
Warm nights: TN90p Percentage of days when TN > 90th percentile
Cold nights: TN10p Percentage of days when TN < 10th percentile
Summer days: DV25 Number of days in a given period when TX > 25ºC
Cold days: TX10p Percentage of days when TX < 10th percentile

28
Warm days: TX90p Percentage of days when TX > 90th percentile
Glacial days: DGa0 Number of days in a given period when TX < 0ºC
Freezing days: DHe0 Number of days in a given period when TN < 0ºC
PRECIPITATION
VARIABLE DEFINITION
Consecutive wet days:

Number of consecutive days when P > 1mm
CWD
Consecutive dry days: DSC Number of consecutive days when P < 1mm
Maximum precipitation in
Maximum precipitation in one day
one day: RX1day
Maximum precipitation in 5
Most precipitation in 5 days: RX5day
días: RX5day
Days with intense

Number of days when P > 10 mm
precipitation: R10mm
Days with very intense

Number of days when P > 20 mm
precipitation: R20mm
TX: Maximum temperature; TN: Minimum temperature; P: Precipitation

MINIMUM TEMPERATURES
Wednesday 27 Thursday 28 Friday 29
MAXIMUM TEMPERATURES
Wednesday 27 Thursday 28 Friday 29
29
HEATWAVE IN JUNE 2012. SOURCE: Agencia Estatal de Meteorología.
CASE STUDY:
CLIMATE TRENDS IN SOUTHEAST IBERIAN PENINSULA
FROM 1970-2007
Study of climate variability in semiarid Andalusia is limited by an absence of
enough quality time series satisfactorily, covering the spatial extension for a long
enough period of time. Therefore, the Spain02 Network daily database, which
covers the period from 1950-2007 for the main climate parameters (maximum and
minimum temperature and precipitation) was used.
The Mann-Kendall nonparametric test detected the appearance of trends at

rates determined by linear regression for the period since 1970, the most reliable
time period in the database. The results derived from analysis showed:
• Generalized increase in temperatures (daily maximums and minimums) except

for:
- Decrease in Tmax in Almeria’s Poniente (west) where agriculture under

plastic may have increased solar reflectivity (albedo).
- Decrease in Tmin in winter in the Cazorla and Segura Mountains.

• Significant increase in precipitation in winter (10 to 40 mm/decade) in areas of
the SE and Gador Mountains.
• Increase in precipitation in autumn in the W and in Nijar.
• Significant decrease in precipitation in summer (from 5 to 20 mm/decade) in
the N and NE.
• Decrease in high altitudes to the NW.
CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE OBSERVED

TRENDS 1970–2000
<-1,0 -0,2 a 0 0,8 a 1,0 MINIMUM T MAXIMUM T

-1,0 a -0,8 0 a 0,2 1,2 a 1,4
Spring (MAM)
-0,8 a -0,6 0,2 a 0,4 1,4 a 1,6
-0,6 a -0,4 0,4 a 0,6 >1,6
-0,4 a -0,2 0,6 a 0,8
MINIMUM T MAXIMUM T
Annual (D to N)
Summer (JJA)
Autumn (SON)
Winter (DJF)
30
CHANGES OBSERVED IN PRECIPITATION

SEASONAL MEAN Winter (DJF) TRENDS 1970–2007
Precipitation (mm) (mm/decade)
5-30 <-30
30-60 -30 a -20
60-90 -20 a -10
90-120 -10 a -5
120-150 Spring (MAM) -5 a 5
150-180 5 a 10
210-240 10 a 20
240-270 20 a 30
270-300 >30
300-330 p–value<0,05
330-360 Summer (JJA)
360-390
Autumn (SON)
1.4 HOW EASY THE IMPLEMENTATION OF CLIMATE

CHANGE MONITORING IS?
Databases
Technological capacity
1999 2000
Spatial resolution
Temporal resolution
Human resources
Qualifications
Longitud mínima de la serie

temporal para derivar conoci-
miento
31
REFERENCES
Fernández-Montes S., Rodrigo F. S. 2015. Trends in surface air temperatures, precipitation
and combined indices in the south-east Iberian Peninsula (1970-2007). Climate Research.
En prensa. doi:10.3354/cr01287.
Fernández-Montes S., Rodrigo F. S., Seubert S., Sousa P. M. 2013. Spring and summer extreme
temperatures in Iberia during last century in relation to circulation types. Atmospheric
Research 127: 154–177.
Fernández–Montes S., Seubert S., Rodrigo F. S., Hertig E. 2012. Wintertime circulation types
over the Iberian Peninsula: Long–term variability and relationships with weather extremes.
Climate Research 53(3): 205-227.
Herrera S., Gutiérrez J. M., Ancell R., Pons M. R., Frías M. D., Fernández J. 2012. Development
and analysis of a 50-year high-resolution daily gridded precipitation dataset over Spain
(Spain02). International Journal of Climatology 32(1): 74-85.
Klein Tank A. M. G., F. W. Zwiers, Zhang X. 2009. Guidelines on Analysis of extremes in a
changing climate in support of informed decisions for adaptation. WMO-TD No. 1500.
SMC (Servei Meteorològic de Catalunya). 2008. Boletín anual de indicadores climáticos-
Año 2007.
Solomon S., Qin D., Manning M., Chen Z. [et al.] (Eds.). 2007. Climate Change 2007:
The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press.
Cambridge (UK), New York.
LINKS
ETCCDI. Expert Team on Climate Change Detection and Indices: www.clivar.org
REDIAM. Red de Información Ambiental de Andalucía: www.juntadeandalucia.es/
medioambiente/site/rediam
2. CHANGES IN LAND USE

Changes in land use are one of the main drivers of global change, severely affecting
biodiversity by causing fragmentation, loss and degradation of natural habitats.
Furthermore, these changes could potentially affect ecosystem services, and thereby, the
capacity to support the needs contributing to human welfare.
These changes are constant and come about every time variations and alterations
are generated in the size and distribution of the population, economic and technological
development or other human activities.
CHANGES IN LAND-USE ARE CONSIDERED ONE OF THE MAIN DRIVERS OF GLOBAL

CHANGE
DRIVERS OF CHANGE
32
Economic Cultural Social Technological
CONSEQUENCES
Land degradation and Climate change Loss of biodiversity, Water, air and soil
desertification habitat fragmentation pollution
and degradation
DATABASES
To evaluate land-use changes, it must be possible to make ad hoc maps or access
existing spatial databases. Landscape Functional
Moderate to high-resolution satellite images facilitate the evaluation of landscape and Analysis (LFA) is an
regional changes in land cover and land-use. Remote sensing provides large amounts of outstanding indicator-
information, constantly updated at repeated time intervals, and often, free access. Several based method, which
source of information can be used. The LANDSAT satellites, developed by the NASA, evaluates the state of soil
provided high-resolution images of land-use and cover from the eighties to the early 21st functionality based on
century. Today they are leaving way to new sensors such as MODIS and ASTER. Aerial stability, infiltration and
photographs are commonly used to generate small-scale maps of land-use and land nutrient recycling indices
cover. High-resolution spatial images (e.g., IKONOS, Quickbird) have recently begun to be
used as tools for characterizing cover and land-use in great detail.
Chapter 1: Changes in land use
2.1 DESERTIFICATION
Desertification is the persistent degradation of arid and semiarid ecosystems caused by human activity and climate
variation. It is the result of a discrepancy between human demand for ecosystem services and what those ecosystems
are able to provide.
GOALS METHODOLOGY
Evaluation of desertification
provides very valuable information 1. Select biophysical slow-response indicators associated
on soil degradation (loss of nutrients, with the ecosystem condition
loss of vegetation, decreased soil
production capacity, frequency
of erosive processes, and loss of 2. Evaluate landscape organisation
biodiversity). • Spatial distribution of vegetation and its cover.
The study of desertification should

include evaluation of the biophysical
3. Evaluate soil functionality
and socioeconomic dimensions in-
volved in this process.
• Nutrient stability, infiltration and recycling indicators.
33
4. Characterise soil degradation thresholds
FREQUENCY
From one to five years. 5. Make soil degradation maps
6. Participatory analysis of degradation processes
«Effects of erosion on semiarid Mediterranean environments», Cape Tres Forcas (Northeast Morocco).
Photo: CAESCG.
INDICATORS
TYPE: State SCALE: Regional
ESCALE REPORTS ON VARIABLE DEFINITION
Total cover Estimates vulnerability to erosion by raindrops
Estimates of nature and severity of current

Type and degree of erosion
erosion
Stability
Materials deposited Evaluates the amount of alluvial deposits
Estimates the probability of soil loss from me-

Resistance to disturbance
chanical disturbance
Basal herbaceous and shrub Evaluates the contribution of root biomass to

cover nutrient recycling
LANDSCAPE Dead leaf cover and extent Indicates surface organic matter availability for
34 AND PLOT of decomposition nutrient decomposition and recycling
Nutrient Infiltration
and Recycling Indicator of soil surface roughness as a function
Microtopography of its capacity to hold water sediments and
seeds
Evaluates the seasonality/dispersion of soil

Wetting test
aggregates when wet
Indicator of water infiltration and storage

Infiltration Texture
capacity
Indicator of soil surface stability, its resistance to

Nutrient recycling Biological crust cover
erosion and nutrient availability
Intensity and extension of regional

% area desertified
desertification
REGION
NDVI (Normalized Differen-
Evaluates vegetation functionality
ce Vegetation Index)
CASE STUDY:
EVALUATION OF DESERTIFICATION IN THE SOUTHEAST IBERIAN PENINSULA
This process can be evaluated for the period from 1956 to 2003 based on
desertification maps provided by the Andalusian Government (DESERNET II Project).
The combination of climate information, groundwater, adequacy of soil use and

production capacity, geomorphology, land uses and biodiversity have contributed
in mapping, and thereby in finding currently or nearly desertified areas, where
these processes are now active, whether as the consequence of natural or historic
causes, or from recent processes.
There has been a rising trend of surfaces affected in the study area since
1956 attributable to intensification of land uses involving overexploitation and
degradation of groundwater in the territory.
In general, semiarid Andalusia is highly desertified except for the high Betic
Mountains in the centre of the study area where conditions have deteriorated but
are not a cause for concern. 35
1956 1999 2003
0 20 40
Km N
NOT EVALUATED
AREAS VERY FAR FROM DESERTIFICATION
AREAS POTENTIALLY NEAR DESERTIFICATION
AREAS POTENTIALLY VERY NEAR DESERTIFICATION
AREAS VERY NEAR AND/OR DESERTIFIED

2.2 HABITAT FRAGMENTATION

Habitat fragmentation refers to the division of smaller portions and is considered one of the main threats to the
conservation of species and ecosystems.
GOALS METHODOLOGY
Evaluate how altered the structure
1. Download or make habitat maps
and functioning of landscape-scale
ecosystems has become.
• Based on information from available maps or field studies.
2. Estimate fragmentation and connectivity indices

• Using Geographic Information Systems.
FREQUENCY
These changes are usually studied yearly.
36
INDICATORS
REPORTS ON VARIABLE DEFINITION
Mean area of habitat patches which still remain in the

Mean size of habitat patches
landscape
Shape of habitat patches Estimated from the perimeter/area ratio

TOPOLOGICAL
PROPERTIES OF
HABITATS Each habitat pixel is assigned to one of the following
Morphological analysis of the spatial categories based on its location with regard to other
pattern habitat pixels: interior, edge, bridge, loop, arm and island
habitats
Measure structural connectivity and are based on basic

Distance-based indices
metapopulation theory concepts
Cost distances are a function of a species’ resistance

to movement which depends on the characteristics of
Indices based on cost distances
each land-use and the capacity for dispersion of the
organisms
ECOLOGICAL
CONNECTIVITY
Based on the correlation between the presence and
Indices based on displacement models abundance of a series of reference species to certain
landscape characteristics
Potential connectivity indices based on Can represent the landscape pattern in a simplified
graph theories manner based on arcs and nodes
CASE STUDY:
FUTURE LAND-USE CHANGES ON FRAGMENTATION AND CONNECTIVITY
OF ECOSYSTEMS IN THE SOUTHEAST IBERIAN PENINSULA
(Based on Piquer–Rodríguez et al. 2012)
ECOREGIONS IN THE SOUTHEAST

IBERIAN PENINSULA
37
SUBHUMID BETIC MID-MOUNTAIN
DRY BETIC MID-MOUNTAIN
SUBDESERT MEDITERRANEAN COAST
EASTERN INLAND WATERSHEDS

0 5 10 20 30 40
N Km BETIC HIGH-MOUNTAIN
Fragmentation and structural connectivity of the habitats were analysed combining image segmentation
with graph theory. To quantify fragmentation, morphological analyses of spatial patterns were applied (Vogt
et al. 2007). This approach divides an image entered into a set of components that provide information on
the size of the patch, its shape, geometry and connections.
BRIDGE:
Connection between two cores
EDGE:
PERFORATED:
Edge habitat inside a large core
CORE:
ISLET:
Small patch with no core
«Types of fragmentation spatial patterns»

Source: Vogt et al. 2007
The results predict increased fragmentation in the province of Almeria for 2015, when the core of natural
vegetation will diminish by 6.5% to a total cover of 64%. However, the edge will increase by 6.1%, while
bridges (0.18%) and small islands (0.07%) will remain practically stable (see graph below).
If the territory is differentiated, edge areas increased, especially in mountainous ecoregions (East Betic
Valley, Baza-FIlabres Mountains and Gador Mountains) and along the coast in coastal watersheds, while
small islands decreased along the coast.
Fragmentation was not uniform. Fragmentation of habitats was characterised by an increase in edge
elements in inland mountainous areas and loss of islets in coastal ecoregions.
120
100
38
80
60
BRIDGE
40
EDGE
PERFORATION
20
ISLET
CORE
0
1991 1999 2007 2015
«Changes in fragmentation components in the study area over time» Source: Piquer–Rodríguez et al. 2012.
2.3 LAND-USE CHANGE RATES

Changes in land use and cover are an essential element in global change research programmes. A deeper study of
change rates and causes has led to the concept of land use transition in reference to any change in land use systems from
one state to another, either in type of use or intensity.
GOALS METHODOLOGY
Find out the magnitude and spe- All the operations are done using GISs.
ed of changes in land use in a region
and the most common processes of 1. Define land use categories
change. • e.g. agriculture, urban, forest...
The rate of change in land use

may be represented in the form of a
matrix of transitions in use, where the 2. Define and compare changes
transition between each pair of uses is • e.g. intensification (agriculture, urban), naturalization, no change.
shown as the extent or proportion of
area by unit of time.
3. Calculate the percentage of area in which each process has

occurred over a time interval
39
FREQUENCY
From 1 to 10 years.
4. Calculate the change rate for the processes identified
INDICATORS
TYPE: Pressure SCALE: Regional/Local
VARIABLE EQUATION
tc = [(S2 / S1 )/S1] x 100

Change rate in a use category
Where:
• tc = change rate
• S1 = Area of use class or change on date 1 in hectares
Process change rate • S2 = Area of that use class or change process on date 2 in hectares
• n = Difference in years between one date and the other
CASE STUDY:
LAND-USE CHANGE RATE IN THE GUADIX DISTRICT (SOUTHEAST IBERIA)
Changes in use were studied in the Plateau of Granada province, specifically in a small window of 50,000
hectares in the Guadix District (Comarca) (154,000 hectares), located in the semiarid northeast from 1956
to 2007.
ECOPROVINCES IN ARID
SOUTHEAST ANDALUSIA
Subhumid Betic Mid-Mountain
Dry Betic Mid-Mountain
Subdesert Mediterranean Coast
40 Eastern inland watersheds
Betic high-mountain
GUADIX N
N
0 10 Km 0 20 40
Km
To find out the changes that have occurred, the land uses and covers are classified in different groups.
The results are based mainly on the Mapa de Usos y Coberturas Vegetales de Andalucía [Andalusian
Plant Cover and Use Map] (1956, 1999, 2003 y 2007, scale 1:25.000) published by the Consejería de Medio
Ambiente de la Junta de Andalucía [Andalusian Regional Ministry of Environment].
Later the maps were analysed and the information taken for each class.
Percentage area corresponding to urban, forest and agricultural uses in the study area and the whole
Guadix District in four different years (1956, 1999, 2003 and 2007). Percentage change in these uses from
1956 to 2007
CHANGE CHANGE
GUADIX DISTRICT PROPORTION % STUDY AREA. PROPORTION %
CATEGORY RATE % RATE %
1956 1999 2003 2007 1956–2007 1956 1999 2003 2007 1956–2007
Urban 0.33 0.64 0.65 0.66 1.01 0.54 1.02 1.03 1.03 1.04
Forest 45.40 45.39 44.91 44.02 2.06 45,40 45,05 44,47 42,96 2.11
Agricultural crops 48.25 46,49 46,80 46,47 2.08 49,56 48,14 48,40 48,03 2.06
USE HAS CHANGED IN OVER 30% OF THE TERRITORY.

THE MOST SIGNIFICANT CHANGES ARE:
IN URBAN INDUSTRIAL SPACE IN AGRICULTURAL SPACE
Units of infrastructure increase Historical dominance of drylands

Urban population units increase Increase in woody plantations
Hard to evaluate abandonment in all units
41
2.4 HOW EASY THE IMPLEMENTATION OF LAND-USE

CHANGES MONITORING IS?
Databases
1999 2000
Spatial resolution
Temporal resolution
Human resources
Qualifications
Minimum length os a time series

to derive knowledge
REFERENCES LINKS
Bregas J. P. 1998. Ecological impacts of global change on drylands and their REDIAM. Junta de Andalucía:
implications for desertification. Land Degradation and Development 9: 393-406. www.juntadeandalucia.es/
medioambiente/site/rediam/
Cabello J., Fernández N., Alcaraz–Segura D., Oyonarte C., Piñeiro G., Altesor A., Delibes portada
M., Paruelo J. M. 2012. The ecosystem functioning dimension in conservation:
insights from remote sensing. Biodiversity and Conservation 21: 3287–3305.
Cabello J., Requena-Mullor J. M., Orts R., Castro H. (Eds). 2014. Cuarto informe
del programa de seguimiento de los efectos del cambio global en zonas áridas y
semiáridas del levante andaluz (GLOCHARID). Consejería de Medio Ambiente de la
Junta de Andalucía. CAESCG.
FAO. 1996. Forest Resources Assessment 1990 – Survey of tropical forest cover and
study of change processes. FAO Forestry Paper No. 130. Rome.
Gurrutxaga M. 2003. Índices de fragmentación y conectividad para el indicador de

biodiversidad y paisaje de la Comunidad Autónoma del País Vasco. Gobierno Vasco.
Kéfi S., Rietkerk M., Alados C. L., Pueyo Y., Papanastasis V. P., ElAich A., De Ruiter P. C.
2007. Spatial vegetation patterns and imminent desertification in Mediterranean arid
ecosystems. Nature 449(7159): 213-217.
42
Lambin E. F., Meyfroidt P. 2010. Land use transitions: socio-ecological feedback
versus socio-economic change. Land Use Policy 27(2): 108-118.
Le Houérou H. N. 1996. Climate change, drought and desertification. Journal of Arid

Environments 34(2): 133-185.
Maestre F. T. 2011. Avances recientes y retos en el estudio y evaluación de la

desertificación: de la teoría a la práctica. Cuides 7: 37-60.
Peñas J., Benito B., Lorite J., Ballesteros M., Cañadas E. M., Martínez-Ortega M. 2011.
Habitat fragmentation in arid zones: a case study of Linaria nigricans under land use
changes (SE Spain). Environmental management 48(1): 168-176.
Piquer-Rodríguez M., Kuemmerle T., Alcaraz-Segura D., Zurita-Milla R., Cabello J.

2012. Future land use effects on the connectivity of protected area networks in
southeastern Spain. Journal for Nature Conservation 20(6): 326-336.
Tongway D., Hindley N. 1995. Assessment of soil condition of tropical grasslands.

CSIRO. Division of Wildlife and Ecology. Canberra.
Veron S. R., Paruelo J. M., Oesterheld M. 2006. Assessing desertification. Journal of

Arid Environments 66(4): 751-763.
Vogt P., Riitters K. H., Estreguil C., Kozak J., Wade T. G. 2007. Mapping spatial patterns
with morphological image processing. Landscape Ecology 2(2): 171–177.
Chapter 1: Water pollution
3. WATER POLLUTION
The large amount of chemicals synthesized for several different uses (fertilizers, drugs, personal hygiene, antibiotics,
pesticides, etc.), are usually metabolized by living beings which excrete new substances and interact with soil, water and
atmosphere when they reach the environment, giving rise to still other new ones. The growing volumes of urban waste
water (treated or not), irrigation water and its surplus, return to river systems, where this type of substances enter the food
chain with unknown implications for the natural environment.
3.1 WATER QUALITY. MONITORING PHYSICOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS

GOALS METHODOLOGY
The goal of evaluation is to determine the physical and chemical state of The techniques which may be
water masses to detect any focal points of pollution and find ways to reverse used to analyze many parameters
unfavourable situations. which may be classified in three
groups, from the simplest to
measure like generic parameters
FREQUENCY to mineralisation and emerging
contaminants (as per the Water
Sample frequency should be based on the time the surface water remains in
the riverbed (for fluvial analyses). Samples should be taken at least four times a
Framework Directive, Directive 43
2000/60/EC).
year (one per season).
OTHERS:
URBAN WATER TREATMENT PLANTS
MINING RECREATIONAL WATER TRANSFER

FACILITIES ACTIVITIES DESALINATION PLANTS
SOURCES OF POLLUTION
DUMPS
DISCHARGE OF
LIVESTOCK URBAN WASTE
FARMS WATER INDUSTRIAL SPILLS
INDICATORS
PARÁMETROS GENÉRICOS
VARIABLE METODOLOGÍA LÍMITE DE CUANTIFICACIÓN0
DQO Chemical Oxygen Demand Spectrophotometric 15 mg O2/L
O2D Dissolved oxygen Electrometric (on site) 0,5 mg/L
pH pH Electrometric (on site) 4 ud pH
T Temperature Electrometric (on site) 1ºC
CE Electrical Conductivity (salinity) Electrometric (on site) 20 μS/cm
N Nitrogen Volumetric 0,10 mg/L
P Phosphorous Spectrophotometric 0,05 mg/L

Low concentration limit for accurate quantitative measurements
0
MINERALISATION IONS
TYPE: Pressure/State SCALE: Regional
VARIABLE METHODOLOGY QUANTIFICATION LIMIT0
0,4 mg/L
CL– Chloride Ion chromatography
0,4 mg/L
NO– 3 Nitrate Ion chromatography
0,4 mg/L
SO– 24 Sulphate Ion chromatography
5 mg/L
NA (I) Sodium Flame AAS1
5 mg/L
K(I) Potassium Flame AAS1
10 mg/L
CA (II) Calcium Flame AAS1
1 mg/L
MG (II) Magnesium Flame AAS1
44 PRIORITY AND EMERGING CONTAMINANTS

VARIABLE METHODOLOGY QUANTIFICATION LIMIT0
PLAR AND APOLAR PESTICIDES GC–QqQ–MS/MS2 0,3 / 0,5 / 0,10 μg/L
POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS

GC–MS/MS3 0,01 μg/L
(PAHS)
VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS GC–MS4 1 / 2 μg/L
PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS LC–MS5 0,10 μg/L
PHTHALATES LC–MS5 0,02 μg/L
Lead: 10 μg/L
Nickel: 10 μg/L
METALS Furnace AAS6
Cadmium: 2 μg/L
Mercury: 0,8 μg/L
ABUSED DRUGS LC–MS5 0,05 μg/L
VETERINARY WASTE LC–MS5 0,01 - 0,25 μg/L
SURFACTANTS LC–MS5 0,10 μg/L
DRUGS (ANTIBIOTICS AND ANALGESICS) LC–MS5 0,01 - 2,5 μg/L
0
Low concentration limit for accurate quantitative measurements.
1
Flame AAS: Flame atomic absorption spectrometry.
2
GC–QqQ–MS/MS: Triple quadrupole gas chromatography-mass spectrophotometry.
3
GC–MS: Gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.
4
GC–MS: Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.
5
LC–MS: Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.
6
Furnace AAS: Graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry.
CASE STUDY: WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF THE

ALMANZORA RIVER. SOUTHEAST OF THE IBERIAN PENINSULA
Almanzora river
N
0 20 40
Km
45
Sampling was done following the international standards below:
• UNE–EN 25667–1:2004. Water quality. Sampling. Part 1: Guidance on the
design of sampling programmes (ISO 5667–1:1980).
• UNE–EN 25667–2:1995. Water quality. Sampling. Part 2: Guidance on sam-
pling techniques (ISO 5667–2:1991).
• UNE–EN 25667–3:2007. Water quality. Sampling. Part 3: Guidance on the
preservation and handling of samples (ISO 5667–3:1994).
pH, temperature, conductivity, dissolved oxygen and percentage of oxygen

saturation were measured on site at the same place and time in which samples
were taken by electrometric methods. The rest of the determinations were made in
the laboratory with the above described method.
ALMANZORA RIVERBED
IT HOUSES A
AREA: DAM
2,650 KM2
IT IS ONE OF THE
RIVERS WITH THE
STEEPEST MEAN
SLOPE IN THE LENGTH 110.3 KM
IBERIAN PENINSULA
DIFFERENT EXTERNAL WIDE VARIETY OF HUMAN

HYDROGRAPHIC RESOURCES WATER
TRASVASES
TRANSFER ACTIVITIES
UNITS
DESALINATION
DESALINIZACIÓN
PLANTS
REUTILIZACIÓN
REUSE OF URBAN
DE
AGUAS
WASTEWATER
URBANAS
SPRING SAMPLING POINTS
0 10 20 30
N Km
46 The results show:

SPRING SAMPLING
• Presence of emerging contaminants as a result of inefficient
wastewater treatment plants. The following are the most important: 23 MARCH 2011:
6 sampling points 6, 8, 10, 11, 12 and
- Analgesics (ibuprofen, 1.7- dimethylxanthine and paracetamol) 13.
- Human antibiotics (amikacin, sulfamethoxazole, clarithromycin) Water at four (6, 8, 11 and 12)
- Drugs (Benzoylecgonine, codeine, diazepam, caffeine)
30 MARCH 2011:
- Veterinary waste (streptomycin, levamisole, erythromycin,
8 sampling points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9 and
thiabendazole)
15.
- Surfactants Riverbed dry at 15.
• Not outstanding for presence (except some positive at trace
concentrations) of priority pollutants.
SUMMER SAMPLING
• Presence of priority contaminants is not very high (except some
8 SEPTEMBER 2011:
positive at trace concentrations).
6 sampling points 4, 9 and 14.
• The concentration of certain contaminants (antibiotics or analgesics) Water at two (4, 14)
tends to increase in autumn-winter due to their increased use at this
time of year.
AUTUMN SAMPLING
• Concentrations of some contaminants were observed in autumn-
winter 2012 associated with the decrease in flow of some rivers and 17 NOVIEMBER 2011:
3 sampling points 8, 11 and 14.
even drought due to low precipitation that year.
13 DECEMBER 2011:
5 sampling points 2, 3, 4, 7 and 9.
WINTER SAMPLING
02 FEBRUARY 2012:
7 sampling points 2, 3, 4, 9 and 14. Two
points without water
3.2 HOW EASY THE IMPLEMENTATION OF WATER

POLLUTION MONITORING IS?
Databases
1999 2000
Spatial resolution
Temporal resolution
Human resources
Qualifications

to derive knowledge
47
REFERENCES
Cabello J., Requena-Mullor J. M., Orts R., Castro H. (Eds). 2014. Cuarto informe del programa
de seguimiento de los efectos del cambio global en zonas áridas y semiáridas del levante
andaluz (GLOCHARID). Consejería de Medio Ambiente. Junta de Andalucía. CAESCG.
4. BIOLOGICAL INVASIONS: PLANT SPECIES

Biological invasions are considered one of the main direct drivers of global Invasive plant species are
change, and negatively affect ecosystem services, since they cause severe exotic species naturalized in an
impacts on the composition and functioning of invaded ecosystems, and leads area where they spread rapidly far
to important economic losses and serious consequences to human welfare. from the point of introduction.
(Vilà et al. 2008)
4.1 SOURCES OF INTRODUCTION AND NATURALISATION RATES

GOALS METHODOLOGY
Identification of human activities
48 representing the main sources of in- 1. Make an identification study (based on flora, databases,
troduction, routes and mechanisms publications, herbariums, etc.) of:
of invasive species in a region. • Naturalised exotic and invasive plant species existing in the area
(see next section).
Attention may be focused on the
activities with the highest risk of as-
sociated invasion in order to control 2. Classify the species
them and to avoid future invasion. • Based on the residence time the naturalized species has been in
the area (archaeophyte2 o neophyte3).
3. Identify and classify the points of entry of exotic and invasive

plant species
• Differentiate between archaeophytes and neophytes to gain
historical perspective.
• Calculate the percentage of species introduced by each source of
The causes of transport introduction.
and introduction into nature, • Point out the main routes and vectors of introduction.
introduction routes and transport
vectors enable the invasive
species introduction process to be
characterized.
FREQUENCY
(Vilà et al. 2008)
It is recommended that data should be taken every five years.
1
Exotic plant species introduced that enter natural ecosystems independently, where they sustain populations without human intervention (Vilà et al. 2008).
2
Exotic plant species introduced in an area from the beginning of Neolithic agriculture to the discovery of America (Pysek et al. 2009).
3
Exotic plant species introduced in an area from 1492 onward (Pysek et al. 2009).
Chapter 1: Biological invasions: Plant species
INDICATORS
TYPE: Pressure SCALE: Regional
VARIABLE DEFINITION
Nº NATURALISED Number of naturalised exotic plant species
Nº INVADERS Number of invasive species
Nº NATURALISED ARCHAEOPHYTES Number of naturalised archaeophytes
Nº NATURALISED NEOPHYTES Number of naturalised neophytes
Nº INVASIVE ARCHAEOPHYTES Number of invasive archaeophytes
Nº INVASIVE NEOPHYTES Number of invasive neophytes
% SPECIES INTRODUCED/SOURCES OF Introduced species rate 49

INTRODUCTION (naturalised/invasive; archaeophytes/neophytes) by human activity
ROUTES OR WAYS OF INTRODUCTION Where the exotic species is from and where introduced
VECTORS OF INTRODUCTION Physical carrier of the species introduced
CASE STUDY: EVALUATION OF SOURCES OF INTRODUCTION OF EXOTIC

PLANT SPECIES IN SOUTHEAST IBERIAN PENINSULA
Evaluation of sources of introduction of invasive plant species in arid southeast Andalusia shows a
different pattern for archaeophytes and neophytes. Most of the archaeophytes are agricultural species,
mainly fruit trees (26%) and vegetables (19%), and often ornamental (19%) and medicinal plants (10%), a few
for fodder, others grown as raw materials (9%), and also aromatic plants (3%). Five percent of archaeophytes
are unintentionally introduced weeds. Only one archaeophyte in the area, Vinca difformis, is considered
invasive (Dana et al. 2005, Sanz– Elorza et al. 2004). Many neophytes, however, are ornamental plants
(53%) and weeds (35%). A small proportion of neophytes are species which entered as raw materials (5%), in
forestry, as vegetables (2%), medicinal (1%) and for fodder (1%).
Of invasive species, regardless of whether they are archaeophytes or neophytes, the most abundant are
ornamental (44%) and weeds (41%), followed at length by use as raw materials (5%), fodder (4%), fruit (2%),
in forestry (2%) and medicinal (2%). Current human activities that facilitate entry of exotic plant species in
semiarid Andalusia are landscaping and gardening (closely associated with urbanism) and agriculture, which
leads to introduction of weeds.
50
«Agave fourcroydes and A. sisalana in woody scrubland with Ziziphus lotus.», Cape Gata (Southeast Iberian Peninsula).
Photo: María Jacoba Salinas.
PERCENTAGE OF EXOTIC SPECIES INTRODUCED (DIFFERENTIATING BETWEEN ARCHAEOPHYTES

AND NEOPHYTES) AND SPECIES CONSIDERED INVASIVE.
120
Weeds
Forestry 100
Aromatic
80
Raw materials
Fodder 60
Medicinal
40
Ornamental
Vegetables 20
Fruit
0
ARCHAEOPHYTES NEOPHYTES INVASIVE SPECIES
4.2 MONITORING INVASIVE SPECIES

GOALS METHODOLOGY
Finding out the number of
naturalised exotic plant species1 in an 1. 1. Carry out an identification study (based on flora, databases,
area, differentiating them from casual publications, herbariums, etc.) of:
species, identifying the invaders, • Exotic species naturalised in the area.
analysing the risk of invasion and • Invasive naturalised species (post–border control).
monitoring future entries of new • Species which are not yet in the area but have a high probability of
species, enables two types of control becoming invasive if they enter (pre–border control).
tasks to be carried out:
• Pre–border control, concentrates

on prevention, keeping species 2. Classify invasive species
with a high probability of invasion • Based on the potential for invasion found by risk analysis3
from entering the area. (Pheloung et al. 1999 and Daehler et al. 2004).
• Post–border control, manages

species already naturalised that
represent a threat to the integrity 3. Check the current state of invasion on site 51
of affected ecosystems. It involves • Verify the results in situ based on information sources.
early detection, and eradication or • Evaluate the invasion status of high-risk species with population
controlling invaders that have al- studies.
ready spread.
4. Evaluate action taken for eradication or control using the

following major criteria
• High-invasion-risk species.
• State of invasion.
• The importance of zones or habitats affected as guarantees of
local biodiversity
Invasive plant species are

FREQUENCY
exotic species naturalised1 in an
Taking data every two (population studies) to five years (review of entry of
area that expand quickly far from
new invasive species) is considered suitable).
the point of introduction.
(Vilà et al. 2008)
1
Exotic plant species introduced that enter natural ecosystems independently, where they sustain populations without human intervention (Vilà et al. 2008).
2
Exotic plant species introduced that enter natural ecosystems independently, but are dependent on humanized systems, or do not have the capacity to endure in the territo-
ries occupied (Vilà et al. 2008).
3
Although it is a method designed for pre-border control, it is very useful for evaluating species already introduced.
INDICATORS
VARIABLE DEFINITION
Nº NATURALISED Number of naturalised exotic plant species
Category according to the risk analysis score (Australian method,

CATEGORY BASED ON POTENTIAL FOR INVASION Pheloung et al. 1999 and Daehler et al. 2004) of each naturalised
species
Nº INVADERS Number of invasive species by invasive potential category
Nº POPULATIONS/SPECIES Number of invasive species populations
52 AGE STRUCTURE Number of individuals by age in each invasive species population
AREA OCCUPIED BY THE POPULATION Area occupied by each population of invasive species
Species identified as invasive in boundary zones but not naturalised

POTENTIAL INVADERS
in the area
«Arundo donax and Carpobrotus edulis en playas», Coast of Almería (Southeast Iberian Peninsula).
CASE STUDY IN SOUTHEAST IBERIAN PENINSULA
One hundred and seventy-seven naturalised exotic species were found (Table 1), of which 54 are
considered invasive in the area. (Dana et al. 2005, Sanz–Elorza et al. 2004). Our analyses show that 84 of
these species have a high risk of becoming invasive (Table 2).
53
«Arundo donax in stands of Tamarix>, Andarax river (Southeast Iberian Peninsula).

NATURALISED EXOTIC SPECIES INVASIVE SPECIES
Archaeophytes Neophytes Total Families Archaeophytes Neophytes Total Families

Nº
58 119 177 57 1 53 54 26
% 32 68 –– –– 2 98 –– ––
Table 1. Naturalised exotic species and invasive species in semiarid Andalusia according to the specialised
literature (Dana et al. 2005; Sanz-Elorza et al. 2004), differentiating between archeophyte and neophyte. The
number of families represented is shown.
INVASIVE ACCORDING
TO SPECIALIZED
TOTAL EXOTIC
NATURALISED LITERATURE
CLASSES (CASUAL + NATURALISED)
(Dana et al. 2005, Sanz-Elorza et
al. 2004).
Archaeophytes Neophytes Archaeophytes Neophytes Archaeophytes Neophytes
ACCEPTED 56 21 22 7 1 1
Nº ADDITIONAL
1 1 1 1 0 0
EVALUATION
REJECTED 1 97 0 84 0 53
ACCEPTED 96 18 96 8 100 2
% ADDITIONAL
2 1 4 1 0 0
EVALUATION
REJECTED 2 81 0 91 0 98
Table 2. Number and percentage of naturalised exotic species in the Andalusian semiarid area
classified by Australian risk analysis (Pheloung et al. 1999). Risk analysis placed the species in three classes
54 by the advisability of their entry in the area: i) entry is accepted, ii) additional evaluation of the species
is recommended, for which the Daehler et al. (2004) method was used, and iii) its entry is rejected.
Archaeophyte, neophyte, naturalised and invasive subgroups are differentiated.
One of the naturalised neophytes is Pennisetum setaceum, a C4 Gramineae native of northeast Africa,
which is outstanding due to its huge potential for invasion. It has been introduced in many zones of the
world as an ornamental plant and for stabilizing soil, which may be observed in Andalusia and eastern Spain
as well as in Morocco.
«Pennisetum setaceum in semiarid shrubs», Coast of Granada (Southeast Iberian peninsula).

4.3 EXTENT OF HABITAT INVASION

The extent of habitat invasion is the response to interaction of invasibility,
the pressure of propagules1 to which it is subjected and invasiveness2 of the
invasive species.
GOALS
The susceptibility of a habitat
Knowing the extent of habitat invasion in an area facilitates the identification to invasion (invasibility) depends on:
of those that require stronger vigilance. The availability of resources at the
time of invasion (closely associated
with disturbance) and the presence
METHODOLOGY of herbivores, pathogens and
predators that can slow down
establishment of the new species.
1. Carry out an identification study (based on maps, flora,
(Pyšek and Richardson 2010)
databases, publications, herbariums, etc.) of:
• Habitats in the area where there are naturalised plant species.
• The number of neophytes naturalised in each habitat.
• The area of each habitat. 55
2. Calculate the extent of habitat invasion as

• The ratio of the number of neophytes naturalised in the habitat
to the log of the total area occupied by the habitat3.
FREQUENCY
Taking data every five years is usually enough.
INDICATORS
VARIABLE DEFINITION
Number of neophytes naturalised/Log habitat

EXTENT OF INVASION
area
Number of habitats that host exotic plant spe-

Nº HABITATS INVADED
cies
1
Number and frequency of propagules that reach a place, ecosystem or region.
2
Capacity of an introduced species to invade a place, habitat, ecosystem or region.
3
Although there are many ways to show the extent of invasion, this is considered one of the most objective and comparable among different zones.
CASE STUDY IN SOUTHEAST IBERIAN PENINSULA

We have found exotic plant species in 18 habitats in arid southeast Andalusia (Table 1). Of these, the
most invaded are manmade, especially those linked to transportation networks, constructed areas and
agriculture. The very strong invasion of river habitats (woodlands along rivers, surface watercourses and
dry stream beds) and along the coast should be emphasized. Some scrublands host potential invaders,
although the extent of invasion is relatively low.
% neophytes Nº neophytes Nº neophytes

Nº neophytes
HÁBITAT (EUNIS) naturalised / naturalised/ naturalised /
naturalised
total species area (km2) log area (km2)
Transportation networks and

J4 41 10.62 18.5 118.6
other constructed areas
C2 Surface watercourses 9 8.91 5.8 48.0
H5.6 Trampled areas 3 42.86 2.0 17.1
Barren arable lands, either fallow

I1.5 32 7.58 0.4 16.8
or recently abandoned
56 G1.3
Woodlands along Mediterranean
12 18.75 2.3 16.7
riverbanks
Cliffs, overhangs and coasts,

B3 6 20.00 1.9 12.0
including supralittoral habitats
B1 Coastal dunes and sandy beaches 12 10.62 0.6 9.2
I1 Cultivatable land and gardens 24 6.35 0.0 8.8
Scrublands with Nerium

F9.31 oleander, Vitex agnus–castus and 16 17.58 0.1 7.4
Tamarix spp.
Inland cliffs, pavement and rocky

H3 3 2.52 0.9 5.6
outcroppings
E5.1 Manmade pastures 8 7.27 0.2 5.1
C3.32 Arundo donax reeds 2 50.00 0.8 5.0
Scrubland in southeast Iberian

F6.824 6 5.36 0.2 4.2
Peninsula
Reedbeds and tall helophytes

C3.2 1 2.78 0.5 3.1
other than reeds (Arundo donax)
F5.1 Woody scrubland 3 17.65 0.2 2.5
A2.5 Coastal swamps and saline reeds 2 4.65 0.2 2.1
F6.1 Western garrigues 5 1.57 0.0 1.8
Annual subnitrophilous pasture-

E1.6 2 1.56 0.0 0.9
lands
Table 1. Habitats in southeast Iberian Peninsula (according to EUNIS, http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/habitats)

with exotic plant species. The number of neophytes naturalised and extent of invasion are given in three
ways: percent of neophytes naturalised over the total number of species, number of neophytes naturalised
by habitat area (km2) and number of neophytes naturalised by log habitat area (km2).
4.4 HOW EASY THE IMPLEMENTATION OF INVASIVE

PLANT MONITORING IS?
Databases
Technological capacity 1999 2000
Spatial resolution
Temporal resolution
Human resources
Qualifications

to derive knowledge
57
«Ailanthus altissima among riverbank vegetation», Sierra Nevada Mountains (Southeast Iberian Peninsula).
REFERENCES LINKS
Daehler C. C., Denslow J. S., Ansari S., Kuo H. C. 2004. A risk–assessment system EUNIS: http://eunis.eea.europa.eu/
for screening out invasive pest plants from Hawaii and other Pacific Islands. habitats.jsp
Conservation Biology 18(2): 360-368.
Dana E., Sanz-Elorza M., Vivas S., Sobrino E. 2005. Especies vegetales invasoras
en Andalucía. Junta de Andalucía. Sevilla.
IUCN. 2012. IUCN’s policy brief on invasive and alien species, biodiversity,
human health and food security. http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/policy_
brief_on_invasive_and_alien_species.pdf.
Pheloung P. C., Williams P. A., Halloy S. R. 1999. A weed risk assessment model for
use as a biosecurity tool evaluating plant introductions. Journal of Environmental
Management 57: 239-251.
Pyšek P., Hulme P. E., Nentwig W. 2009. Glossary of the main technical terms
used in the handbook. En: Drake J. A. (Series Editor), DAISIE. Handbook of alien
species in Europe, págs. 375-379. Springer Science + Business Media B. V.
Pyšek P., Richardson D. M. 2010. Invasive species, environmental change and

58 management, and health. The Annual Review of Environment and Resources
35: 25-55.
Sanz-Elorza M., Dana E. D., Sobrino E. 2004. Atlas de las plantas alóctonas
invasoras en España. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. Madrid.
Vilà M., Roura-Pascual N., Andreu J., González-Moreno P., Sol D. 2013.
Introducción de especies invasoras. En: Doblas–Miranda E. (Ed.), Conservar
aprovechando. Cómo integrar el cambio global en la gestión de los montes
españoles. CREAF.
Vilà M., Valladares F., Traveset A., Santamaría L., Castro P. 2008. Invasiones
biológicas. CSIC. Madrid.
Chapter 2: Ecological integrity of rivers
Chapter 2
CONSERVATION STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY AND

ECOSYSTEMS
59
«Almanzora River», Purchena (Southeast Iberian Peninsula).

Photo: Melchor Juan.
1. ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY OF RIVERS

Recent studies (e.g., Vörösmarty et al. 2010) demonstrate the severe situation that
threatens conservation of river biodiversity and the quality of bodies of water in general
on a global scale. This occurs in more industrialized countries, and in those with high
population growth rates and a growing demand for water resources.
Activities exploiting water resources
FACTORS IMPACTING ON FLUVIAL ECOSYSTEMS
Changes in use on watershed scale Physical and chemical pollution

These studies underline that the main factors impacting on fluvial ecosystems
can be grouped in three interrelated categories: 1) Changes in use of watersheds,
An integral ecosystem is
physical and chemical pollution and exploitation of water resources.
one that has the capacity to sup-
Any system for evaluating the quality of water bodies is based on the concept of port and maintain key ecological
Ecological Integrity. processes and a community of
adaptive organisms, with a com-
position of species, diversity and
functional organisation expected
in a region’s natural habitat.
Physical integrity
(Karr 1991)
Biological integrity
ECOLOGICAL
Chemical Integrity INTEGRITY
60
Certain difficulties arise when extrapolating the concepts and criteria of ecolo-
gical integrity to rivers in arid regions because these environments are subjected
to disturbance and high natural stress. This leads to difficulty in distinguishing bet-
ween natural patterns and human impact.
For good management of aquatic resources, the state of the water mass and
the ecosystem that develops in it must be known.
Rivers are systems characterised by: 1) one-way flow of water, lateral connec-
tions to the banks and groundwater, and 3) variations in flow rate.
«Río Bacares», Bayarque (Southeast Iberian Peninsula).

Photo: Melchor Juan.
1.1 MONITORING BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS

GOALS METHODOLOGY
Analyse the ecological state of
water masses based on the presence 1. Select the sampling points
and abundance of organisms and how • Consider depth, width, substrate, current, vegetation cover, dum-
sensitive they are to habitat alteration. ping, uses, etc., of riverbed...)
2. Sample and pretreat (as necessary)

FREQUENCY
3. Identify and count taxa of organisms and species
The frequency depends on the
parameters to be measured, although,
in general, sampling can be done twice
a year in spring and autumn. 4. Analyses
• Calculate metrics:
- Taxonomic richness. 61
- Taxonomic composition.
- Taxon abundance.
- Diversity indices.
- Taxonomic groups.
- Taxa sensitive to pollution
• Calculate biotic indices from metrics.
INDICATORS
TYPE: State/Response SCALE: Regional
COMPOSITION AND ABUNDANCE OF AQUATIC COMPOSITION AND ABUNDANCE

FLORA OF AQUATIC FAUNA
VARIABLE
PHYTOBENTHOS MACROPHYTES ZOOBENTHOS
Aquatic vegetation
Autotrophic organisms
visible to the naked eye,
associated with any Invertebrate fauna that inhabit
including vascular plants
bottom substrate in aquatic substrates submerged in aquatic
DEFINITION (cormophytes), bryophytes
ecosystems, including media (Macroinvertebrates and
and macroalgae
cyanobacteria, microalgae microinvertebrates)
(Characeae and other
and macroalgae
groups)
• Eutrophication • Reduction in transparen-

• Thermal pollution
• Increase in organic cy of water.
• Changes in mineralisation of water
matter • Variation in mineralisa-
REPORTS ON • Organic pollution
• Salinity tion (conductivity and • Eutrophication
• Acidification salinity). • Pollution by metals or other pollutants
• Eutrophics
BIOTIC INDICES
These are mathematical expressions that convert the information contained in a list
of fauna or plants into values on an established scale. They enable any changes in the
structure of biological communities to be compared and checked.
IM Macrophyte index (Suárez et al. 2005)
IPS Specific Pollution Sensitivity Index based on epilithic-benthic diatoms (CEMAGREF 1982)
IBD Biological Diatom Index, based on epilithic-benthic diatoms (Lenoir and Coste 1996, Prygiel and
Coste 2000)
CEE Based on epilithic-benthic diatoms (Descy and Coste 1990)
IBMWP Iberian Biological Monitoring Working Party, qualitative index base don macroinvertebrates
(Alba-Tercedor y Sánchez-Ortega 1988, Alba-Tercedor et al. 2002)
62 ICM–9 Qualitative multimetric index based on macroinvertebrates (Comisión Europea 2007)
ICM–11A Qualitative multimetric index based on macroinvertebrates (Munné and Prat 2009)
ICM–7 Qualitative multimetric index based on macroinvertebrates (Buffagni et al. 2005)
ICM–10 Qualitative multimetric index based on macroinvertebrates (Munné and Prat 2009)
ICM–STAR Qualitative multimetric index based on macroinvertebrates (Buffagni et al. 2006)
The ecological state of water masses can be defined based on the results, classified by quality:
POOR DEFICIENT MODERATE GOOD VERY GOOD

CASE STUDY:
EVOLUTION OF THE ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY OF THREE RIVERS IN
SOUTHEAST IBERIAN PENINSULA
A study was done of the evolution of the integrity of the riverbeds in three watersheds which had been
studied ten years before:
• Adra River (headwaters in silicic mountains)
• Almanzora River (headwaters in calcareous mountains)
• Aguas River (low-altitude course originating in a gypsum karst)
Adra river
Aguas river
Almanzora river
63
0 10 20 30 40
N Km
In a comparison of the data found in 2000 and 2010 for three watersheds by applying the IBMWP index,
a slight improvement is observed in the ecological condition of these rivers.
An analysis of flow rates shows an increase in 2010, which may be explained by a general improvement
in their ecological integrity.
Nevertheless, ecological integrity did not improve at all the sampling sites, and in some middle and low
parts even worsened.
POOR DEFICIENT MODERATE GOOD VERY GOOD
3,3%
10% 10%
10%
43,3%
16,7% 26,7% 60%
20%
2.000 2.010
1.2 MONITORING HYDROMORPHOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
GOALS METHODOLOGY
Hydromorphology is the basis of
any river system, and its study enables 1. Set up sampling points
their dynamics to be understood, • Consider variability of morphology, land use, geology and
since it structures the biological geomorphology of the watershed.
communities and processes in
them. Furthermore, it enables and
supplements analysis of integral 2. Collect data
system quality (ecological state). • To start with, the sources are usually maps, orthophotos, aerial
photos and GIS layers. Later, estimate the selected indicators on
site. Measure the flow rate and compile data on it from available
gauging stations.
FREQUENCY
64 3. Apply indices
The frequency of sampling is de-
• Using Principal Components Analysis (PCA): Technique
termined by the characteristics to be
summarizing environmental variability on axes or orthogonal
measured. Measurements may be
gradients, reducing the dimensionality of a complex data matrix
taken with the same frequency as
in order to find the main causes of its variability and organise
biological sampling.
them in order of importance.
INDICATORS
HYDROMORPHOLOGICAL
VARIABLE INDICES
QUALITY ELEMENTS
Flow quantification and dynamics

HYDROMORPHOLOGICAL
REGIME Connection to groundwater
FLUVIAL CONTINUITY River connectivity Index of River Connectivity (IRC, ACA 2006)
Index of physical impacts on streambeds (IIF,

Variation in width and depth of channel
Salinas and Casas 2007)
MORPHOLOGICAL Streambed structure and substrate River habitat survey (IHF, Pardo et al. 2004)
CONDITIONS
Index of riverside vegetation quality (QBR, Munné
Riverbank structure
et al. 2003)
The results of evaluating the hydromorphological quality can be expressed in five levels proposed by the Water
Framework Directive. This classification enables actions to be prioritized and results of measures taken to be adequately
monitored.
1.3 HOW EASY THE IMPLEMENTATION OF INTEGRITY OF

RIVERS MONITORING IS?
Databases
1999 2000
Spatial resolution
Temporal resolution
Human resources
Qualifications

to derive knowledge
65
REFERENCES
AGÈNCIA CATALANA DE L’AIGUA (ACA). 2006. HIDRI. Protocolo para la valoración de la
calidad hidromorfológica de los ríos. Departament de Medi Ambient i Habitatge, Generalitat
de Catalunya.
Alba-Tercedor J., Sánchez-Ortega A. 1988. Un método rápido y simple para evaluar la calidad
biológica de las aguas corrientes basado en el de Hellawell (1978). Limnetica 4: 51-56.
Alba-Tercedor J., Jáimez-Cuéllar P., Álvarez M., Avilés J., Bonada N., Casas J. J., Mellado A.,
Ortega M., Pardo I., Prat N., Rieradevall M., Robles S., Sáinz-Cantero C. E., Sánchez-Ortega A.,
Suárez M. L., Toro M.,Vidal-Abarca M. R., Vivas S., Zamora-Muñoz C. 2002. Caracterización del
estado ecológico de ríos mediterráneos ibéricos mediante el índice IBMWP (antes BMWP’).
Limnetica 21: 175-185.
Buffagni A., Erba S., Birk S., Cazzola M., Feld C., Ofenbock T., Murray-Bligh J., Furse M.T., Clarke
R.T., Hering D. 2005. Towards european inter-calibration for the Water Framework Directive:
procedures and examples for different river types from the EC Project STAR. Quaderni Istituto
di Ricerca Sulle Acque 123: 1-467.
Buffagni A., Erba S., Cazzola M., Murray-Bligh J., Soszka H., Genoni P. 2006. The STAR common
metrics approach to the WFD intercalibration process s: Full application for small, lowland
rivers in three European countries. Hydrobiologia 566: 379-399.
CEMAGREF. 1982. Étude des méthodes biologiques d´appréciation quantitative de la qualité

des eaux: 218. Q. E. Lyon-A.F. Bassion Rhône-Méditeranée-Corse.
COMISIÓN EUROPEA. 2007. MedGIG Intercalibration technical report – Part 1 Rivers. Section
1 Benthic Invertebrates, 15 June.
Descy J. P., Coste M. 1990. Utilisation des diatomées benthiques pour l’évaluation de la qualité
des eaux courantes. Contrat CEE B-71–23. Rapport final, Univ. Namur-Cemagref Bordeaux.
Karr J. R. 1991. Biological integrity: a long–neglected aspect of water resource management.

Ecological applications 1: 66-68.
Lenoir A., Coste M. 1996. Development of a practical diatom index of overall water quality
applicable to the French National Water Board Network. In: Use of Algae for Monitoring Rivers
II. B. A. Whitton, Rott E. (Eds.): 29-45. Institut für Botanik, Universität Innsbruck, Innsbruck.
Munné A., Prat N. 2009. Use of macroinvertebrate-based multimetric indices for water
quality evaluation in Spanish Mediterranean rivers: an intercalibration approach with the
IBMWP index. Hydrobiologia 628: 203-225.
Munné A., Prat N., Solà C., Bonada N., Rieradevall M. 2003. A simple field method for
assessing the ecological quality of riparian habitat in rivers and streams: QBR index. Aquatic
Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 13: 147-163.
Pardo I., Álvarez M., Casas J.J., Moreno J. L., Vivas S., Bonada N., Alba-Tercedor J., Jáimez-
Cuéllar P., Moyà G., Prat N., Robles S., Suárez M. L., Toro M., Vidal-Albarca M. R. 2004. El hábitat
de los ríos mediterráneos. Diseño de un índice de diversidad de hábitat. Limnetica 21(3-4):
115-133.
Prygiel J., Coste M. 2000. Guide méthodologique pour la mise en oeuvre de l’Indice
Biologique Diatomées. NF T 90-354. 134 pp. Agences de l’Eau-Cemagref, Bordeaux. http://
cemadoc.cemagref.fr/exl-doc/pub/2000/BX2000-PUB0000 8265.pdf.
Salinas M. J., Casas J. J. 2007. Riparian vegetation of two semi-arid Mediterranean rivers:
Basin-scale responses of woody and herbaceous life forms to environmental gradients.
66 Wetland 27: 831-845.
Suárez M. L., Mellado A., Sánchez-Montoya M.M., Vidal-Abarca M. R. 2005. Propuesta de

un índice de macrófitos (IM) para evaluar la calidad ecológica de los ríos de la cuenca del
Segura. Limnetica 24: 305-318.
Vörösmarty C. J., McIntyre P. B., Gessner M. O., Dudgeon D., Prusevich A., Green P., Glidden
S., Bunn S. E., Sullivan C. A., Reidy Liermann C., Davies P. M. 2010. Global threats to human
water security and river biodiversity. Nature 467: 555-561.
Chapter 2: Terrestrial ecosystems
2. TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
2.1 MONITORING POINTS OF AMPHIBIAN REPRODUCTION
The biological and ecological characteristics of amphibians (permeable moist skin, limited habitats and complex life
cycle) make them very sensitive to the effects of global change. The vulnerability of this taxonomic group to climate
change in arid and semiarid zones is higher due to the exploitation and use made of the scarce natural water resources
existing.
GOALS
Evaluate any changes in ecological characteristics of water points, evaluate CHYTRIDIOMYCOSIS
population trends, record alterations in reproductive phenology and find out their 1
In recent years, several emer-
health condition1. ging diseases have affected
amphibians. One of the most
important is chytridiomycosis,
METHODOLOGY which is caused by the Batra-
chochytrium dendrobatidis
fungus. Extinction of several 67
1. Species selection amphibian populations around
Criteria: the world is associated with
• Endemicity. this pathogen, native of South
• Environmental requirements. Africa. It usually develops at 17
• Extent of threat. to 25ºC, so regions with tem-
• Susceptibility to emerging diseases. perate climates are at higher
risk of the disease occurring.
The fungus invades the skin,
extremely important in these
2. Water points selection animals, altering the ion balan-
Criteria: ce and triggering cardiac arrest.
• Reproduction of species selected. Everything seems to show that
• Temporary and permanent water points. its propagation is caused by
• Considering a spatial gradient. humans, so preventive measu-
• Accessibility. res must be taken for their mo-
nitoring.
3. Monitor changes in water points and their amphibian

populations over time
4. Data analysis and trends estimate

• Related to environmental variables.
• Related to human variables.
FREQUENCY
Long time series are necessary to detect any change (>5 years), because their
populations are subject to very variable temporal dynamics. At least one visit per
month from January to September is recommended.
To determine the length of the hydroperiod in ephemeral water bodies,

monitoring should be intensified during the months with the highest water stress
to locate the moment they dry up and again with the first rainfall events at the end
of the summer to find out when basin flooding begins.
INDICATORS
PHENOLOGY Laying date Date of first laying
Reproduction points Number of water points where a given species repro-

duces
POPULATION TRENDS Clutch or larva count Number of clutches or larvae (depending on species)
Reproductive success Number of water points with presence of post meta-

68 morphics
Emerging diseases Number of water points where disease is detected/

Number of water points sampled
THREATS
Biological invasions Number of water points with exotic species/Total num-
ber of water points
Hydroperiod Duration of hydroperiod
Species richness Total number of species per sampling point
ENVIRONMENTAL Presence of refuges Availability of subaquatic and terrestrial refuges

CONDITIONS OF WATER
POINTS Subaquatic vegetation % macrophyte cover and % each type
Temperature Water temperature
Water quality (see Section. 3 Chap. 1 and Section. 1 Chap. 2)
«Male Betic midwife toad (Alytes dickhillenii) with clutch», Filabres Mountains (Southeast Iberian Peninsula).
Photo: Miguel Ángel Dionisio
2.2 MONITORING REPTILES

Reptiles are especially sensitive to changes in ambient temperature because they are ectothermal animals, sometimes
with a narrow margin of thermal tolerance. It therefore determines their activity and life cycle to a great extent. In some
species, sex, embryo and germ cell development are determined by temperature. Furthermore, they are usually very
territorial during reproduction and their movement is limited, making them very vulnerable to the effects of global change.
In the Iberian Peninsula, changes have been found in altitudinal distribution and disappearance of several species of
reptiles in wide zones that have been subject to transformation.
GOALS METHODOLOGY
Find places with the best herpe-
tofaunistic representation, identify 1. Collect preliminary spatial information on presence,
the areas subjected to habitat trans- altitudinal distribution and species densities
formation in recent years, evaluate
the changes in weather in the reptile
community and identify places with 2. Territorial sampling units selection (UT)
downward trends or community re- Criteria:
placement associated with human • Environmental variety in the territory. 69
transformation. • Extent of alteration.
• Combined Biodiversity Index (ICB)1.
FREQUENCY 3. Sampling stations locations within the UT selected

Criteria:
PLong-term monitoring (>5 years)
• Altered zones.
is necessary to detect any change.
• Unaltered zones.
Many reptile species are hard to find,
• Transition zones.
so annual monitoring consists of a
minimum of four visits (two in spring,
another at the end of summer and a
last one in autumn). 4. Sampling protocol
• Active search for reptiles, also sampling potential refuges
• Carry out under weather conditions favourable for reptiles.
• Duration 1 h.
5. Study changes in richness, abundance, presence of

exotic species (in tortoises) and presence of environmental
alteration
1
Combined Biodiversity Index (ICB)
Combines criteria of richness, rarity and vulnerability 6. Data analysis and trends estimation
ICB=Σ(1/C)*V
C, number of UTs where the species is present. V,
• Related to environmental variables.
vulnerability
• Related to human variables .
INDICATORS
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES: Biodiversity
Activity Observation of surface activity
PHENOLOGY
Courtship Observation of courtship
Neonates Date of appearance of neonates
Species richness Number of species present in the study territory
Non-generalist taxa Number of non-generalist species
Endemicity Number of endemic species and subspecies
Vulnerability Number of UICN endangered species

WEALTH AND DIVERSITY
ZONAL SPECIFIC Protection Number of state-protected species
Species richness in
70 unaltered environments
Number of species present in unaltered environments
Species richness in alte-

Number of species present in altered environments
red environments
Number of individuals per species observed/hour of active

Abundance index
POPULATION TRENDS sampling
Age structure % of individuals in each life stage (neonates, juveniles, adults)
Presence of pitfall traps, presence of many traces of boar, intensive

Vulnerable points
livestock raising, recent modification of the environment
THREATS
Exotic species Presence of invasive species (freshwater turtles)
Run over Number and points on roads where they have been run over
«Spiny-footed lizard (Acanthodactylus erythrurus)», Cape Gata (Southeast Iberian Peninsula).

Photo: Enrique López-Carrique.
2.3 POPULATIONS OF BIRDS OF PREY

Bioindicators are species whose reactions to a change in their environmental conditions are easily detectable and in-
terpretable. Birds can be good indicators of change, considering that they are a very well-known group and react relatively
quickly to changes in temperature or precipitation. Birds of prey, at the top of the food chain, are bioindicators whose popu-
lation changes may be a reflection of changes occurring in the ecosystem.
GOALS METHODOLOGY
Determine whether the changes in
population size of birds of prey are due 1. Delimit territories known as habitats of birds of prey
directly or indirectly to climate change.
2. Take censuses
FREQUENCY • For several years.
Nests should be visited at least • The territory is considered occupied when at least one of the
three times during the reproduction following conditions are met:
period to check nesting progress. - Frequent presence of the pair.
- Young in nest.
71
3. Delimit the most probable hunting zones in each territory

• Spatial analysis tools.
• Thiessen polygons.
BIRDS OF PREY
4. Acquire data in hunting zones

BIOINDICATORS
• Climate variables.
• Topographic variables.
REFLECT CHANGES IN ECOSYSTEMS
• Land use.
• EVI (Enhanced Vegetation Index).
5. Data analysis
• To establish cause-effect relationships between species occu-
rrence and environmental variables that best define their spatial
position.
INDICATORS
VARIABLE DEFINICIÓN
An increase in the population of the Golden Eagle along with a decrease

Size of populations of birds of prey in the Bonelli’s Eagle would indicate growing environmental humidity.
The opposite trend would indicate aridification..
CASE STUDY:
ANALYSIS OF HABITAT PREFERENCES OF THE GOLDEN EAGLE AND
BONELLI’S EAGLE IN THE PROVINCE OF ALMERIA (SOUTHEAST IBERIAN
PENINSULA)
Assess competition between the two eagles as an indicator of climate change.
BONELLI’S EAGLE GOLDEN EAGLE

(Aquila fasciata) (Aquila chrysaetos)
Colder zones Warmer zones

Ranier zones Dryer zones
No human pressure Closer to population centres
OPEN TERRITORIES NEST IN CLIFFS DIET OF BIRDS AND RABBITS
72
The habitat preferences of the SPECIES LOCATION

Bonelli’s Eagle (Aquila fasciata) and the Aquila fasciata
Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) were
Aquila chrysaetos
analysed using 120 known territories
from 2003 to 2009.
Theissen polygons constructed

delimited the most likely hunting zones
in each territory, and for each of these
zones the following data were found:
LANDSCAPE VARIABLES CLIMATE VARIABLES ENHANCED VEGETATION INDEX (EVI) TOPOGRAPHY
Diversity of use Temperature Annual average Altitude

Richness of use Precipitation Seasonal average Slope
Most plots Seasonality
LAND USE AND PLANT COVER
Segregation of the two species is explained better by the net productivity of vegetation measured
indirectly by the Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) than by temperature.
The Golden Eagle, larger and stronger than the Bonelli’s Eagle, requires more resources to survive.
The Golden Eagle chooses the best territories (most productive and assuring availability of prey). The
Bonelli’s Eagle occupies places discarded by the Golden Eagle.
2.4 PLANT POPULATIONS

Higher plants are good bioindicators because they integrate many traits that express their strategies for adaptation to
the environment, and therefore, report on ecosystem functioning. By studying their population trends, climate and land
use changes can be detected, and the state of conservation of endangered species evaluated.
GOALS METHODOLOGY
Evaluate changes in the popula- 1. Select taxa
tion size of species sensitive to cli- • By analysing flora in the study area.
mate change or the focus of con- • Based on their relictic nature located in ecologies sensitive to
servation. climate change.
2. Select sampling points

FREQUENCY • Spanning occasional gradients in variability.
Depends on the biotype, adapta-

tion strategy and life cycle of the spe- 3. Select and mark individuals
cies. May vary from one to five years.
73
4. Take data and monitor
5. Data analysis
• Life cycle structure.
• Construct a dynamic population model based on projection

matrices
• Estimate the probabilities of crossing between stages
• Estimate demographic parameters (growth and population rates,
sensitivities, elasticity)
• Estimate the probabilities for survival, growth and regression
• Estimate reproduction success (fitness) of each stage, using

fertility as its surrogate (Gibson 2015).
INDICATORS
TYPE: State/Response SCALE: Regional/Local
VARIABLE DEFINITION
Age structure Percentage of individuals in each stage of life at a given time
Reproductive success
Mean number of seeds per reproductive plant at a given time
(fitness)
Proportion of individuals in a population that are born over the starting number of individuals in
Birth rate
a certain period of time
Proportion of individuals in a population that die over the starting number of individuals in a
Mortality rate
certain period of time
Survival rate Proportion of individuals in the original cohort that survive in a certain period of time
λ = Nt+1 / Nt, where Nt is the number of individuals in the population in time t+1 and Nt is the
Population growth rate (λ)
number of individuals in the population in the previous time period
2.5 FLOWERING PHENOLOGY

Flowering is a recurrent event in the plant biological cycle that can be used to evaluate seasonal changes in environmental
conditions.
GOALS Phenology studies the

Evaluate changes in the phenology of plant species with different flowering chronology of recurrent events in
times over climatic and edaphoclimatic gradients. plants and animals, the biotic and
abiotic causes that determine them
and the interrelationships of stages
in the same or different species.
METHODOLOGY
1. Selection of species with short flowering periods
74
2. Species distribution maps
3. Select locations over climatic or edaphoclimatic gradients
4. Identification of mature populations in each location

PHENOLOGICAL CHANGE FIELD
1
EVALUATION STAGES
5. Select and mark reproductive individuals STAGE 0
No flowers
STAGE 1
First flowers
6. Record the phenological stage in each monitoring event1
(<50% of flower buds open)
STAGE 2
Full flowering
(>50% flower buds open)
STAGE 3
First fruit (<50% fruit ripe)
STAGE 4
Full fruiting
( >50% fruit ripe)
STAGE 5
End of fruiting (>90% of fruit ripe, most
scattered)
FREQUENCY
The frequency depends on seasonal changes and the species, although
sampling should be weekly when the species is in flower. For the rest of
phenological events, it may be fortnightly or even monthly when the taxon is
dormant.
Monitor changes over time in species characterised by periods of flowering

in different seasons.
• Winter flowering
• Spring flowering
• Summer flowering
• Autumn flowering
• Species with long flowering periods
In historical phenological studies, frequency is given by herbarium records

consulted.
INDICATORS 75
TYPE: State/Response SCALE: Regional/Local
VARIABLE DEFINITION
Growing period Appearance of new leaves or branches in perennial species
Flowering period Appearance of flowers on the plant
Fruiting period Fruit formation
«Black-veined White butterfly (Aporia crataegi) on Onopordum illyricum»,Gador Mountains (Southeast Iberian Peninsula).
Photo: Javier Cabello.
2.6 SPECIES COMPOSITION IN PLANT COMMUNITIES

GOALS METHODOLOGY
Identify and evaluate changes in
1. Plant communities selection
species composition (entry of new
Criteria:
species, disappearance of others, etc.)
in plant communities.
• Habitats included in Directive 92/43/CEE.
• Included in protected spaces.
• Subjected to some type of environmental pressure.
FREQUENCY
From five to ten years depending 2. Selection and delimitation of plots for the study
on the type of formation (annual or • Location.
perennial). • Determine size from the species-area curve.
• Ensure replicates for statistical processing.
3. Periodically sampling plots

• Identify taxa present.
76 • Use quantitative or semi-quantitative sampling.
4. Analyse changes in floristic composition
INDICATORS
TYPE: Pressure SCALE: Local
VARIABLE DEFINITION
Species gained Number and identification of new taxa in the community
Number and identification of taxa that have disappeared from the

Species lost
community
Species richness Number of species present in the community
Taxon frequency % presence in plots sampled
Taxon abundance Mean individuals or mean % of cover

2.7 CHANGES IN THE CONSERVATION STATUS OF ENDANGERED SPECIES

Red lists and books report on the state of conservation of species of interest to conservation. Their evaluation provides
knowledge of the degree and number of endangered species and the causes of their decline, and steps can then be taken
to reverse the process.
GOALS METHODOLOGY
Find changes in the state of species
conservation from red lists and books. 1. Identify experts for a reference territory
• Identify key scientists with knowledge of each taxonomic group.
• Consult them to evaluate the state of conservation of the species.
FREQUENCY
2. Preliminary List
A frequency of five to ten years is
• Make a preliminary list of species or taxa to be evaluated.
recommended.
• Make a preliminary evaluation and map based on specific

literature.
• Make a database. 77
3. Analyse and publish results

• Estimate the threat (categories) based on expert data.
• Publish the results of the species evaluation.
4. Compare the results with previous reference evaluations
INDICATORS
TYPE: State/Response SCALE: Global/Regional
VARIABLE
Nº of species extinct
Nº of species threatened
Nº of new species included in the book/list (compare to previous list)
Nº of species threatened by region (ecoregion, ecoprovince, natural park, etc.)

2.8 HOW EASY THE IMPLEMENTATION OF TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS

MONITORING IS?
MONITORING AMPHIBIANS MONITORING REPTILES POPULATIONS OF BIRDS OF PREY
1999 2000 1999 2000 1999 2000
78
PLANT POPULATIONS FLOWERING PHENOLOGY
1999 2000
1999 2000
SPECIES COMPOSITION IN PLANT STATE OF CONSERVATION OF ENDANGERED

COMMUNITIES SPECIES
1999 2000 1999 2000

REFERENCES
Beebee T. J. C., Griffiths R. A. 2005. The amphibian decline crisis: A watershed for conservation
biology? Biological Conservation 125: 271–285.
Bomhard B., Richardson D. M., Donaldson J. S., Hughes G. O., Midgley G. F., Raimondo D. C.,
Rebelo A. G., Rouget M., Thuiller W. 2005. Potential impacts of future land use and climate
change on the Red List status of the Proteaceae in the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa.
Global Change Biology 11(9): 1452-1468.
Borchert R. 1996. Phenology and flowering periodicity of neotropical dry forest species:
evidence from herbarium collections. Journal of Tropical Ecology 12: 65-80.
Bosch, J., E. González-Miras (Eds.). 2012. Seguimiento de Alytes dickhilleni: Informe

final. Monografías SARE. Asociación Herpetológica Española - Ministerio de Agricultura,
Alimentación y Medio Ambiente. Madrid.
Cabello J., Requena-Mullor J. M., Orts R., Castro H. (Eds). 2011. Tercer informe del programa
de seguimiento de los efectos del cambio global en zonas áridas y semiáridas del levante
andaluz (GLOCHARID). Consejería de Medio Ambiente de la Junta de Andalucía. CAESCG.
Caro J., Fernández-Cardenete, J. R., Benítez M., Chirosa M., Zamora F. J., Seguera S., Moreno
G., Pleguezuelos J .M. 2010. Estudio de los anfibios y reptiles en el Espacio Natural de Sierra 79
Nevada en el marco del cambio global. Universidad de Granada/Consejería de Medio
Ambiente-Junta de Andalucía. Informe inédito.
Castro-Díez P., Montserrat-Martí G. 1998. Phenological pattern of fifteen Mediterranean

phanaerophytes from Quercus ilex communities of NE Spain. Plant Ecology 139: 103-112.
Donnelly A., Salamin N., Jones M. B. 2006. Changes in tree phenology: an indicator of spring
warming in Ireland? Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 106: 49-56.
García-Cardenete L., Pleguezuelos J. M., Brito J. C., Jiménez-Cazalla F., Pérez-García

M.T., Santos X. 2014. Water cisterns as death traps for amphibians and reptiles in arid
environments. Environmental Conservation 41(4): 341-349.
Gibson D. J. 2015. Methods in comparative plant population ecology. 2ª ed. Oxford University
Press. Oxford.
González-Miras E., Nevado J. C. 2008. Atlas de distribución de anfibios de la provincia de

Almería (sudeste ibérico, España). Boletín de la Asociación Herpetológica Española 19:
85-90.
Johnson M., Speare R. 2003. Survival of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in water: quarantine

and control implications. Emerging Infectious Diseases 9: 922-925.
López López P., García Ripollés C., García López F., Aguilar J. M., Verdejo J. 2004. Patrón de
distribución del águila real (Aquila chrysaetos) y del águila–azorperdicera (Hieraaetusfasciatus)
en la provincia de Castellón. Ardeola 51(2): 275-283.
Pleguezuelos J. M., Brito J. C., Fahd S., Feriche M., Mateo J. A., Moreno G., Reques R.,
Santos X. 2010. Setting conservation priorities for the Moroccan herpetofauna: the utility
of regional red listing. Fauna & Flora International, Oryx 44(4): 501-508.
Rey Benayas J. M., de la Montana E. 2003. Identifying areas of high-value vertebrate

diversity for strengthening conservation. Biological Conservation 114: 357-370.
Rodrigues A. S. L., Pilgrim J. D., Lamoreux J. F., Hoffmann M., Brooks T. M. 2006. The value of
the IUCN Red List for conservation. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 21(2): 71-76.
Root T. L., Price J. T., Hall K. R., Schneider S. H., Rosenzweig C., Pounds J. A. 2003. Fingerprints
of global warming on wild animals and plants. Nature 421(6918): 57-60.
Sparks T. H., Menzel A. 2002. Observed changes in seasons: an overview. International

Journal of Climatology 22(14): 1715-1725.
Walther G. R., Post E., Convey P., Menzel A., Parmesan C., Beebee T. J., Fromentin J. M.,
Hocgh-Guldberg O., Bairlein F. 2002. Ecological responses to recent climate change.
Nature 416(6879): 389-395.
LINKS
IUCN: www.iucn.org/about/union/secretariat/offices/iucnmed/iucn_med_programme/
species/red_list/
IUCN Red list:
www.iucnredlist.org
GBIF (Global Biodiversity Information Facility):
80 www.gbif.org
GBIF España: www.gbif.es
SARE (Seguimiento de Anfibios y Reptiles de España):
http://www.herpetologica.es/programas/programa-s-a-r-e
Chapter 3: Evaluating ecosystem functioning with
remote sensing tools
Chapter 3
ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONS
81
«Mediterranean Mosaic», Hoya de Guadix (Southeast Iberian Peninsula).

The term ecosystem functioning refers to the collective effect of a multitude

of ecological processes which determine exchange of matter and energy in
The concepts of health
the ecosystem. These processes include primary production, ecosystem gas
and integrity of ecosystems are
exchange, the energy balance, evapotranspiration or nutrient cycling, and
associated with a functional
derive from the number and types of organisms, their interaction, and the ability
perspective of ecosystems, and
of all to maintain those processes over time and space.
are closely linked to the idea
of sustainability. Both concepts
While this functioning is inherent to the intrinsic properties of ecosystems,
represent a useful tool for evaluating
ecosystem functions are understood from a human perspective to refer to
and interpreting monitoring data.
ecological processes that have the potential of generating benefits perceived
by society.
1. EVALUATING ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONING WITH REMO-

TE SENSING TOOLS
Spectral vegetation indices found from remote sensing provide regional estimates of primary productivity, an
integrating descriptor of ecosystem functioning. They are easy to acquire and interpret on all spatial scales and
provide a temporal perspective of this ecosystem function.
The NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) and the EVI (Enhanced Vegetation
Index) are two estimators of net primary productivity. The use of the EVI is more refined
for both ecosystems with heavy and scarce plant biomass.
NDVI NET PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY EVI
GOALS METHODOLOGY
Regional evaluation of the The methodology is the same for the NDVI and the EVI.
functional dynamics of ecosystems
and their trends.
1. 1. Acquire sensor images (e.g. NOAA– AVHRR LTDR,
MODIS–TERRA or SPOT)1
• The number of images available and their frequency depend on
FREQUENCY the sensor.
82 The images acquired from remote
sensors vary in frequency from days
2. Filter for quality (QA)
to years. To evaluate the annual
• Eliminate pixels that are poor-quality because of:
dynamics of ecosystems, complete
years of satellite information are - Sensor failure.
necessary, while to find out about - Aerosols.
ecosystem functioning on lower - Clouds.
time scales, analyses of spectral data - Ice/snow.
may be done by season, month or - Shadows.
fortnight. The choice of one type
or another of analysis depends on
the purpose of monitoring and the 3. Calculate the average year to characterise ecosystem refe-
satellite database available11. rence conditions
• Find distribution measurements (e.g., mean and standard deviation
of NDVI or EVI for reference times (fortnight month, seasonal) for
the whole image time series, for each of the portions of territory in
which the image is divided (pixell).
The MODIS sensor aboard the

1
Terra satellite offers a 16-day EVI and 4. Calculate the descriptive attributes of the functional dyna-
NDVI summary called a composite. mics of the ecosystems (see figure below)
A complete year is made up of 23 • From parametrization of the mean behaviour curve of a portion of
composites. territory.
• The functional attributes that describe ecosystem functioning

may be found using a data processor such as R (or Excel.
• Calculations may be performed for individual pixels or for the set
of pixels corresponding to an ecosystem or concrete location.
5. Estimate NDVI or EVI trends

• Enable subtle changes in ecosystems over time to be identified.
• Can be estimated from composites or annual data for functional
attributes.
• May be significant or not, depending on the p-value selected.
FUNCTIONAL ATTRIBUTES DERIVED FROM

THE MEAN ANNUAL EVI CURVE IV
Shows the descriptive functional attributes of 0,8
three basic facets of ecosystem functioning: 0,7 Maximum
Productivity EVI (EVImax)
Seasonality 0,6
Phenology 0,5
Intra-Annual
Coefficient of 0,4
Variation (EVI–CV) Area under annual EVI
0,3
curve EVI (EVI–I)
0,2
Minimum EVI (EVImin)
0,1
83
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Months
Date of minimum
EVI (Mmin) Date of maximum EVI (Mmax)
«Vegetation patches of scrub and trees», Sierra de Gador Mountains (Southeast Iberian Peninsula).
INDICATORS
ANNUAL PRODUCTIVITY
TYPE: State/Response SCALE: Global/Regional
VARIABLE DEFINITION
EVImean Spectral surrogate of net primary productivity in an ecosystem for the year
EVImax Spectral surrogate of maximum primary productivity in an ecosystem for the year
EVImin Spectral surrogate of minimum primary productivity in an ecosystem for the year
84 SEASONALITY
TYPE: Response SCALE: Global/Regional
VARIABLE DEFINITION
Relative range (RREL) EVI variation range for the year
Intra-annual coefficient of variation: difference between the maximum and minimum

EVI-CV
EVI weighted by the mean EVI
PHENOLOGY
TYPE: State SCALE: Regional/Global
VARIABLE DEFINITION
Mmax Date of maximum primary productivity for the year
Mmin Date of maximum primary productivity for the year

CASE STUDY:
EVALUATION OF PRIMARY PRODUCTION DYNAMICS IN THE SOUTHEAST
IBERIAN PENINSULA
Images taken by the MODIS sensor in the arid southeast of the Iberian Peninsula from 2001 to 2013 were
studied.
Mean EVI varied from 0.6 (dark Green) to 0 (light Green). The highest mean EVI correspond to areas with
the most primary productivity, the forests in the Baza and Filabres Mountains in the Betic high-mountain and
northwest María-Los Vélez Mountains. Higher values, corresponding to the high watersheds and headwaters of
the watercourses running through semiarid depressions visible as linear shapes, were also collected.
The lowest mean EVI were collected along the sub-desert Mediterranean Coast, where Almeria’s coastal
watersheds are, the Cape Gata coast, and in the northwest of the study area
85
EVI MEAN 2001–2013

0.6
0 20 40
Km
HIGHEST EVI LOWEST EVI
Northwest Granada and

Almeria Plateaus
Baza Mountains Betic high-mountain River
Filabres Mountains formations
María-Los Vélez Mountains
Almeria coastal watersheds
Cape Gata Coast
CASE STUDY:
EVALUATION OF CHANGES IN PRIMARY PRODUCTION IN THE
SOUTHEAST IBERIAN PENINSULA (2001–2013)
The trends show the changes in EVI. In this case, as shown in the TRENDS +
figure, the trends are for the mean EVI from 2001 to 2013.
The difference between vegetation performance in the southeast and

northwest of the study area is dramatic.
Cabo de Gata coastal watersheds
A sharp upward trend in EVI means may be observed in this 13-year
period on the coast of Cape Gata and coastal watersheds, while trends
are downward in the semiarid north and northeast.
Study of the EVI trends enabled ecosystem response to global change

to be assessed. In this case, it is interpreted as areas under the influence of
Mediterranean atmospheric circulation modes increasing their producti-
vity.
86 Betic high-mountain
TRENDS –
Northwest Granada and Almeria

plateaus
EVI MEAN 2001–2013
< -40
-20 a -40
0 a -20
0
0 a 20
N
20 a 40
0 10 20 30 40
Km > 40
Chapter 3: Dynamic analysis of soil-atmosphere
carbon exchange
2. DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF SOIL-ATMOSPHERE CARBON

EXCHANGE
Most of the carbon accounted for in terrestrial ecosystems is in soil, double what
there is in the air, and almost triple what there is in all plant biomass. These compartments
are not stagnant, but are connected by fluxes.
CO2 IN ATMOSPHERE
CO2 IN PLANT BIOMASS
CO2 IN SOIL
Photosynthesis absorbs CO2 (GPP, Gross Primary Production), but part of it goes
into the air due to ecosystem respiration (Re). During ecosystem respiration, one part
corresponds exclusively to aerial plant respiration (Ra), and the other to soil respiration
(Rs), which in turn integrates root, or autotrophic, respiration (Rb), and respiration by
microorganisms in the soil, or heterotrophic respiration (Rm). The difference between
assimilation and respiration is known as the net balance (NEE, Net Ecosystem
Exchange), and is transformed into biomass. This is the form in which carbon is stored 87
in ecosystems, first in the plant and then in the soil. Carbon stocks in each reservoir are
not stagnant or isolated, and there are a series of processes that keep them connected.
These processes are originally balanced, and the amount of carbon in each is constant.
The changes in carbon stock may be due to degradation and even deforestation of
plant masses, producing CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. The amount emitted does
not depend on the area affected alone, but also on the type of biome.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS CO2 NEE
Ecosystem respiration Re
GPP Ra
Soil respiration Rs
Rp= Ra + Rb
Rb Rm
NPP= GPP - Rp
NEP= NPP - Rm
Organic matter
Decomposition of
Losses from leaching plant remains
GOALS METHODOLOGY
Measure and characterise CO2
soil/atmosphere exchange by moni- 1. Selection of seasons for monitoring
toring soil respiration (CO2 emission). Criteria:
• Ecosystem type.
• Changes in land use.
FREQUENCY 2. Measurement instrument installation

• Vaisala Sensors. Solid-state GMM222 CO2 sensors (VAISALA,
Finland) with a measurement range up to 10,000 ppm.
Carbon soil-air carbon exchange
is very dynamic. A high-time-
resolution methodology is therefore
used for it (hourly data) which is 3. Soil respiration measurements (Tang et al. 2003)
then summarized to other temporal • The hourly CO2 molar fraction is continually measured at different
resolutions. depths.
• CO2 flux diffusion from the soil to the atmosphere can be
calculated by Frick’s 1st law of diffusion.
• CO2 flux emitted by soil is considered an estimator of its
88 respiration (FRS).
INDICATORS
TYPE: Pressure SCALE: Local
TIME SCALE VARIABLE DEFINITION
Annual CO2 emitted Annual summation of

Annual
(gC.m–2.año–1) CO2 soil/air fluxes
Fmax (µmol.m–2.s–1) Maximum flux and date
Fmin (µmol.m–2.s–1) Minimum flux and date

Seasonal
Normalised index of
seasonal differences
SDSR
calculated following
«Vaisala sensors for measuring soil CO2 flux», Gador Oyonarte et al. (2012)
Mountains (Southeast Iberian Peninsula).
Photo: Cecilio Oyonarte.
Number of times a year
that CO2 flux goes more
Number of emission pulses than 1.5 times two days
in a row:
Other time scales Ratio = FRst / FRst-1> 1,5
CO2 emitted associated with

pulses emitted over annual
total emitted (%)
Chapter 3: Dynamic analysis of soil-atmosphere
carbon exchange
CASE STUDY:
EVALUATION OF SOIL-ATMOSPHERE CO2 EXCHANGE OVER AN ALTITUDINAL
GRADIENT IN SOUTHEAST IBERIAN PENINSULA
Two sampling stations were SENSOR LOCATIONS

selected:
Balsa blanca
• Balsa Blanca (in Cape Gata–Níjar
Natural Park), which is extremely Llano de los Juanes
hot and dry.
• El Llano de Juanes Station, lo-
cated in the Gador Mountains,
a Place of Regional Importance
(LIC), where it is colder and more
humid.
Two Vaisala sensors were installed

at different places. From the data
collected by the sensor, a graph such 89
as the one below was made, which
was interpreted to provide the final
data for the indicators proposed.
0 10 20 30 40
N Km
12
10
8
CO2 FLUX μmol ·m-2 .s-1
-2
06 / 06 26 / 07 14 / 09 03 / 11 23 / 12 11 / 02 01 / 04 21 / 05 10 / 07 29 / 08
2011 2012
Example of annual CO2 flux (2011/2012) emitted by soil (soil respiration) at the «Balsa Blanca» Station.
The strong autumn CO2 pulse may be observed in the daily flux shown.
3. ESTIMATING OF ORGANIC CARBON RESERVOIR IN

TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
It is assumed that the CO2 flux into or from ambient air is equal to variation in carbon
reserves existing in biomass and soil.
Variation in carbon reserves may be estimated by first establishing the rates of land use
change and the practice used to make that change (e.g., slash and burn, selective cutting). In
the second place, by using assumptions or simple data on its effect on the carbon reserves
and the biological response to a given land use.
There are five carbon sinks in terrestrial ecosystems which may be classified in three
groups, of which only the first two are quantifiable in arid ecosystems
Root biomass Dead wood

Aerial biomasa Fallen leaves
90
LIVE BIOMASS SOIL DEAD ORGANIC MATTER
GOALS
Estimate the total carbon fixed by each land use and its dynamics over time.
METHODOLOGY
Estimation of carbon stocks and knowledge of the dynamics which regulate them is
a complicated and costly task, and not every country has sufficient means or inventories
to do so. That is why there are methodologies that enable regional carbon stocks to
be estimated and their dynamics followed based on global databases (e.g., FAO) which
provide default values, often organized by main ecological zones. Values are also available
for different biomasses to estimate fluxes.
1. Data adquisition
• atellite images and aerial photographs.
S
• Land use maps.
• Forest Resources Assessment 1990 (FAO).
Chapter 3: Estimating of organic carbon reservoir
in terrestrial ecosystems
2. Define land use categories (Six pre-established IPCC categories,

Houghton et al. 1997, Penman et al. 2003)
• Forest. land
• Cropland.
• Grazing land.
• Wetlands.
• Settlements.
• Other land.
3. Estimation of the area occupied by each land use category and

estimate the areas where there is change in use
• Using digital mapping or SIG.
4. Estimation of the annual change in carbon (three methodological

levels from the simplest to the most complicated)
• Default method. Applicable to all carbon sinks on the three levels
(Houghton et al. 1997, Penman et al. 2003).
• se global databases that provide default values, often classified by
U 91
ecological zone (e.g. FAO).
FREQUENCY
Data may be presented in different ways:
• Five-year periods (depending on information available).
• Annual: If there have been changes in use.
INDICATORS
TYPE: Pressure/State ESCALA: Local
VARIABLE DEFINITION
Changes in carbon reser-

Change over time in the carbon stock associated with types of use of a territory (TC. Δt-1)
voir
4. HOW EASY THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ECOSYSTEM

FUNCTIONING MONITORING IS?
EVALUATION OF ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONING DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF SOIL-ATMOSPHERE ESTIMATION OF CARBON RESERVOIRS IN

WITH REMOTE SENSING TOOLS CARBON FLUXES TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
1999 2000
1999 2000
1999 2000
92
Chapter 3: How easy the implementation of
ecosystem functioning monitoring is?
REFERENCES
Agudo Romero R., Muñoz Martínez M., Del Pino del Castillo O. 2007. 1er inventario de
sumideros de CO2 en Andalucía. Consejería de Medio Ambiente. Sevilla.
Alcaraz-Segura D., Liras E., Tabik S., Paruelo J., Cabello J. 2010. Evaluating the consistency of
the 1982-1999 NDVI trends in the Iberian Peninsula across four time-series derived from the
AVHRR sensor: LTDR, GIMMS, FASIR, and PAL-II. Sensors 10(2): 1291-1314.
Cabello J., Alcaraz-Segura D., Lourenço P., Reyes A. 2012. Guía para la incorporación de la
teledetección al seguimiento ecológico de la red de parques nacionales de España. Informe
Técnico. CAESCG. TRAGSATEC.
Cabello J., Fernández N., Alcaraz-Segura D., Oyonarte C., Piñeiro G., Altesor A., Delibes M.,
Paruelo J. M. 2012. The ecosystem functioning dimension in cnservation: insights from
remote sensing. Biodiversity and Conservation 21: 3287-3305.
DeFries R., Achard F., Brown S., Herold M., Murdiyarso D., Schlamadinger B., de Souza Jr.
C. 2007. Earth observation for estimating greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation in
developing countries. Environmental Science and Policy 10: 385-394.
Houghton J. T., Meira Filho L. G., Lim B., Treanton K., Mamaty I., Bonduki Y., Griggs D. J.
Callander B. A. (Eds.). 1997. Revised 1996 IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas 93
inventories. IPCC/OECD/IEA, Paris.
Oyonarte C., Rey A., Raimundo J., Miralles I., Escribano P. 2012. The use of soil respiration
as an ecological indicator in arid ecosystems of the SE of Spain: Spatial variability and
controlling factors. Ecological Indicators 14: 40-49.
Penman J., Gytarsky M., Hiraishi T., Krug T., Kruger D., Pipatti R., Buendia L., Miwa K., Ngara T.,
Tanabe K., Wagner F. (Eds.). 2003. Good Practice Guidance for Land Use, Land-Use Change
and Forestry. Intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC). Institute for Global
Environmental Strategies (IGES), Hayama. Japan.
Tang J., Baldocchi D., Qi Y., Xu L. 2003. Assessing soil CO2 efflux using continuous
measurements of CO2 profiles in soils with small solid-state sensors. Agricultural and Forest
Meteorology 118: 207-220.
94
Chapter 4: Ecosystem services
Chapter 4
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
95
«Cala Iris Fishing Harbour», Alhucemas (Northeast Morocco).

Photo: Maria Jacoba Salinas.
Identifying services demanded by society that are supplied by the ecosys-
tems is an essential tool in evaluating any effects that global change could DATABASES
have on human welfare.
Many global ecosystem service
databases are available:
They can be direct, such as food or fresh water for drinking, or indirect,
such as carbon sequestration. They are classified in three categories: supply, • GEO BON (Group on Earth
regulation and cultural (MA 2005). Observations - Biodiversity
Observation Network). This
platform concentrates on
collecting information describing
space and time patterns in
production, transfer and value of
ECOSYSTEM CONTRIBUTIONS TO many local and global ecosystem
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
HUMANS
services.
• IPBES (Intergovernmental
The ecosystem service concept is directly related to their proper functio- Science-Policy Platform on
ning, but in turn includes the social dimension, such as demand, its use and Biodiversity and Ecosystem
enjoyment by social stakeholders (beneficiaries). Thus, it is understood that Services). Also concentrates on
just as the biophysical system has a repercussion on the social system, so- global regional and subregional
ciety induces changes that alter the biophysical system by decision-making evaluation. The use of a
and actions that promote drivers of change. multiscale approach makes the
information compatible with this
platform.
ECOSYSTEM SERVICE CATEGORIES
SUPPLY SERVICES REGULATION SERVICES
Climate regulation
Water regulation
Food Air purification
Fresh water Erosion control
Natural medicines Biological control
Genetic heritage Pollination
Raw materials Soil Fertility
Environmental education
Scientific knowledge
96 Cultural identity
Spiritual and aesthetic enjoyment
Recreation
Nature tourism
CULTURAL SERVICES
«Workshop on service evaluation», Alhucemas National Park (Northeast Morocco).

Photo: CAESCG.
Chapter 4: Evaluating ecosystem services
1. EVALUATING ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

GOALS FREQUENCY
Identify, characterise and evaluate ecosystem services, whether related to Although ecosystems are usua-
their supply by a concrete ecosystem, or depending on social demand by the lly evaluated from time to time, it is
population. advisable to make evaluations that
take the time scale into account, and
METHODOLOGY thus be able to analyse temporal tra-
de-offs. For example, for biophysical
evaluations using proxies, evaluation
Identification, characterisation and evaluation of ecosystem services
should be annual and with the lon-
demands a variety of methods that can reflect the plurality of values associated
gest interval possible in a range of
with them (economic, social, biophysical, historical, and therapeutic, etc).
years to be able to evaluate change
over time in that service’s supply.
APPROACHES
97
ECONOMIC SOCIOCULTURAL BIOPHYSICAL
• •Market prices • •Surveys valuing preferences

• •Production function • •Discussion groups BY USE OF PROXIES
• •Costing methods • •Evaluation workshops
• •Revealed preference methods • •Participatory service mapping • •Mapping functions and
• •Declared preference methods services
• •Mapping service
demands
METHODS
INDICATORS
TYPE: Response SCALE: Local/Regional/Global
ECONOMIC DIMENSION SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSION BIOPHYSICAL DIMENSION
VARIABLE
Willingness to pay for service Carbon capture and underground seques-

Social importance granted
conservation tration
Economic value of services Perceived vulnerability Agricultural production
Social demand for services Number of sea captures

2. IDENTIFYING AND CHARACTERISING SOCIAL

STAKEHOLDERS
Identification and characterisation of key social stakeholders can determine which social stakeholders benefit from
the flow of services provided by a certain ecosystem. This identification of social stakeholders is associated with how they
perceive, value and demand the flow of services that ecosystems provide.
GOALS METHODOLOGY
Identify and characterise the most

important social stakeholders related 1. Compile information on the preferences and perceptions by
to the services supplied. social sampling using surveys, interviews, participatory work-
shops or expert panels
FREQUENCY
98 2. Define the relevant population
Depending on the study area, • Environmental performance variables.
an evaluation adjusted to the • Socioeconomic and demographic variables.
population’s characteristics and social • Services demanded.
dynamics should be done for each
specific case. A frequency of 10 years
is recommended.
3. Selection of the sample and analyse the results using
statistical techniques
4. Characterise and classify key social stakeholders

• Prioritise social stakeholders by how much influence they have on
service supply or how important the services are to them.
INDICATORS
TYPE: Response SCALE: Local/Regional
VARIABLE
Changes in perception groups

Chapter 4: How easy the implementation of ecosystem services monitoring is?
3. HOW EASY THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ECOSYSTEM

SERVICES MONITORING IS?
Databases
1999 2000
Spatial resolution
Temporal resolution
Human resources
Qualifications

to derive knowledge 99
REFERENCES
Brouwer R., Brander L., Kuik O., Papyrakis E., Bateman I. 2013. A synthesis of
approaches to assess and value ecosystem services in the EU in the context of TEEB.
Final report. 15 May 2013. VU University Amsterdam, Institute for Environmental
Studies.
Castro A., García-Llorente M., Martín-López B., Palomo I., Iniesta-Arandia, I. 2014.
Multidimensional approaches in ecosystem service assessment. En: Alcaraz-Segura
D., Di Bella C. D., Straschnoy J. V. (Eds.): Earth Observation of Ecosystem Services,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, págs. 427-454.
Gómez-Baggethun E., de Groot R. 2007. Capital natural y funciones de los

ecosistemas: explorando las bases ecológicas de la economía. Ecosistemas 16 (3):
4-14.
Kelemen E., García-Llorente M.; Pataki G., Martín-López B., Gómez-Baggethun

E. 2014. Non-monetary techniques for the valuation of ecosystem service. En:
Potschin M., Jax K. (Eds.), OpenNESS Reference Book. EC FP7 Grant Agreement no.
308428. Available via: www.openness-project.eu/library/reference-book
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA). 2005. Ecosystem and human well-being:

Current states and trends. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC.
Tallis H., Mooney H., Andelman S., Balvanera P., Cramer W., Karp D., Polasky S.,
Reyers B., Ricketts T., Running S., Thonicke K., Tietjen B., Walz A. 2012. A global
system for monitoring ecosystem service change. BioScience 62: 977-986.
van Weperen E. 2013. A practical method for selecting stakeholders in local landscape
planning for ecosystem services. Wageningen University. The Netherlands.
100
Chapter 5: Adaptative governance
Chapter 5
ADAPTIVE GOVERNANCE
101
«Science-management interface workshop for biodiversity problems in the semiarid region of northern Morocco », Alhucemas.
Photo: CAESCG.
In the Anthropocene Age, the solution of environmental problems demands

greater cooperation among scientists, managers and other stakeholders. In the SCIENCE
Anthropocene Age, the solution to environmental problems demands greater
collaboration by scientists, managers and stakeholders. The combined work of MANAGEMENT SOCIETY
these groups in identifying such problems and establishing strategies for their
solution enables: i) scientists to align their research to the needs of managers, In the 21st century, the connections among science,
management and society are crucial to confronting the
ii) managers to make decisions based on scientific evidence, and iii) society to
challenges of sustainability (Gallopín et al. 2001).
become involved in the maintenance of biodiversity and ecosystem services
responsible for human welfare.
One of the most innovative tools for putting this approach into practice is
the science-management interface (van den Hove, 2007). This concept refers
to starting up communities of practice (Wenger et al., 2002) in which scientists
and other stakeholders involved in environmental decision-making interact
by exchanging information and generating collective knowledge related to
environmental challenges. It is definitely a mechanism for improving governance
of socio-ecological systems.
1. SCIENCE-MANAGEMENT INTERFACES FOR IMPROVING

ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE
GOALS
Put science-management interfaces into practice to improve governance of socio-
ecological systems by forming communities of practice made up of scientists, managers
and social agents to deal with matters related to sustainability.
METHODOLOGY
Basic stages for developing a science-management interface:
1. Design
• Analyse the socio-ecological and political-governmental structure in the
102 study area.
• Plan the strategy for putting the science-management interface into practice.
2. Implementation
• Form the community of practice.
• Hold interface workshops.
• Hold participatory sessions to analyse environmental problems.
• Arrange adaptive management action to be taken.
3. Evaluation
• Periodic monitor actions taken.
• Evaluate the results and prepare new proposals to adapt to new socio-
ecological scenarios.
DATABASE
Science-management interfaces are dependent on the socio-ecological context of
the study area. Therefore, to configure the community of practice that will make up the
interface process, different types of databases must be recurred to:
• International, national or regional systems of researchers to identify entities (public,

private or association movements) or research groups specialized in a certain area
and/or field of research.
• Competent national, regional and local authorities.
• National and/or regional socioeconomic statistics institutes from which general data
on the social and business fabric in a certain area can be acquired.
Chapter 5: Science-management interfaces for improving
environmental governance
When the community of practice has been formed, it would be desirable to have
databases to consult the results derived from this type of processes (e.g., catalogue of
environmental problems in a region, list of adaptive management actions taken, inventory
of monitoring indicators and evaluation of results, etc.). Although at this time, these
information sources are not yet available, it would be a good idea to progress in that
direction, because this information is very useful for analysing interface efficiency in
solving environmental problems.
FREQUENCY
Science-management interfaces are based on a view of adaptive ecosystem
management of (Holling 1978). From this approach, decisions made are associated with
evaluation and monitoring for its readjustment and adaptation to new socio-ecological
scenarios. These interfaces must therefore be developed dynamically and iteratively. An
appropriate time interval for reproducing the process is two years, although this frequency
could be modified depending on the uniqueness of each interface process.
INDICATORS 103
The variables indicative of evolution of the science-management interface process

are directly related to its characteristics. Along general lines, we propose some process
indicators:
VARIABLE DEFINITION
NCP Number of members in the community of practice
NPI Number of proposals derived from the science-management interface process
NLI Number of research projects derived from the interface process
Number of adaptive management actions derived from the science-

NAGA
management interface implemented
Extent of maturity of environmental problem dimensions: scientific knowledge,

GMPA
management capacity and social commitment
CASE STUDY:
SCIENCE-MANAGEMENT INTERFACE FOR ANALYSIS AND SOLUTION OF
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS IN SOUTHEAST IBERIAN PENINSULA
MEMBERS OF THE COMMUNITY OF PRACTICE STUDY AREA

Scientists and managers of the natural environment. Semiarid regions of Andalusia (Al-
meria and Granada, Spain).
METHOD RESULTS
When the community of practice had been formed,
workshops held were attended in person and led by two • Identification of 12 priority envi-
experts, one with a scientific profile and the other a manager. ronmental problems.
Twenty-five scientists and 45 managers linked to the study • Five adaptive management strate-
area participated in these workshops. The workshops were gies were decided on.
104 held at round tables at which participant profile seating

was alternated to facilitate interaction between groups and
stimulate discussion. Each session included a presentation of
the workshop and discussions with all the participants. The
leaders, with the help of a technical secretary in charge of
keeping the minutes of the subjects dealt with, summarized
the results which were later submitted to approval by the
participants.
DEVELOPMENT
1. Analysing the socio–ecological and political–governmental 2. Planning the strategy for putting the science-management
structure in the study area.. interface into practice.
Chapter 5: Science-management interfaces for improving
environmental governance
DEVELOPMENT
3. Forming the community of practice. 4. Participatory sessions analysing the problems.

105
5. Cooperative analysis of environmental problems. 6. Arranging adaptive management action to be taken.
7. Periodic monitoring of action taken. 8. Evaluating results and preparing new proposals.
CASE STUDY:
CONTROL OF AN INVASIVE POPULATION OF PENNISETUN SETACEUM IN
CAPE GATA–NÍJAR NATURAL PARK (ALMERIA)
106
Expansion of an invasive plant in a protected natural area. Dialogue between scientists and managers to analyse and
define the environmental problem.
Scientific research aligned with the needs of management. Evaluation and monitoring actions.
Implementing management actions based on evidence.

Chapter 5: How easy the implementation of environmental
governance monitoring is?
2. HOW EASY THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL

GOVERNANCE MONITORING IS?
Databases
1999 2000
Spatial resolution
Temporal resolution
Human resources
Qualifications

to derive knowledge 107
REFERENCES
Gallopín G., Funtowicz S., O’Connor M., Ravetz J. R. 2001. Science for the twenty–first
century: from social contract to the scientific core. International Journal Social Science
168: 219-229.
Holling C. S. 1978. Adaptative environmental assessment and management. Wiley, London.
López-Rodríguez M. D., Castro H., Alcántara A. F. 2013. Gobernanza ambiental mediterrá-

nea en el marco de cooperación transfronteriza: revisión y análisis. III Congreso Europeo
de Cooperación Territorial Europea y de Vecindad. Centro de Estudios Andaluces, Córdoba.
López-Rodríguez M. D., Castro H., Cabello J. 2014. Interfaces ciencia–gestión: una pro-
puesta metodológica para tratar problemas de sostenibilidad. X Jornada Maratón de la
Estación Experimental de Zonas Áridas – Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas,
Almería.
López-Rodríguez M.D., Castro A.J., Castro H., Jorreto S. y Cabello J. 2015. Science-policy
interface for addressing environmental problems in arid Spain. Environmental Science and
Policy.
van den Hove S. 2007. A rationale for science–policy interfaces. Futures 39 (7): 807–826.
Wenger E., McDermott R., Snyder W. 2002. Cultivating communities of pratice: a guide to
managing knowledge. Harvard Business School Press, Cambridge.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:
We would like to express our most sincere appreciation to the Moroccan
and Spanish colleagues who collaborated in the course which led to the
preparation of this manual by providing their knowledge and human and
technical means necessary for it to be taught:
Professors and PhDs from the “Mohammed Premier” University:
Mimoum ELHAMMOUTI – Dean of the Multidisciplinary College of Nador.

Najib EL HAMOUTI – Professor and Coordinator of the Life Sciences Area,
Multidisciplinary College of Nador. Collaborator and project liaison in Morocco.
Ali AZDIMOUSA – Professor at the College of Sciences of Oujda. Contributed
to the course with his lecture on “Introduction to the landscape of the Eastern
Rif.”
Morad BAGHOUR – PhD, Multidisciplinary College of Nador.
Rajaa CHAHBOUN – PhD, Multidisciplinary College of Nador.
Rachid TOUZANI – PhD, Multidisciplinary College of Nador.
108 Abdelmajid MOUMEN – PhD, Multidisciplinary College of Nador.
Mustapha AKODAD – Professor at the Multidisciplinary College of Nador.
Hassan GHAZAL – PhD, Multidisciplinary College of Nador.
Hassan AOURACHE – Professor at the Facultad de Ciencias de Oujda.
Omar AZZOUZ – Professor at the Facultad de Ciencias de Oujda.
Kamal EL HAUMOTI – Professor at the Facultad de Ciencias de Oujda.
Mohammed MELHAOUI – Professor at the Facultad de Ciencias de Oujda.
Hassan AMHAMDI – PhD, National School of Applied Sciences of Alhucemas
(ENSAH).
Said BENGAMRA – PhD, National School of Applied Sciences of Alhucemas
(ENSAH).
Other researchers from Spanish and Moroccan institutions:
José Luis González-Rebollar – Researcher at the El Zaidín Experimental Station

(Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, CSIC). Contributed to the
course with a lecture on “Changing agricultural, forest, grazing land uses and
alternatives”.
Ana Belén Robles – Researcher El Zaidín Experimental Station (Consejo
Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, CSIC). Contributed to the course with
a lecture on “Changing land uses and agricultural forest, grazing land uses and
alternatives.”
Isabel María Román – Vice Rector of Infrastructures, Campus and Sustainability
and professor in the Dept. of Economy and Business, University of Almeria.
Contributed to the course with a lecture on “Environmental tributes and water
pollution.”
Mohamed ANDALOUSSI – Representative of the NGO AZIR por el Medio
Ambiente [AZIR for the Environment].
Hakim MESSAOUDI – Representative of the NGO network Development
in National Park of Alhucemas [Development in Alhucemas National Park
(RODPAL).
Acknowledgments
Sara Jorreto – Environmental technician and CAESCG researcher

José Manuel Quero – Director Conservator of the Cape Gata-Níjar Natural
Park.
Francisco Javier Sánchez Gutiérrez – Director of the Sierra Nevada
Mountains National Park and Natural Park.
Francisco José Merino Viejo – Interpreter-translator.
Abderrahim Nemmaoui – Interpreter translator.
Finally, we would like to thank the students who participated in the course.
Their interest, enthusiasm and curiosity provided us with incentive and
improved our labour.
109
Participants in the course on “Evaluación y Seguimiento del Cambio Global en Ambientes Semiáridos” [Evaluation and
Monitoring of Global Change in Semiarid Environments].
Theory session in the course at the Multidisciplinary College Field session in the course at the Sierra Nevada Mountains
of Nador. National Park

Cabello Et Al 2016 Global Change Monitoring Handbook

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Cabello Et Al 2016 Global Change Monitoring Handbook

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Global Change Monitoring Handbook

A PROPOSAL FOR ARID AND SEMIARID ENVIRONMENTS

Who we are ................................................................ 09

PART II. INTRODUCTION ................................................................ 11

1. Ecosystems global-scale monitoring. A window for developing countries ................................................................ 14

PART III. MONITORING METHODOLOGIES ................................................................21

Chapter 1. Drivers of Change ................................................... 23 3

1. CLIMATE CHANGE ................................................................ 23

Sonia Fernández-Montes, Fernando S. Rodrigo

2. LAND-USE CHANGES ................................................................ 32

3. WATER POLLUTION ................................................................ 43

4. BIOLOGICAL INVASIONS: PLANT SPECIES ................................................................ 48

1. ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY OF RIVERS ................................................................ 59

2. TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS ................................................................ 67

Chapter 3. Ecosystem functions ................................................... 81

1. EVALUATING ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONING WITH REMOTE SENSING TOOLS ................................................................ 81

1. ECOSYSTEM SERVICES EVALUATION ................................................................ 97

Chapter 5. Adaptive governance ..................................................101

1. SCIENCE-POLICY INTERFACES FOR IMPROVING ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE ..................................................102

PART II. INTRODUCTION

1. ECOSYSTEMS GLOBAL-SCALE MONITORING.

In a world that is culturally and environmentally globalized, acquiring the data

Environmental information helps us to understand how the planet’s ecosystems

In spite of the difficulty involved, current technological development has made

Environmental information on a global scale can be used for many purposes by

Gowa E. K. 2009. Best practices in environmental information management in Africa: the

Gwynne M. D. 1982. The Global Enviroment Monitoring System (GEMS) or UNEP.

2. SHARING KNOWLEDGE FOR MONITORING ARID AND

The proposal includes chapters on the following environmental subjects: climate

• Availability of databases: Spatial range of databases necessary to start up the moni-

• Temporal resolution: estimated by data recording frequency.

Changes in land use Evaluation of ecosystem functioning with remote

Databases Spatial resolution Human resources Minimum length os a time

«Cloud systems over the Iberian Peninsula». Photo: Javier Cabello

Temperte winters Modulated by the Atlantic influence Hot dry summers

1.1 EVOLUTION OF TEMPERATURES

Along with the evolution of the

T Mean temperature for a certain period (annual, monthly, daily)

TX Maximum temperature in a given period

TN Minimum temperature in a given period

Thermal amplitude: DTR TX–TN for a given period

T: temperature; TX: maximum temperature; TN: minimum temperature

1.2 EVOLUTION OF PRECIPITATION REGIME

«Cape Tres Forcas», Northeast Morocco.

Px Maximum precipitation (mm)

PT Total cumulative precipitation for a given period

1.3 ANALYSIS OF EXTREME PHENOMENA

TX absolute Maximum temperature recorded at a site over a long period

TN absolute Minimum temperature recorded at a site over a long period

Warm nights: TN90p Percentage of days when TN > 90th percentile

Cold nights: TN10p Percentage of days when TN < 10th percentile

Cold days: TX10p Percentage of days when TX < 10th percentile

Consecutive wet days:

Days with intense

Days with very intense

TX: Maximum temperature; TN: Minimum temperature; P: Precipitation

The Mann-Kendall nonparametric test detected the appearance of trends at

• Generalized increase in temperatures (daily maximums and minimums) except

- Decrease in Tmax in Almeria’s Poniente (west) where agriculture under

- Decrease in Tmin in winter in the Cazorla and Segura Mountains.

CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE OBSERVED

<-1,0 -0,2 a 0 0,8 a 1,0 MINIMUM T MAXIMUM T

CHANGES OBSERVED IN PRECIPITATION

1.4 HOW EASY THE IMPLEMENTATION OF CLIMATE