GEOTECH REVIEWER

ROCK CYCLE

Rock - any naturally formed, nonliving, firm, and coherent aggregate mass o solid matter that
constitutes part of a planet.

Minerals - defined as a naturally occurring crystalline solid of definite chemical composition and a
characteristic crystal structure.

Rock Cycle - continually changing because of processes such as weathering and large earth
movements. The rocks are gradually recycled over millions of years.

Sedimentary Rocks - types of rock that are formed by the deposition and subsequent cementation of
that material at the Earth's surface and within bodies of water.

MAGMA - A magma consists mostly of liquid rock matter, but may contain crystals of various minerals,
and may contain a gas phase that may be dissolved in the liquid or may be present as a separate gas
phase.

THREE TYPES OF MAGMA

1. Basaltic magma-- SiO2 45-55 wt%, high in Fe, Mg, Ca, low in K, Na

-Most originate from partial melting of mantle rocks at oceanic ridges

– Large outpourings of basaltic magma are common at Earth’s surface

2. Andesitic magma-- SiO2 55-65 wt%, intermediate. in Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K

-Produced by interaction of basaltic magmas and more silica-rich rocks in the crust

– May also evolve by magmatic differentiation.

3. Rhyoliticmagma-- SiO2 65-75%, low in Fe, Mg, Ca, high in K, Na

COMPOSITIONS OF GASES IN MAGMA

Mostly H2O (water vapor) with some CO2 (carbon dioxide)

Minor amounts of Sulfur, Chlorine, and Fluorine gases

Texture - size and arrangement of mineral grains

The minerals that make up igneous rocks crystallize at a range of different temperatures. This explains
why a cooling magma can have some crystals within it and yet remain predominantly liquid. The
sequence in which minerals crystallize from a magma is known as the Bowen reaction series.

THREE BASIC TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

 Clastic– formed from mechanical weathering debris

 Chemical– formed when dissolved materials precipitate from solution.

 Organic – formed from the accumulation of plant or animal debris.

Sediments - The deposited rocks build up in layers

Sedimentation - The process for the creation of sediments

Compaction - The weight of the sediments on top squashes the sediments at the bottom. The water is
squeezed out from between the pieces of rock and crystals of different salts form.

Cementation - The crystals form a sort of glue that sticks or cements the pieces of rock together.

Igneous rocks contain randomly arranged interlocking crystals. The size of the crystals depends on
how quickly the molten magma solidified. The more slowly the magma cools, the bigger the crystals.

Igneous rock is formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.

Unlike sedimentary rocks, igneous rocks do not contain any fossils. This is because any fossils in the
original rock will have melted when the magma formed.

the melting is caused by one or more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease in
pressure, or a change in composition.

TWO TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

 INTRUSIVE ROCKS

Plutonic,igneous rocks form when magma cools slowly below the Earth's surface. Most intrusive
rocks have large, well-formed crystals. Examples include granite,gabbro, diorite and dunite.

 EXTRUSIVE ROCKS

forms when magma reaches the Earth's surface a volcano and cools quickly. Most extrusive
(volcanic) rocks have smallcrystals. Examples include basalt, rhyolite,andesite, and obsidian.
TYPES OF TEXTURES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

1. FINE GRAINED OR APHANITIC - indicate magmas that rapidly cooled at or near the Earth's
surface.

2. VITREOUS OR GLASSY - Occurs during some volcanic eruptions when the lava is quenched so
rapidly that crystallization cannot occur.

3. PEGMATITIC - Occurs during magma cooling when some minerals may grow so large that they
become massive.

4. PHANERITIC - Whose microstructure is made up of crystals large enough to be distinguished

with the unaided eye.

5. PORPHYRITIC - This develops when conditions during cooling of a magma change relatively
quickly.

6. PYROCLASTIC - Shows a mixture of rock fragments, pumice, and volcanic ash.

7. Vesicular Texture (Open spaces, bubbles) - filled with holes (like Swiss cheese) or vesicles that
were once occupied by gas.

EXAMPLES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

a. OBSIDIAN - Dark colored volcanic glass showing conchoidal fracture and few to no crystals.
Usually rhyolitic.

b. PUMICE - Light colored and light weight rock consisting of mostly holes (vesicles) that were
once occupied by gas. Usually rhyolitic or andesitic.

c. DIORITE - Is usually grey to dark-grey in colour, but it can also be black or bluish-grey, and
frequently has a greenish cast.

d. GABBRO - Refers to a large group of dark,

often phaneritic (coarse-grained), mafic intrusive igneous rocks chemically equivalent to basalt.

MINERALS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS:

 Plagioclase is the most common mineral in igneous rocks. Most plagioclase appears frosty white
to gray-white in igneous rocks, but in gabbro it can be dark gray to blue-gray.

 Think pink is the motto for Potassium Feldspar. As orthoclase is a feldspar, you should also see
the stair-step cleavage characteristic of feldspars.

 Quartz is also a very common mineral in some igneous rocks. It can be difficult to recognize since
it doesn't look like the beautiful, clear hexagonal-shaped mineral we see in mineral collections or
for sale in rock shops. In igneous rocks it is often medium to dark gray and has a rather
amorphous shape

 Muscovite is not a common mineral in igneous rocks, but rather an accessory that occurs in
small amounts. It is shiny and silvery, but oxidizes to look almost golden

 Biotite occurs in small amounts in many igneous rocks. It is black, shiny and often occurs in small
hexagonal (6-sided) books. Unfortunately, it is often confused with amphibole and pyroxene.
 Pyroxene is common only in mafic igneous rocks. It occurs as short, stubby, dark green crystals.
It has poor cleavage in 2 directions and cleavage surfaces are often hard to see with even a
binocular microscope. It is often confused with biotite and amphibole.

 Amphibole is a rather common mineral in all igneous rocks, however, it is only abundant in the
intermediate igneous rocks. It occurs as slender needle-like. It has good cleavage in 2 directions
and hence has a stair-step appearance under a binocular microscope.

 Olivine is common only in ultramafic igneous rocks like dunite and peridotite. It occurs as small,
light green, glassy crystals. It has no cleavage.

BASIC LAVA TYPES

 BASALT - A dark coloured extrusive rock characterised by grain so fine that it is difficult to see
even with a magnifying glass.

 ANDESITE - A fine-grained, gray to black extrusive igneous rock. It is an intermediate rock

containing some minerals found in basalt and some common to rhyolite.

 RHYOLITE - Is silica (SiO2) rich (more then 68%), light-coloured rock.

Solidification into rock occurs either below the surface as intrusive rocks or on the surface as
extrusive rocks.

Two Basic types of Igneous Rocks:

 Intrusive – crystalizes below Earth’s surface, and the slow cooling that occurs there allows large
crystals to form.

 Extrusive – erupt unto surface, where they cool quickly to form small crystals.

Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock types, in a process called
metamorphism, which means "change in form".

The original rock (protolith) is subjected to heat (temperatures greater than 150 to 200 °C) and
pressure (150 mega pascals (1,500 bar)) causing profound physical or chemical change.

They do not melt, but the minerals they contain are changed chemically, forming metamorphic rocks.

Two basic types of metamorphic rocks:

 Foliated – have a layered or banded appearance that is produced by exposure to heat and direct
pressure.

 Non-Foliated – do not have a layered or banded appearance.

Weathering

the process of breaking down rocks by mechanical and chemical processes into smaller pieces.
Mechanical weathering may be caused by the expansion and contraction of rocks from the
continuous gain and loss of heat, which results in ultimate disintegration. Frequently, water seeps
into the pores and existing cracks in rocks. As the temperature drops, the water freezes and expands.

Products of weathering

1. Glacial soils—formed by transportation and deposition of glaciers

2. Alluvial soils—transported by running water and deposited along streams

3. Lacustrine soils—formed by deposition in quiet lakes

4. Marine soils—formed by deposition in the seas

5. Aeolian soils—transported and deposited by wind

6. Colluvial soils—formed by movement of soil from its original place by gravity, such as during
landslides

Steps in sedimentary rock formation:

1) Weathering

2) Sedimentation

3) Compaction

4) Cementation

Metamorphism - the process of changing the composition and texture of rocks(without melting) by
heat and pressure. During metamorphism, new minerals are formed, and mineral grains are sheared
to give a foliated-texture to metamorphic rock. Gneiss is a metamorphic rock derived from high-grade
regional metamorphism of igneous rocks such as granite, gabbro, and diorite. Low-grade
metamorphism of shales and mudstones results in slate.

There are three types of weathering:

 Physical

 Chemical

 Biological

Physical Weathering - caused by physical changes such as changes in temperature, freezing and
thawing, and the effects of wind, rain and waves.
Biological Weathering

 Animals and plants can wear away rocks.

 Plant roots can grow in cracks. As they grow bigger, the roots push open the cracks and make
them wider and deeper. Eventually pieces of rock may fall away.

 People can even cause biological weathering just by walking. Over time, paths in the countryside
become damaged because of all the boots and shoes wearing them away.

Chemical Weathering - Rainwater is naturally slightly acidic because carbon dioxide from the air
dissolves in it. Minerals in rocks may react with the rainwater, causing the rock to be weathered.

- Chemical weathering can hollow out caves form and make cliffs fall away.

Transport - Rivers and streams can move pieces of rock. Fast flowing rivers can transport large rocks,
but slow moving rivers can only transport tiny pieces of rock.

Transport by Water - Everyday, millions of tons of sediments are moved along rivers, coasts and deep
oceans. Water transport occurs in four ways: Traction, saltation, fine particles and soluble salts.

Transport by Wind - Wind transport can result in stunning landscapes as sand is blown away from
place to place. In the deserts, dunes are created. Wind can also create sand storms and destroy farms
by blowing away the topsoil of large farms.

Clay -is a finely-grained natural rock or soil material that combines one or more clay minerals with
traces of metal oxides and organic matter. Geologic clay deposits are mostly composed
of phyllosilicate minerals containing variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure.

-occur in crystalline or plate like structures – layers can contain aluminun, magnesium or silicon,
surrounded by hydrogen or hydroxy.

Properties of Clay

 Plasticity

 Shrinkage under firing and under air drying

 Fineness of grain

 Color after firing

 Hardness

 Cohesion

 Capacity of the surface to take decoration

TWO TYPES OF CLAY

 Residual clay - found in the place of origin

Most commonly formed by surface weathering, which gives rise to clay in three ways—by the
chemical decomposition of rocks, such as granite, containing silica and alumina; by the solution of
rocks, such as limestone, containing clayey impurities, which, being insoluble, are deposited as clay
and by the disintegration and solution of shale.

 Transported clay - also known as sedimentary clay

Clay minerals are complex aluminum silicates composed of two basic units:(1) silica tetrahedron and
(2) alumina octahedron

SILICA TETRAHEDRON -consists of a silicon atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms. The geometric
figure drawn around this arrangement has four sides, each side being a triangle

Aluminium Octahedron - consists of one aluminium atom surrounded by six hydroxyls.

Sometimes magnesium replaces the aluminum atoms in the octahedral units; in this case, the
octahedral sheet is called a brucite sheet.

In a silica sheet, each silicon atom with a positive charge of four is linked to four oxygen atoms with
a total negative charge of eight. But each oxygen atom at the base of the tetrahedron is linked to
two silicon atoms.

COMMON CLAY MINERALS

Kaolinite

is a clay mineral, part of the group of industrial minerals, with the chemical
composition Al2Si2O5(OH)4. It is a layered silicate mineral, with one tetrahedral sheet of silica (SiO4)

Rocks that are rich in kaolinite are known as kaolin /ˈkeɪəlɪn/ or china clay.

The name "kaolin" is derived from "Gaoling" (Chinese: 高嶺; pinyin: Gāolǐng; literally: "High Ridge"), a
Chinese village near Jingdezhen in southeastern China's Jiangxi Province.

Kaolinite has a low shrink–swell capacity and a low cation-exchange capacity (1–15 meq/100 g). It is a
soft, earthy, usually white, mineral (dioctahedral phyllosilicate clay)

Montmorillonite

is a very soft phyllosilicate group of minerals that form when they precipitate from water solution as
microscopic crystals, known as clay.
 Its Chemical composition is (Na,Ca)0.33(Al,Mg)2(Si4O10)(OH)2·nH2O

It is named after Montmorillon in France

Clay- Water Interaction

 Hydration - occurs as clay packets absorb water and swell.

 Dispersion – or also called Disaggregation , causes clay platelets to break apart and disperse into
the water due to loss of attractive forces as water forces the platelets farther apart.

 Flocculation - begins when mechanical shearing stops and platelets previously dispersed come
together due to the attractive force of surface charges on the platelets.

 Deflocculation - the opposite effect, occurs by addition of chemical deflocculant to flocculated

mud; the positive edge charges are covered and attraction forces are greatly reduced.

 Aggregation - a result of ionic or thermal conditions, alters the hydrational layer around clay
platelets, removes the deflocculant from positive edge charges and allows platelets to assume a
face-to-face structure.