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INTRODUCTION
1.1 AIRCRAFT DESIGN
Aircraft Design Project-II is a continuation of Aircraft Design Project-I. As mentioned in
our earlier project, Business jet is a term describing a jet aircraft, usually of smaller size,
designed for transporting groups of up to 19 business people or wealthy individuals. Business jets
may be adapted for other roles, such as the evacuation of casualties or express parcel deliveries,
and a few may be used by public bodies, governments or the armed forces. The more formal
terms of corporate jet, executive jet, VIP transport or business jet tend to be used by the firms
that build, sell, buy and charter these aircraft. In our Aircraft Design Project-I, we have
performed a rudimentary analysis. We have carried out a preliminary weight estimation, power
plant selection, aerofoil selection, wing selection and aerodynamic parameter selection and
analysis. Apart from the above mentioned, we have also determined performance parameters
such lift, drag, range, endurance, thrust and power requirements.
Aircraft Design Project-II deals with a more in-depth study and analysis of aircraft
performance and structural characteristics. In the following pages we have carried out structural
analysis of fuselage and wings and the appropriate materials have been chosen to give our aircraft
adequate structural integrity. The flight envelope of our aircraft has also been established by
constructing the V-n diagram. We have also determined the landing gear position, retraction and
other accompanying systems and mechanisms. The study of all the above mentioned
characteristics, has given us insight into the complexity of designing a subsonic multi-role 8
seater business jet.
1.2 DESIGN OF AN AIRPLANE
Airplane design is both an art and a science. It’s the intellectual engineering process of
creating on paper (or on a computer screen) a flying machine to
meet certain specifications and requirements established by potential users (or as
perceived by the manufacturer) and
pioneer innovative, new ideas and technology
The design process is indeed an intellectual activity that is rather specified one that is
tempered by good intuition developed via by attention paid to successful airplane designs that
have been used in the past, and by (generally proprietary) design procedure and databases(hand
books etc.) that are a part of every airplane manufacturer.
1
1.3 PHASES OF AIRPLANE DESIGN
The complete design process has gone through three distinct phases that are carried out in
sequence. They are
Conceptual design
Preliminary design
Detailed design
1.4 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
The design process starts with a set of specifications (requirements) for a new airplane or
much less frequently as the response to the desire to implement some pioneering, innovative new
ideas and technology. In either case, there is a rather concrete good towards which the designers
are aiming. The first steps towards achieving that goal constitute the conceptual design phase.
Here, within certain somewhat fuzzy latitude, the overall shape, size, weight and performance of
the new design are determined.
The product of the conceptual design phase is a layout on a paper or on a computer
screen) of the airplane configuration. But one has to visualize this drawing as one with flexible
lines, capable of being slightly changed during the preliminary design phase. However the
conceptual design phase determines such fundamental aspects as the shape of the wings (swept
back, swept forward or straight), the location of the wings related to the fuselage, the shape and
location of the horizontal and vertical tail, the use of an engine size and placement etc , the major
drivers during the conceptual design process are aerodynamics, propulsion and flight
performance.
Structural and context system considerations are not dealt with in any detail. However
they are not totally absent. During the conceptual design phase the designer is influenced by such
qualitative as the increased structural loads imposed by a high horizontal tail location trough the
fuselage and the difficulties associated with cutouts in the wing structure if the landing gear is to
be retracted into the wing rather than the fuselage or engine nacelle. No part of the design is ever
carried out in a total vacuum unrelated to the other parts.
1.5 PRELIMINARY DESIGN
In the preliminary design phase, only minor changes are made to the configuration layout
(indeed, if major changes were demanded during this phase, the conceptual design process has
been actually flawed to begin with. It is in the preliminary design phase that serious structural
and control system analysis and design take place. During this phase also, substantial wind tunnel
testing will be carried out and major computational fluid dynamics (CFD) calculations of the
computer flow fluid over the airplane configurations are done.
2
It’s possible that the wind tunnel tests the CFD calculations will in cover some
undesirable aerodynamic interference or some unexpected stability problems which will promote
change to the configuration layout. At the end of preliminary design phase the airplane
configuration is frozen and preciously defined. The drawing process called lofting is carried out
which mathematically models the precise shape of the outside skin of the airplane making certain
that all sections of the aircraft property fit together
The end of the preliminary design phase brings a major concept to commit the manufacture of the
airplane or not. The importance of this decision point for modern aircraft manufacturers cannot
be understated, considering the tremendous costs involved in the design and manufacture of a
new airplane.
1.6 DETAIL DESIGN
The detail design phase is literally the nuts and bolts phase of airplane design. The
aerodynamic, propulsion, structures performance and flight control analysis have all been
finished with the preliminary design phase. The pressure design of each individual rib, spar and
section of skin now take place. The size of number and location of fastness are determined. At
this stage, flight simulators for the airplane are developed.
1.7 OUTLINE AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT 2
The structural design of the aircraft which is done in aircraft design project 2 involves:
Determination of loads acting on aircraft
V-n diagram for the design study
Gust and maneuverability envelopes
Schrenk’s Curve
Bending moment diagram
Shear force
Centre of gravity
3
Table 1.1 Specifications of Business Jet From Design Project-I
4
CHAPTER II
V-N DIAGRAM
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Flight regime of any aircraft includes all permissible combinations of speeds, altitudes,
weights, centre of gravity, and configurations. This regime is shaped by aerodynamics,
propulsion, structure, and dynamics of aircraft. The borders of this flight regime are called flight
envelope or maneuvering envelope. The safety of human onboard is guaranteed by aircraft
designer and manufacturer. Pilots are always trained and warned through flight instruction
manual not to fly out of flight envelope, since the aircraft is not stable, or not controllable or not
structurally strong enough outside the boundaries of flight envelope. A mishap or crash is
expected, if an aircraft is flown outside flight envelope.
The flight envelope has various types; each of which is usually the allowable variations of
one flight parameter versus another parameter. These envelopes are calculated and plotted by
flight mechanics engineers and employed by pilots and flight crews. For instance, the load
masters of a cargo aircraft must pay extra caution to the centre of gravity location whenever they
distribute various loads on the aircraft. There are several crashes and mishaps that safety board's
report indicated that load master are responsible, since they deployed more loads than allowed, or
misplaced the load before take-off. Nose heavy and tail heavy are two flight concepts that pilots
are familiar and experienced with, and are trained to deal with them safely.
The control of weight in aircraft design is of extreme importance. Increase in weight
requires stronger structures to support them, which in turn lead to further increase in weight & so
on. Excess of structural weight means lesser amounts of payload, affecting the economic viability
of the aircraft.
Therefore there is need to reduce aircraft’s weight to the minimum compatible with safety.
Thus to ensure general minimum standards of strength & safety, airworthiness regulations lay
down several factors which the primary structures of the aircraft must satisfy. These are
Limit Load: the maximum load that the aircraft is expected to
experience in normal operation.
Proof Load: product of the limit load and proof factor
Ultimate Load: product of limit load and ultimate factor
The maneuverability of the aircraft is also dictated by the loads falling on the structures
during the maneuvers. Both the aerodynamic and structural limitations for a given airplane are
illustrated in the V-n diagram, a plot of load factor versus flight velocity. Fig 2.1 shows the
typical maneuverability V-n diagram.
5
Fig 2.1 Typical maneuverability V-n diagram
6
2.1.2 Combined V–n Diagram
This section is about combination technique of basic V-n diagram with gust V-n diagram.
Since the gust in the atmosphere is a true story, aircraft designers must predict the gust load and
add them to the aircraft regular load (maneuver load), to have a safe and strong structure in flight
operations. The maximum combined load factor is usually higher than separate load factor. Fig
2.3 shows the typical combined V-n diagram.
The V-n diagram for the aircraft is drawn for the two cases namely,
Intentional maneuver (pilot induced maneuver)
Unintentional maneuver (gusts)
2.2 MANEUVERABILITYENVELOPE
𝑛𝑝𝑜𝑠 = 3.5
𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑔 = -1.5
Dive Speed
𝑉𝐷 = 1.4 𝑉𝐶
𝑓𝑡
= 1386.406
𝑠
2.𝑚.𝑔
𝑉𝑆 =√𝜌.𝑆.𝐶
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
2×25609.78×32.1768
𝑉𝑆 =√0.07637×488.68×2.522 = 132.325 ft/s
𝑓𝑡
𝑉𝑠 = 132.325
𝑠
Top Curve
𝐿 0.5𝜌.𝑉 2 .𝑆.𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
n =𝑊= 𝑊
0.5×1.225×488.68×2.522𝑉 2
= 25609.78×32.1768
n = 5.711×10-5×V2
3.5 = 5.711×10-5×V2
V = 247.558 ft/s
for point B (3.5 , 247.558)
bottom curve
−2.𝑚.𝑔
𝑉𝑆𝑖 =√𝜌.𝑆.(−𝐶
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
−1648081.538
=√0.07637×488.68×(−1.5)
= 171.581 ft/s
−𝐿 0.5𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆(−𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
-n = =
𝑊 𝑊
0.5×0.07637×𝑉 2 ×488.68×(−1.5)
= 25609.78×32.1768
= -0.0094266 V2
-1.5 = -3.3967×10-5 V2
V = 210.14 ft/s
8
FOR POINT J ( -1.5 , 210.14)
O = (0 , 0)
A = (1 , 132.325)
B = (3.5 , 247.558)
F = (3.5 , 1386.406)
G = (-1.5 , 1386.406)
J = (-1.5 , 210.14)
K = (-1 , 171.581)
V-n diagram
2
n- load factor
1 Series1
0
0 500 1000 1500
-1
-2
v-velocity ft/s
Fig 2.4 represents the basic V-n or maneuverable V-n diagram of the business aircraft
which can be graphed from their respected velocity (V) and load factor (n).
9
CHAPTER III
GUST ENVELOPE
3.1 GUST ENVELOPE
2 × 𝑊⁄𝑆
𝜇=
𝜌 × 𝑔 × 𝐶 × 𝐶𝐿
Where 𝜌 is the density, g is is the acceleration due to gravity, C is the mean aerodynamic
chord, 𝐶𝐿 is the coefficient of lift
The mean aerodynamic chord C = 7.6 ft
𝐅𝐎𝐑𝐌𝐔𝐋𝐀𝐄 𝐔𝐒𝐄𝐃
𝐾𝑔 𝑉𝐺𝐸 𝑉𝐸 𝑎𝜌𝑆
𝑛 =1+
2𝑊
0.88𝜇𝑔
𝐾𝑔 =
5.3 + 𝜇𝑔
2𝑚
𝜇𝑔 =
𝜌𝐶̅ 𝑎𝑆
10
2𝜋
𝑎= 2
1+
𝐴𝑅
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
𝑚 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
b = √𝑆 × 𝐴. 𝑅
= √488.68 × 8.4
b = 64.3 ft
𝑆 488.68
𝐶̅ = = = 7.6 ft
𝑏 64.3
2𝜋 2𝜋
a= 2 = 2 =6.1099 ft
1+ 2 1+
𝐴.𝑅 44.9672
2𝑚 2×25609.78
𝜇𝑔 = 𝜌𝐶̅𝑎𝑆 = 0.07637×7.6×6.1099×488.68 = 29.5153
For business jet with cruise altitude of 40,000 ft has gust wind velocity, 𝑉𝑔𝐸 is ± 25 ft/s
𝐾𝑔 𝑉𝑔𝐸 𝑉𝐸 𝑎𝜌𝑆
N = 1+ 2𝑊
0.86405×(±25)×𝑉𝐸 ×6.1099×0.07637×488.68
= 1+ 2×25609.78×32.1768
= 1+2.9596
n+ve = 3.9596
11
0.86405×(±12.5)×𝑉𝐸 ×6.1099×0.07637×488.68
= 1+ 2×25609.78×32.1768
2×25609.78
=0.02581×7.6×6.1099×488.68
𝜇𝑔 =87.453
𝑜.88μg
Kg=
5.3+μg
0.88×87.453
= 5.3+87.453
K g =0.87449
The gust velocity is ±25 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 , the load factor will be:
Kg VgE VE a𝜌S
n =1+ 2W
0.87449×(±25)×𝑉×6.1099×0.02581×488.68
=1+ 2×824040.7691
n =1±0.01022V
n = 1±0.01022× (575.698)
=1±5.8836
n+ve=6.8836
n-ve=-4.8836
Kg VgE VE a𝜌S
n =1+ 2W
0.87449×(±12.5)×𝑉×6.1099×0.02581×488.68
=1+ 2×824040.7691
n =1±0.01022V
12
Since the equivalent speed(V𝐸 ) is 805.97 ft/s
n+ve=9.237
n-ve =-7.237
2
Load factor n
0 Series1
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
-2
-4
-6
Velocity ft/s
A Fig 2.5 represents a gust load diagram which varies from maneuver V-n Diagram. The
gust load diagram changes based on air turbulence at the certain altitude.
13
CHAPTER-IV
COMBINED V – N DIAGRAM
The technique to plot the basic V-n diagram is introduced. And, the technique to plot the
gust V-n diagram is presented. This section is about combination technique of basic V-n diagram
with gust V-n diagram. Since the gust in the atmosphere is a true story, aircraft designers must
predict the gust load and add them to the aircraft regular load (maneuver load), to have a safe and
strong structure in flight operations. The maximum combined load factor is usually higher than
separate load factor in each diagram. A typical combined V-n diagram for an aircraft is
illustrated.
The V-n diagram is unique for each aircraft, and pilots and flight crew are required to fly
and operate inside this flight envelope. The following example demonstrates details of the
technique to plot the combined V-n diagram for an business aircraft. And, Fig 4.1 describes the
combined formation of basic V-n diagram and gust V-n diagram. Table 4.1 shows a values to
plot the combined form of basic V-n diagram and gust V-n diagram.
14
Load factor n
Velocity ft/s
1386.406 -1.5
1386.406 3.5
132.325 1
247.558 3.5
210.14 -1.5
171.581 -1
1386.406 -1.0717
990.29 -1.9596
0 0
Actual landing distance is the distance used in landing and braking to a complete stop (on
a dry runway) after crossing the runway threshold at 50 ft. and required landing distance derived
by applying a factor to the actual landing distance
The analysis of the landing performance of an airplane is somewhat analogous to that for
take-off, only in reverse. Consider an airplane on a landing approach. The landing distance, as
sketched, being when the airplane clears an obstacle, which is taken to be 50ft. in height. At that
instant the airplane is following a straight approach path with angle θa as noted. The velocity of
the airplane at the instant it clears the obstacle, denoted byVa , is required to be equal to 1.3Vstall
for commercial airplanes.
The angle of approach is defined (θa ) as the angle between the ground and the line
drawn between the front tire (nose landing gear) the lowest – hanging of the vehicle at
the front overhang.
The flare velocity(Vf )is a velocity in which the aircraft precedes the touchdown and
roll-out in the landing. And, Fig 5.1 describes the process involved in aircraft during
landing.
16
The flight path radius,
𝑓𝑉 2
R = 0.2𝑔
𝑉𝑓 2 = 1.23× 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙
= 1.23×132.325
𝑉𝑓 2=162.759
(162.759)2
R = 0.2×32.1768
R =4116.434 ft
ℎ𝑓 = R(1-COS𝜃𝑎 )
= 4116.434(1-0.998)
ℎ𝑓 = 5.64 ft
15.24−ℎ𝑓
𝑆𝐴 =
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑎
= 183.15 ft
𝑆𝑓 = R× 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎
= 4116.434×sin(3)
= 215.437 ft
2(25609.78) 12 ×(1686.24)
= 1× 3√0.02581×488.68×2.522 + 32.1768×0.02581×2.522×0.4
𝑆𝑔 = 2133 ft
17
SL= 𝑆𝐴 +𝑆𝑓 +𝑆𝑔
SL= 2531 ft
Take off is a phase of flight in which an Aerospace vehicle goes from the ground to flying
in the air from the runway.
18
The ground roll,
1.21(W/S)
𝑆𝑔 =𝑔×𝜌∞×𝐶
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 ×(𝑇/𝑊)
1.21(1686.24)
=32.1768×0.07637×2.522×(0.50)
𝑆𝑔 = 4968.24 ft
6.96×𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 2
R= 𝑔
6.96×132.3252
= 32.1768
= 3787.47 ft
50
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (1 − 3787.47)
𝜃𝑂𝐵 = 9.32
𝑆𝐴 = R ×sin 𝜃𝑂𝐵
= 3787.47 × sin(9.32)
𝑆𝐴 = 613.374 ft
ST = 𝑆𝑔 + 𝑆𝐴
= 5581.614 ft
19
CHAPTER-VI
The solution methods which follow Euler’s beam bending theory (𝜎/y=M/I=E/R) use the
bending moment values to determine the stresses developed at a particular section of the beam
due to combination of aerodynamic and structural loads in the transverse direction . Most
engineering solution methods for structural mechanics problem (both exact and approximate
methods) use the shear force and bending moment equation to determine the deflection and slope
at a particular section of the beam . Therefore these equation are to be obtained as analytical
expression in terms of spanwise .The bending moment produced here is about the longitudinal(x)
axis.
6.1.1 Loads Acting On Wing
As both the wings are symmetric ,let us consider the starboard wing at first there are the primary
loads acting on a wing structure in transverse direction where it can cause considered shear force
and bending moment on it. They are as follows
Lift force (given by schrenk curve)
Self weight of wing
Weight of power plant
Weight of fuel in wing
Where,
Y1 is linear variation of Lift along semi span also named as L1
Y2 is Eliptic lift distribution along wing span also named as L2
Wing tip= 0.5𝜌𝑐𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 v2cr
Wing root=0.5𝜌𝑐𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 v2𝑐𝑡
6.2.1 Linear Lift Distribution Curve
20
Area of the wing plan, S = 488.68 𝑓𝑡 2
Velocity, V∞ = 1.3Vmax
Therefore,
V∞ = 1316.523 ft/s
1 2
Lift at wing root, Lroot =2 × ρ × V∞ × 𝑆 × CL × Croot
= 599,823,742.8 lbs
= 539,841,368.4 lbs
𝐿𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 −𝐿𝑡𝑖𝑝
𝑦1 = 𝐿𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 − 𝑏 ×𝑥
2
= 599823742.8 – 1865703.7x
21
Table 6.2.1 Linear Lift Distribution
The Table 6.2 shows the values from the calculation of linear lift.
S.NO WING SEMI SPAN 𝐋𝐫𝐨𝐨𝐭 − 𝐋𝐭𝐢𝐩
𝐲𝟏 = 𝐋𝐫𝐨𝐨𝐭 − ×𝐱
(ft) 𝐛
𝟐
1 0 599823742.8
2 2.9227 594370850.6
3 5.8454 583465066.2
4 8.7681 567106389.6
5 11.6909 545294634.2
6 14.6136 518029986.6
7 17.5363 485612446.8
8 20.4590 447142014.8
9 23.3818 403518504.0
10 26.3045 354442101.1
11 29.2272 299912805.9
12 32.15 239930431.9
700000000
600000000
Lift Distribution(lb/ft)
500000000
400000000
300000000
200000000
100000000
0
0 10 20 30 40
Wing semi span (ft)
22
6.2.2 Elipitical Lift Distribution
Twice the area under the curve or line will give the lift which will be required to
overcome weight ,It is used to find y2 .Table 5.2.2 shows the values to plot elliptical lift graph.
And, Graph 5.2 shows a plot between wing semi-span and elliptical lift distribution.
L 𝜋×a×b1
Considering an elliptic lift distribution we get, =
2 4
2W
Where , b1 =π×a
(2X25609.78)
b1 = = 507.113
(π×32.15)
35000
Elliptical distribution
30000
25000
(lb/ft)
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
wing semi span (ft)
23
6.2.3 Schrenk’s Curve
350000000
Schrenk curve
300000000
Net Lift Distribution (lb/ft)
250000000
200000000
150000000
Schrenk curve
100000000
50000000
0
0 10 20 30 40
Wing Semi-span (ft)
24
6.3 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM
The shear force at a section of a beam is the force that along sum of all force including
the reactions acting normal to the axis of the beam either to left or right of the beam.
Formulas Required :
2𝑦
1. 𝑏
4𝑆 2𝑦 2
2. (𝜋𝑏)(√(1 − ( 𝑏 ) )
4𝑆 2𝑦 2
3. C 𝐶𝐿 = (𝐶𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 × (𝜋𝑏)(√(1 − ( 𝑏 ) ) 0.5
4. 𝐶𝐿,𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 = C 𝐶𝐿 ÷ 𝐶𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑊
5. W = 𝐶𝐿,𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 × 𝑆
25
Table: 6.3.2 Calculation of Shear Force and Bending moment
The Table 6.3.2 shows the calculations of shear force and bending moment.
26
Table 6.4 wing semi span and shear force
The Table 6.4 shows the values to plot a shear force graph.
2000
Shear force(lb/ft)
1500
1000
500
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Wing semi span(ft)
27
Table 6.5 Wing semi span and Bending Moment
The Table 6.5 shows the values to plot a bending moment graph.
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Bending moment (Nm)
-2000
-4000
-6000
-8000
-10000
-12000
Wing semi span(m)
The Graph 6.5 shows the plot between wing semi-span and bending moment.
28
CHAPTER VII
CENTRE OF GRAVITY
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The weight of an airplane changes in the flight due to consumption of fuel and
dropping off release of armament or supplies. Further, the payload and the amount of fuel
carried by the airplane may vary from flight to flight. These factors lead to change in the
location of the Centre of gravity (c.g) of the airplane.
The shift in the c.g location affects the stability and controllability of the airplane.
Hence, this chapter deals with the methods to obtain the weights of various components of
the airplane and calculation of the c.g location under various operating conditions. The
weight of entire airplane can be sub divided into empty weight and useful load.
The empty weight can be further subdivided into weights of
(i) Structures group
(ii) Propulsion group and
(iii) Equipment group.
The weights in the above three groups can be further subdivided as follows.
1) The structures group consists of the following components.
wing
horizontal tail
vertical tail
fuselage
landing gear (main and nose)
arresting gear and catapult gear for ship based airplanes
nacelle, engine pod and air intake
2) The propulsion group consists of the following components
engine as installed; reduction gear for turboprop engine
propeller for piston and turboprop engines
exhaust system
engine controls
starting system
fuel system and tanks
3) The equipment group consists of the following items
29
flight controls
auxiliary power unit (APU) instruments
hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, armament, air conditioning, anti-icing
avionics
furnishings in passenger airplanes
photographic equipment in reconnaissance/patrol airplanes; weapon
deployment equipment and armament loading and handling systems in
military airplanes.
The sum of the weights of structures, propulsion and equipment groups
constitutes the total empty weight.
4) The useful load consists of
Crew
Fuel (usable and trapped)
Payload ( passengers, cargo and baggage in transport airplane)
Table 7.1 Component weights and c.g values of the aircraft
The Table 7.1 shows the component weights and their respected C.G location of
Business jet.
ITEM WEIGHT C.G LOCATION W.x
(W) (lbs) (x) (ft) (lb.ft)
FUSELAGE
4157.835371 34 141366.4026
GROUP
WING GROUP 3712.871096 2.1743 8072.8956
INSTALLED
954.38113 - 954.38113
ENGINE
HORIZONTAL
419.517639 1.5176 636.6599
TAIL
VERTICAL TAIL 63.074253 0.757352 47.7694
ALL ELSE
1917.97759 36.65 70293.8786
EMPTY
LANDING GEAR 602.00218976 - 602.0021
ARMAMENTS
∑W = 11827.659 ∑x = 75.099252 ∑W.x = 221973.989
Arm (moment arm) - is the horizontal distance in inches from the reference datum line to the
centre of gravity of an item.
The algebraic sign is plus (+) if measured aft of the datum, and minus(-) if measured forward
of the datum.
30
Centre of gravity limits - are the specified forward and aft points within which the CG must
be located during flight. These limit are indicated on pertinent airplane specifications.
Centre of gravity range – is the distance between forward and aft CG limits indicated on
pertinent airplane specification.
Datum (refrence datum) – is an imaginary vertical plane or line from which all measurements
of arm are taken. The datum is established by the manufacture. Once the datum has been
selected, all moment arms and the location of CG range are measured from this points.
Σ𝑊𝐸𝐿𝐸𝑀𝐸𝑁𝑇 . 𝐶𝑂𝐺𝐸𝐿𝐸𝑀𝐸𝑁𝑇
𝐶𝑂𝐺 =
Σ𝑊𝐸𝐿𝐸𝑀𝐸𝑁𝑇
221973.989
𝐶𝑂𝐺 =
11827.569
𝐶𝑂𝐺 = 33.76 𝑓𝑡
31
CHAPTER VIII
DESIGN OF CONTROL SURFACES
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Aircraft flight control surfaces allow a pilot to adjust and control the aircraft's flight attitude.
Development of an effective set of flight control surfaces was a critical advance in the
development of aircraft. Early efforts at fixed-wing aircraft design succeeded in generating
sufficient lift to get the aircraft off the ground, but once aloft, the aircraft proved
uncontrollable, often with disastrous results. The development of effective flight controls is
what allowed stable flight.
8.2 AILERON
The primary function of an aileron is the lateral (i.e. roll) control of an aircraft;
however, it also affects the directional control. Due to this reason, the aileron and the rudder
are usually designed concurrently. Lateral control is governed primarily through a roll rate
(P). Aileron is structurally part of the wing, and has two pieces; each located on the trailing
edge of the outer portion of the wing left and right sections. Both ailerons are often used
symmetrically, hence their geometries are identical. Aileron effectiveness is a measure of
how good the deflected aileron is producing the desired rolling moment. The generated
rolling moment is a function of aileron size, aileron deflection, and its distance from the
aircraft fuselage centerline. Unlike rudder and elevator which are displacement control, the
aileron is a rate control. Any change in the aileron geometry or deflection will change the roll
rate; which subsequently varies constantly the roll angle. The Fig 8.1 shows the geometry of
aileron with their parameters.
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8.2.1 Principles of Aileron Design
A basic item in the list of aircraft performance requirements is the maneuverability.
Aircraft maneuverability is a function of engine thrust, aircraft mass moment of inertia, and
control power. One of the primary control surfaces which cause the aircraft to be steered
along its three-dimensional flight path (i.e. maneuver) to its specified destination is aileron.
Ailerons are like plain flaps placed at outboard of the trailing edge of the wing. Right aileron
and left aileron are deflected differentially and simultaneously to produce a rolling moment
about x-axis. Therefore, the main role of aileron is the roll control; however it will affect yaw
control as well. Roll control is the fundamental basis for the design of aileron.
Based on the Newton’s second law for a rotational motion, the summation of all
applied moments is equal to the time rate of change of angular momentum. If the mass and
the geometry of the objet (i.e. vehicle) are fixed, the law is reduced to a simpler version: The
summation of all moments is equal to the mass moment of inertia time of the object about the
axis or rotation multiplied by the rate of change of angular velocity. In the case of a rolling
motion, the summation of all rolling moments (including the aircraft aerodynamic moment) is
equal to the aircraft mass moment of inertia about x-axis multiplied by the time rate of
change of roll rate (P).
Generally speaking, there are two forces involved in generating the rolling moment,
1. An incremental change in wing lift due to a change in aileron angle
2. Aircraft rolling drag force in the yz plane.
8.3 ELEVATOR DESIGN
A very fundamental requirement of a safe flight is longitudinal control; which is
assumed to be the primary function of an elevator. An aircraft must be longitudinally
controllable, as well as manoeuvrable within the flight envelope . In a conventional aircraft,
the longitudinal control is primarily applied though the deflection of elevator, and engine
throttle setting. Longitudinal control is governed through pitch rate (Q) and consequently
angular acceleration about y-axis (or rate of pitch rate). Longitudinal control of an aircraft is
achieved by providing an incremental lift force on horizontal tail.
Thus, elevator which is classified as a primary control surface is considered as a pitch
control device. The incremental tail lift can be generated by deflecting the entire tail or by
deflecting elevator which is located at the tail trailing edge. Since the horizontal tail is located
at some distance from the aircraft center of gravity, the incremental lift force creates a
33
pitching moment about the aircraft cg. Pitch control can be achieved by changing the lift on
either aft horizontal tail or canard.
There are two groups of requirements in the aircraft longitudinal controllability,
1. Pilot force
2. Aircraft response to the pilot input.
In order to deflect the elevator, the pilot must apply a force to stick/yoke/wheel and
hold it (in the case of an aircraft with a stick-fixed control system). In an aircraft with a stick-
free control system, the pilot force is amplified through such devices as tab and spring. Fig
8.2 shows the horizontal tail and elevator geometry with parameters.
34
such that the take-off rotation does not take longer than a specified length of time. Since the
take-off rotation dynamics is governed by Newton’s second law, the take-off rotation time
may be readily expressed in terms of the aircraft angular acceleration about the main gear
rotation point. For instance, in a transport aircraft, the acceptable value for the take-off
rotation time is 3-5 seconds. The equivalent value for the angular rotation rate to achieve such
requirement is 4-6 deg/sec2. This requirement must be satisfied when the aircraft center of
gravity is located at the most forward location. These specifications are employed in the
design of elevator.
In the elevator detail design process, the following parameters must be determined,
1. Elevator-chord-to-tail-chord ratio (CE /Ch)
2. Elevator-span-to-tail-span ratio (bE /bh)
3. Maximum up elevator deflection
4. Maximum down elevator deflection
5. Aerodynamic balance of the elevator
6. Mass balance of the elevator
The first four elevator parameters (chord, span, and deflections) are interrelated.When
the value of one elevator parameter is increased, the value of other parameters could be
decreased. On the other hand, each parameter has unique constraint. For instance, the elevator
maximum deflection should be less than the value that causes flow separation or causes the
horizontal tail to stall. In addition, the ease of fabrication suggests to having an elevator chord
of span that is more convenient. Thus, for simplicity in the design and manufacture, the
elevator span is often selected to be equal to the horizontal tail span (i.e. bE/bh = 1).
When elevator is deflected more than about 20-25 degrees, flow separation over the
tail tends to occur. Thus, the elevator will lose its effectiveness. Furthermore, close to
horizontal tail stall, even a small downward elevator deflection can produce flow separation
and loss of pitch control effectiveness. To prevent pitch control effectiveness, it is
recommended to consider the elevator maximum deflection to be less than 25 degrees (both
up and down). Hence, the maximum elevator deflection is dictated by the elevator/tail stall
requirement.
The most critical flight condition for pitch control is when the aircraft is flying at a
low speed due to the fact that elevator is less effective. Two flight operations which feature a
very low speed are take-off and landing. Take-off control is much harder than the landing
control due to the safety considerations.
A take-off operation is usually divided into three sections
35
1. Ground section
2. Rotation or transition
3. Climb. The longitudinal control in a take-off is mainly applied during the rotation
section which the nose is pitched up by rotating the aircraft about main gear.
8.4 RUDDER DESIGN
Rudder is a primary control surface and is responsible for the aircraft directional
control. The rudder is a movable surface located on the trailing edge of the vertical tail. The
rudder is the vertical counterpart to the elevator. When the rudder is rotated (i.e. deflected), a
lift force (i.e. side force, LV) is created by the rudder-vertical tail combination. Consequently,
a yawing moment (N) about aircraft center of gravity (about aircraft z-axis) is generated.
Thus, control of the yawing moment about the center of gravity is primarily provided by
means of the rudder. The third unintended production of the rudder is a rolling moment. This
is due to the fact that the vertical tail (i.e. rudder) is usually placed above the aircraft cg. Two
fundamental roles of rudder are directional control and directional trim. Therefore,
parameters of the rudder are determined by the directional trim and control requirements. The
rudder control power must be sufficient to accomplish these two requirements in various
flight conditions. The aircraft heading angle is mainly determined through a directional
control process.
36
primary roll control such as ailerons may be omitted altogether. Fig 8.3 shows the rudder
operation geometry with geometrical parameters.
37
CHAPTER IX
STRUCTURAL LAYOUTS
9.1 WING STRUCTURAL LAYOUT
9.1.1 SPECIFIC ROLES OF WING (MAIN-WING) STRUCTURE:
The specified structural roles of the wing (or main plane) are:
To transmit: wing lift to the root via the main span wise beam as shown in fig 9.1
Inertia loads from the power plants, undercarriage, etc., to the main beam.
Aerodynamic loads generated on the aerofoil, control surfaces & flaps to the main beam.
To react against:
Landing loads at attachment points
Loads from pylons/stores
Wing drag and thrust loads
To provide:
Fuel tank age space
Torsional rigidity to satisfy stiffness and aero-elastic requirements.
To fulfill these specific roles, a wing layout will conventionally compromise:
Span wise members (known as spars or booms)
Chord wise members(ribs)
A covering skin
Stringers
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9.1.2 BASIC FUNCTIONS OF WING STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
The structural functions of each of these types of members may be considered
independently as:
SPARS
Form the main span wise beam
Transmit bending and torsional loads
Produce a closed-cell structure to provide resistance to torsion, shear and tension loads.
In particular:
Webs – resist shear and torsional loads and help to stabilize the skin.
Flanges - resist the compressive loads caused by wing bending.
SKIN
To form impermeable aerodynamics surface
Transmit aerodynamic forces to ribs & stringers
Resist shear torsion loads (with spar webs).
React axial bending loads (with stringers).
STRINGERS
Increase skin panel buckling strength by dividing into smaller length sections.
React axial bending loads
RIBS
Maintain the aerodynamic shape
Act along with the skin to resist the distributed aerodynamic pressure loads
Distribute concentrated loads into the structure & redistribute stress around any
discontinuities as shown in fig 9.2
Increase the column buckling strength of the stringers through end restraint
Increase the skin panel buckling strength
39
9.2 FUSELAGE STRUCTURAL LAYOUT
The fuselage is the main structure or body of the aircraft. It provides space for
personnel, cargo, controls, and most of the accessories. The power plant, wing, stabilizers and
landing gear are attached to it.
There are two general types of fuselage construction welded steel truss and
monocoque designs. The welded steel truss was used in smaller navy aircraft and it is still
being used in some helicopters as shown in fig 9.3.
The true monocoque construction uses formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads to
give shape to the fuselage. However, the skin carries the primary stresses. Since no bracing
members are present, the skin must be strong enough to keep the fuselage rigid. The biggest
problem in monocoque construction is maintaining enough strength while keeping the weight
within limits.
Semimonocoque design overcomes the strength-to-weight problem of monocoque
construction. In addition to having formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads, these
monocoque construction has the skin reinforced by longitudinal members.The reinforced
shell has the skin reinforced by a complete framework of structural members.
9.2.1 TYPES OF FUSELAGE AND ITS FUNCTIONS
The fuselage is the main structure, or body, of the aircraft. It provides space for
personnel, cargo, and Controls most of the accessories. The power plant, wings, stabilizers,
40
and landing gear are attached to it. There are two general types of fuselage construction
welded steel truss, monocoque designs, semi monocoque designs and geodesic designs. The
welded steel truss was used in smaller Navy aircraft, and it is still being used in some
Helicopter.
A.Truss structure
This type of structure is still in use in many lightweight aircraft using welded
steel tube trusses. A box truss fuselage structure can also be built out of wood, often covered
with plywood. Simple box structures may be rounded by the addition of supported
lightweight stringers, allowing the fabric covering to form a more aerodynamic shape, or one
more pleasing to the eye.
B.Geodesic structure
Geodesic structure elements are used in World War 2. In this type of construction
multiple flat strip stringers are about the formers in opposite spiral directions, forming a
basket like appearance. This proved to be light strong and rigid and had the advantage of
being made entirely of wood
C. Monocoque Structure
The monocoque design relies largely on the strength of the skin, or covering, to
carry various loads. The true monocoque construction uses formers, frame assemblies, and
bulkheads to give shape to the fuselage. However, the skin carries the primary stresses. Since
no bracing members are present, the skin must be strong enough to keep the fuselage rigid.
The biggest problem in monocoque construction is maintaining enough strength while
keeping the weight within limits.
D. Semi-monocoque Structure
The main advantage of the semi monocoque construction is that it depends on
many structural members for strength and rigidity. Because of its stressed skin construction,
semi monocoque fuselage can withstand damage and still be strong enough to hold together.
Semi monocoque design overcomes the strength-to-weight problem of monocoque
construction. In addition to having formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads, the semi
monocoque construction has the skin reinforced by longitudinal members
Different portions of the same fuselage may belong to any one of the three
classes. Most are considered to be of semi monocoque-type construction.
The semi monocoque fuselage is constructed primarily of aluminium alloy, although steel
and titanium are found in high-temperature areas. Primary bending loads are taken by the
longerons, which usually extend across several points of support. The longerons are
41
supplemented by other longitudinal members known as stringers. Stringers are more
numerous sand lightweight than longerons.
The vertical structural members are referred to as bulkheads, frames, and
formers. The heavier vertical members are located at intervals to allow for concentrated
loads. These members are also found at points where fittings are used to attach other units,
such as the wings and stabilizers.
The stringers are smaller and lighter than longerons and serve as fill-ins. They
have some rigidity but are chiefly used for giving shape and for attachment of skin. The
strong, heavy longerons hold the bulkheads and formers. The bulkheads and formers hold the
stringers. All of these framework join together to form a rigid fuselage. Stringers and
longerons prevent tension and compression stresses from bending the fuselage.
The skin is attached to the longerons, bulkheads, and other structural members
and carries part of the load. The fuselage skin thickness varies with the load carried and the
stress ensue stained at particular location.
There are a number of advantages in using the semi monocoque fuselage.
The bulkhead, frames, stringers, and longerons aid in the design and construction of
as stream lined fuselage. They add to the strength and rigidity of the structure.
The main advantage of the semi monocoque construction is that it depends on many
structural members for strength and rigidity. Because of its stressed skin construction,
a semimonocoque fuselage can withstand damage.
42
CHAPTER X
The section 10 contains the three view diagram of the business jet with
geometric parameters. The Fig 10.1, 10.2 10.3 shows the front view, top view,
profile view.
43
CHAPTER XI
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the series of short range aircrafts incorporated many unique design of
future that was never seen on an operational aircraft. The design of these aircrafts points the
way for the design of future of very high mach airplanes.
The airplane has gone through many design modifications since its early conceptual designs
expected, among these was a growth in weight. The document to provide information on the
trends in various aircraft characteristics that may influence general long-term airport planning
and design.
These are strong indications that future trends could see the coexistence of very high
capacity aircraft modules of similar capacities for the long range/very long range operations.
Cargo payloads, which include mail, express and freight, are increasing in size and weight
aircraft service with the airlines,
To ensure continued growth in payload and the profitability of cargo operations,
improvements in methods, equipment and terminal facilities will be required in order to
reduce cargo handling costs and aircraft ground time and to provide improved service for the
shippers.
We have enough hard work for this design project. A design never gets completed in a
flutter sense but it is one step further towards ideal system. But during the design of this
aircraft, we learnt a lot about aeronautics and its implications when applied to an aircraft
design.
44
BIBLIOGRAPHY
45