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VECTOR OPERATIONS
1. SCALARS
The physical quantities which are completely described by magnitude with proper unit are called
scalars. Mass, length, time density, energy, work, temperature and charge are the examples of scalars.
Scalars can be added, multiplied and subtracted by ordinary rules of algebra.
2. VECTORS
The physical quantities which are completely described by magnitude, with proper unit and direction
are called vectors. Force velocity, acceleration, momentum, torque, electric field intensity and magnetic field
induction are the examples of vectors.
Vectors are added, multiplied and subtracted by vector algebra. However, parallel and antiparallel
vectors are added by ordinary algebra.
3. UNIT VECTOR
A vector having unit magnitude is called unit vector. It is used to describe the direction of any vector.
If we have a vector ⃗ , then a unit vector in the direction of ⃗ is written as:
⃗
̂
| |
Where ̂ is the unit vector in the direction of ⃗ and | | is its magnitude.
4. VECTOR ADDITION
The process in which two or more than two vectors are added to
get a single vector is called vector addition.
The vectors can be added graphically by head to tail rule. According
to this rule, the addition of two vectors ⃗ and ⃗ consists of following
steps:
(i) Place the tail of vector ⃗ on the head of vector ⃗ .
(ii) Draw a vector from the tail of vector ⃗ to the head of vector ⃗ , called the resultant vector ⃗⃗ .
Important Note:
The vector sum ⃗ ⃗ and ⃗ ⃗ has the same resultant ⃗⃗ , as
shown in the figure. Therefore we can write:
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
So vector addition is commutative.
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5. RESULTANT VECTOR
It is the sum of two or more vectors which along has the same effect as the
combined effect of all the vectors to be added.
The vector ⃗⃗ has the same effect as the combined effect of vectors ⃗ , ⃗ ,
and ⃗ . So ⃗⃗ is the resultant vector of the vectors ⃗ , ⃗ , and ⃗ .
6. RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS
Consider a vector ⃗ represented by ̅̅̅̅ as shown in the figure. This vector can be decomposed into
three mutual perpendicular components along x, y and z-axis. Let these components are denoted by ⃗ , ⃗
̅̅̅̅ ⃗ ⃗
|⃗ | √
7. DIRECTION COSINES
Figure shows a vector ⃗ in space. Let this vector makes angles , , with x,
y, z-axis respectively. This
⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
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Where ̂ is the unit vector in the direction of ⃗ and | | is its magnitude.
̂ ̂ ̂
̂
| |
̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ( )
| | | | | |
Now | |
,| |
,| |
Where are called direction cosines of vector ⃗ and are denoted as:
|̂| √
√
Squaring both side, we have:
Problem: Find the length (i.e., the magnitude) of the vector ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ . Also, calculate the angles
which this vector makes with the axes x, y and z.
|⃗ | √ ( )
√( ) ( ) ( ) √ √
Let ⃗ makes angles , , with x, y, z-axis respectively, then:
( ) ( )
| | | |
( ) ( )
| | | |
( ) ( )
| | | |
Solution: If ⃗ the resultant of vectors ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ and are the rectangular components of resultant,
then:
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|⃗ | √ √( ) ( ) ( )
√ √
Let ⃗ makes angles , , with x, y, z-axis respectively, then:
( ) ( )
| | | |
( ) ( )
| | | |
( ) ( )
| | | |
Problem: Find the angle between the direction of the vector given by the difference of the following two
vectors and the z-axis. ⃗ √ ̂ √ ̂ ̂ ⃗ √ ̂ √ ̂ ̂
√ √ √
√ √ √
|⃗ | √ √( √ ) ( √ ) ( )
√ √
Let ⃗ makes angle with z-axis, then:
( ) ( )
| | | |
8. SPHERICAL POLAR COORDINATES
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9. APPLICATIONS OF SPHERICAL POLAR COORDINATES
The spherical polar coordinates are superior than Cartesian Coordinates for the study of Physical
problems. For example, the gravitational force of the earth on distant objects has the symmetry of sphere and
its properties can be described in an easy way by the help of spherical polar coordinates.
10. VECTOR DERIVATIVE
Consider a particle moving along a curve as shown. Its position at
any time is given by a vector ( ). With the passage of time, the direction
and magnitude of this vector may change.
Let ( ) and ( ) denote the positions of the particle at time
and , respectively. Then, the displacement between two points and
is described as:
( ) ( )
written as and is called derivative of with respect to time . But by definition is the velocity of the
particle. Thus:
( )
In Cartesian coordinates: ̂ ̂ ̂
Now the position vector of the moving particle can also be written as:
( ) ( ) ̂( )
Then the derivative of ( ) is defined as:
( ) ( )
( ) ̂( ) ( ) ̂( )
̂
By Taylor’s Theorem: ( ) ( ) and ̂ ( ) ̂( )
̂
* ( ) + [ ̂( ) ] ( ) ̂( )
̂ ̂
( ) ̂( ) ( ) ̂( ) ( ) ( ) ̂( )
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̂ ̂
[ ( ) ̂ ( )] ( )
̂ ̂
[ ( ) ̂ ( )] ( )
̂ ̂
[ ( ) ̂ ( )]
̂
( ) ̂( ) ( )
̂
In equation (1), gives change in magnitude of and gives change in direction of
[ ̂ ( )]
̂( )
[ ̂ ]̂
[ ( )̂ ( ) ̂]
̂ ̂
Magnitude of velocity is given by:
| | √( ) ( )
√ ( )
√ ( )
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Acceleration
The acceleration of the particle moving in a circle can be obtained by differentiating its instantaneous
velocity with respect to time:
[ ̂ ̂]
[ ̂ ̂]
[ ( )̂ ( ) ̂]
[ ̂ ̂]
̂( )
[ ̂ ( )]
( )
The magnitude of acceleration will be:
| | | |
| | | |
( )
The negative sign in equation (2) shows that acceleration is directed towards the origin i.e., towards
the center of the circle and the equation (3) describes that the magnitude of acceleration is proportional to the
distance from the center (origin).
As, for the case of circular motion:
Equation (3) becomes:
( ) ( )
Consider a vector ⃗ e.g., electric field intensity which changes from point to point. The region in which the
vector varies from point to point is called vector field.
14. LINE INTEGRAL
Consider a vector ⃗ at point P of the curve AN of length l as shown in the figure. Take
a small element of length ‘⃗⃗⃗ ’, then the dot product of ⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗ is given by:
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ |⃗ ||⃗⃗⃗ |
Or
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ̂
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Integrating the above expression over the entire length ‘l’, we have
∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ∫
Or
∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ∫⃗ ̂
This integral is called line integral of vector along the curve AB. The common example of line integral is the
definition of work.
15. SURFACE INTEGRAL
Consider a vector ⃗ at point P of a surface area . Take a small element of the surface . Then
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ |⃗ ||⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
Where is the angle between ⃗ and outward drawn normal to . Or
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ̂
Where ̂ is the unit vector normal to surface .
Integrating the above expression over whole surface, we have
∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫
Or
∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫⃗ ̂
If ⃗ is the electric field strength (or magnetic field strength) at any point, then ∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ is gives the
electric flux (or magnetic flux).
16. VOLUME INTEGRAL
Consider a close surface having uniform volume charge density ( ). Take a small element of volume
having mass , then
∫ ∫ ∫
∫ ∭
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17. OPERATORS
These are the quantities whose operation on a function gives a new function. Operators always
operate on something placed after them. There are many types of operators e.g.,
Number Operator ( )
Differential Operator ( )
Integral Operator (∫ ∫ )
Logarithmic Operators ( )
But now we shall introduce a vector differential operator called del , denoted by ⃗ , which is described as:
⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
18. OPERATIONS OF ⃗
(i) Gradient Operation
(ii) Divergence Operation
(iii) Curl Operation
Gradient Operation
The operation of ⃗ on a scalar function is called gradient operation. If we have a scalar function U, then
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
( ̂ ̂ ̂)
Divergence Operation
The operation of ⃗ on a vector function through dot product is called divergence operation. If we have a
vector function ⃗ , then:
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗ ⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
⃗ ⃗
Curl Operation
The operation of ⃗ on a vector function through cross product is called curl operation. If we have a vector
function ⃗ , then:
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
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Note that ⃗ is a vector. In Cartesian Coordinates, ⃗ is described as:
̂ ̂ ̂
⃗ ⃗ || || ( ) ̂ ( ) ̂ ( ) ̂
The maximum rate of increase of a scalar function with respect to space in a particular direction is
called gradient of a scalar function.
20. LEVEL SURFACES (DEFINITION):
The surface in which all the point of a scalar field has same value is called level surface. An entire scalar field
can mapped out by level surfaces, each associated with a constant value of a scalar function.
Consider a scalar U e.g., temperature or density of a medium which changes from point to point. The
region in which the scalar varies from point to point is called scalar field. In such a field, U has definite value
at each point.
Let two level surfaces and associated with
constant values and of the scalar function,
respectively.
Consider a point A on the surface with position
vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ with respect to origin O. Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ be
the position vectors of any point B taken on surface as
shown in the figure. By head to tail rule, we have:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
The shortest distance between the level surfaces and is taken along the outward drawn normal
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ specified by the unit normal vector ̂. We can follow different paths lengths between the level surfaces
and . Let us consider on the path lengths ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , where ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is the shortest path length.
Now ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
We have:
Thus the rate of variation of takes place in the direction of directed normal ̂ and is called gradient of U:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂
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⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Since U is the function of one variable, so we can replace partial differential coefficient by ordinary
differential coefficient. Therefore,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( )
In this scalar field U has a definite U is value at every point. So U is a function of coordinates of
point ( ) i.e.,
( )
Now, let the two points A and B has the coordinates ( ) and ( ) in the scalar field.
The displacement between P and Q is described as:
̂ ̂ ̂
The change in as we move from A to B (Total Differential ) is described (by Calculus) as:
( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( )
( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ⃗
( )
Comparing equation (1) and (2), we get:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Hence Proved
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Problem: The P.E. of a body of mass m held at a height h above the surface of the earth is mgh. Find the
force of gravity (or weight) of the body.
Solution:
Given ( )
As ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
( ̂ ̂ ̂)
( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( )
( ( )̂ ( )̂ ( ) ̂)
( ( )̂ ( )̂ ( ) ̂)
( ̂ )
̂
This expression shows that force of gravity acts in the downward direction and the magnitude of force of
gravity is mg.
Problem: Show that if a vector is the gradient of a scalar function, then its line integral around a closed path
is zero.
∫ ∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( )
As
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Expression (1) becomes:
∫ ∫ | |
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This shows that line integral depends upon the values of at point A and B. If we have a close path then the
line integral around the close path is given by:
∫ ∫ | |
Hence proved that if a vector is the gradient of a scalar function, then its line integral around a closed path is
zero.
Solution: As
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ( )
Also ̂ ̂ ̂
| | √
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
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⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Hence Proved.
Solution: As ⃗ ⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
⃗ ⃗ ( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
⃗ ⃗
Now ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (⃗ ⃗ ) ⃗ (⃗ ⃗ )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (⃗ ⃗ ) ( ̂ ̂ ̂ ) (⃗ ⃗ )
(⃗ ⃗ ) (⃗ ⃗ ) (⃗ ⃗ )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (⃗ ⃗ ) ̂ ̂ ̂
( ) ( ) ( )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (⃗ ⃗ ) ̂ ̂ ̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (⃗ ⃗ ) ( )̂ ( )̂ ( )̂
|⃗ || ⃗ |
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This may be taken as the value for the whole face-2 because the face is very small.
Similarly,
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Similarly, the net outward flux through parallelepiped along y-axis and along z-axis is given as:
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
Now by the definition, the net flux per unit volume is called divergence of vector ⃗ . It is denoted by ⃗.
Thus:
⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Note: If flux entering a volume element is equal to flux leaving the volume element, then
⃗
Problem: Given a position vector ̂ ̂ ̂ . Evaluate .
Solution: As ⃗
⃗
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( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
Solution: As ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
⃗ ( ) ( ) ( )
⃗
Now
⃗ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )
⃗ ( )
Consider a fluid flowing with constant velocity ⃗ at any point ( ) with as its rectangular
components.
Initially, we consider flow of fluid in plane,
along y-axis as shown in the figure. The
successive layers will move alike. However, if
is a function of z, then different layers in the -
plane will slide over or move relative to one
another. The velocity of different layers of fluid
goes on increasing along z-axis. Let be the
velocity of central layer along y-axis, then the
( )
velocity of the layer just above it will be [ ] and velocity of layer just below it will be
( ) ( )
[ ]. The factor gives the rotation of the fluid in clockwise direction around x-axis from
z to y.
Similarly, we consider the flow of fluid in yz-plane along z-axis as shown in the figure. The velocity of
different layers of fluid goes on increasing along y-axis. Let be the velocity of central layer along z-
( )
axis, then the velocity of the layer just above it will be * + and velocity of layer just below it
( ) ( )
will be * +. The factor gives the rotation of the fluid in anticlockwise direction around x-
axis from y to z.
Taking counter-clockwise direction positive, the net rotation about x-axis must be proportional to
( ) ̂
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Similarly, Net rotation around y-axis will be:
( ) ̂
( ) ̂
Now the total rotation of the fluid gives the Curl of vector ⃗ . Hence,
⃗ ( ) ̂ ( ) ̂ ( ) ̂ ( )
As,
⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂
̂ ̂ ̂
Now, ⃗ ⃗ | |
⃗ ⃗ ( ) ̂ ( ) ̂ ( ) ̂ ( )
Solution: ̂ ̂ ̂
̂ ̂ ̂
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ || ||
̂| | ̂| | ̂| |
̂( ( ) ( )) ̂( ( ) ( )) ̂( ( ) ( ))
̂( ) (̂ ) ̂( )
( )̂ ̂ ̂
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25. GAUSS’S DIVERGENCE THEOREM
The surface normal integral of vector taken over a closed surface is equal to the volume integral of the
divergence of a vector over the volume enclosed by the surface. Mathematically, it is described as:
∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗
∫⃗ ̂ ∫ ⃗
Proof
Consider small volume element having volume enclosed in surface S. then by definition:
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
⃗ ( )
Where are the components of A along x, y, z-axis respectively. Multiplying both sides
by , we get:
⃗ ( )
∭ ⃗ ∭( )
∫ ⃗ ∭ ∭ ∭
∫ ⃗ ∫ ∬ ∫ ∬ ∫ ∬
Since are functions of only one variable, so we can change partial derivative in total derivative:
∫ ⃗ ∫ ∬ ∫ ∬ ∫ ∬
∫ ⃗ ∬ ∬ ∬
∫ ⃗ ∬ ∬ ∬
∫ ⃗ ∬ ∬ ∬
∫ ⃗ ∬( )
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∫ ⃗ ∬ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∫ ⃗ ∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
This theorem enable us to transform a surface integral into volume integral and vice versa.
Problem. Evaluate ∫ ̂ Where S is the close surface.
Solution.
By Gauss’s Divergence theorem:
∫ ̂ ∫⃗
∫ ̂ ∫( ̂ ̂ ̂) ( ̂ ̂ ̂)
∫ ̂ ∫( )
∫( )
∫( ) ∫ ∫
STOKE’S THEOREM
The line integral of a vector function around the closed curve (boundary edge) of a surface is equal to
the surface normal integral of the curl of vector function over that
surface.
If ⃗ is a vector function, then mathematically:
∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Proof
Consider a surface enclosed by a curve ABCD. We divide it into
large number of small meshes. Let the area of a mesh be ⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
As is the line integral per unit area. So
[ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ] ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Suppose that we take the line integral of all the meshes within the curve ABCD. If we add all these
line integrals, the line integral along each side of the mesh where the line integral is taken twice, will cancel
away and we are left with line integral only along the curve ABCD.
Hence the line integral ∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ taken over the curve ABCD and the surface integral ∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ taken
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∮ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
This is called Stoke’s theorem. This theorem enables us to transform a line integral into surface
integral and vice versa.
Prove the following vector identities:
a)
b) ⃗
Proof:
a)
̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
| | | |
⃗ (⃗ )
| | | |
b) ⃗
⃗
| |
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
| |
( ⃗) ⃗
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