SATHYABAMA UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

SUB CODE: 626651

PROPULSION LAB MANUAL

SIXTH SEMESTER

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 SATHYABAMA UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

Lab. Code : 626651: PROPULSION LAB MANUAL

LISTY OF EXERCISES

1. STUDY OF AIRCRAFT PISTON ENGINE

2. STUDY OF AIRCRAFT TURBOJET ENGINE

3. STUDY OF HYBRID ROCKET

4. STUDY OF SUPERSONIC RAMJET

5. HEAT TRANSFER BY FORCED CONVECTION

6. HEAT TRANSFER BY NATURAL CONVECTION

7. SAYBOLT VISCOMETER

8. REDWOOD VISCOMETER

9 CLEVELAND FLASH & FIRE POINT APPARATUS

(OPEN CUP)

10. PENSKY MARTENS FLASH & FIRE POINT APPARAUS

(CLOSED CUP)

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 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Safety in work place is to prevent any impending danger. The lab is

equipped with Petroleum product and with so many electrical apparatus.
Any negligence and over confidence will invite danger to Equipment and
personal.

CAUTION

DO NOT OPERATE ANY EQUIPMENT

WITH OUT GUIDANCE/ABSENCE OF LAB INSTUCTOR

1. PERSONAL SAFETY

(i) Wear correct fitting lab uniform.

(ii) Avoid growing long hair ( Except girl student)
(iii) Wear shoes during lab.
(iv) Be alert while on lab. Test.

2. EQUIPMENT SAFETY

(i) Never attempt to operate the equipment without knowing how to

operate it.
(ii) Never disturb the instrument or gauges when test is on.
(iii) Do not operate the equipment more than it prescribed limits.
(iv) Do not attempt to rectify the electrical defect if equipment fails to
operate.
(v) Do not wear ring, watch, bracelet etc. while operating the lab
equipment.
(vi) After lab test is over do not forget to switch off the equipment/
power supply.
(vii) If the student happen to cause any damage to the equipment
by his/her negligence the repair/rectification cost to be born by
the students

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 EXPERIMENT NO.1

STUDY OF AN AIRCRAFT PISTON ENGINE

AIM:-

The aim of this study is to understand the construction and working principle of
Piston Engine and its associated components with its function.

The piston engines are categorized per the cylinder arrangements and lubricating
system.

(a) Inline Engine

(b) Inverted Engine
(c) “V” Engine
(d) Radial Engine
(e) Horizontally opposed Engine.

All the above categories are differentiated as per the power need. The basic aim
of piston engine in aircraft is to produce less/ required thrust with the help of the
Propeller.

1) PROPELLER:-

It is a device which compresses the air on its rotation and sends it to the rear side
of the aircraft to act on wing surface to produce lift.

2) CARBURETOR:-

This is the basic component which draws the air from the atmosphere and mixes
the fuel to send it in correct proportion to the engine. The chemical energy
contained in the fuel has been converted into heat energy by burning the mixture
inside the cylinder. The mixture of air-fuel from Carburetor is conveyed to the
Engine cylinder through induction manifold.

3) CYLINDER:-

This is the place where the air-fuel mixture gets burned to produce the power.
The air-fuel mixture drawn from the Carburetor gets inside the cylinder through
inlet valve and gets burned inside the cylinder to produce power. The cylinder
assembly consists with barrel, cylinder head, inlet valve, exhaust valve, two spark
plugs and a piston from Crankshaft through connecting rod.

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4) MAGNETO:-

There are two magnetos in the engine for duel ignition. The magneto is the
source of electric supply to the spark plug. The magneto contains rotating
armature with primary and secondary coils, which produces high tension
electric power. The lead connecting the battery to magneto is called as Low
Tension Lead and the lead connecting the magneto to spark plug is called
High Tension Lead. The magneto fitted on the left side of the engine supply
spark to the all spark plugs fitted at the bottom side of the cylinder and the
magneto fitted on the right side of the engine supply spark to all spark plugs
fitted at the top side of the cylinder. Each high tension lead have a metal
band indicating the cylinder which it belongs. Magneto is coupled to the
Engine drive with a VERNIER COUPLING to have the adjustment on
magneto timing.

5) GENERATOR:-

The generator is coupled to the engine gear train to take the drive. It will run
when ever the engine is running, and will generate the electric voltage and
send to the aircraft battery for topping up. The aircraft battery will remain with
full voltage at all time to meet out re-start/ relight during flying.

6) STARTER:-

The starter is the main components which gives the initial rotation to the
crankshaft to start the engine. There are many types of starters i.e. Air
Starter, Liquid Starter and Electrical Starter. The starter will give rotation till
the crank shaft attains the self-sustained RPM of the engine and get
disengage itself, and also when starter button is released.

7) CRANKSHAFT:-

Crankshaft is the main back-bone of the engine. It transfers the power from
the engine to the propeller. The Power generated by the engine cylinder is
conveyed to the crankshaft through piston and connecting rod. This is an
essential component for power transmission to the propeller. The crank shaft
is connected to the cylinder through Crank web, piston pin and piston.
Crankshafts are designed to fit the propeller at the front.

8) LUBRICATION SYSTEM:-

There are two types of lubrication systems in piston engine.

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 (i) Wet sump lubrication
(ii) Dry sump lubrication.

WET SUMP LUBRICATION

In the Wet sump lubrication, the lubricating oil is stored in the crank case
itself, after lubrication the oil drips down and remains in the crankcase itself.
The crank case in this system acts as a reservoir.

DRY SUMP LUBRICATION

In dry sump system the oil is stored separately in a tank. The oil from the tank
is drawn/ is drawn by oil pump due to suction created in the oil pump during
its rotation. The oil is supplied to all bearings and cylinder operation under
pressure. The used oil drips back to the crankcase and filtered by a scavenge
filter before getting pumped out through a Scavenge pump to the oil cooler.
The oil cooler is fitted with a Thermostat Switch to measure the oil
temperature and cools down the oil. The outlet from the cooler is connected
to Oil Tank . The Oil tank is fitted with Baffle plate to prevent surging and also
to remove the foam from the incoming oil.

RESULT:

The result of this study about Piston Engine helps to know the performance and
utility in specific aircraft.

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 EXPERIMENT NO.2
STUDY OF AN AIRCRAFT TURBOJET ENGINE

AIM:-

Even though power produced by piston engine makes the aircraft to fly, during
high altitude flying the piston engine aircraft is not efficient since the air density is
very low at high altitude, and also not sufficient to meet the requirement of the
engine requirement.

However the low level (altitude) flying is very efficient by piston engine aircraft,
whereas the high altitude flying is efficient by the Turbojet engine only.

JET ENGINE CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWING:

(a) Air Intake

(b) Compressor

(c) Combustion Chamber

(d) Burners

(e) High Energy Ignition Units

(f) Nozzle Guide Vane ( N G V )

(g) Turbine

(h) Exhaust unit.

(i) Lubrication System

AIRINTAKE:-

The air from the atmosphere enters through the air intake for the engine
operation. The air from the atmosphere is directed to the compressor through

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static entry guide vane. The air is made to flow in stream lined manner to the
compressor blades with out causing turbulence. Static Entry Guide Vane
supports and strengthens air intake.

COMPRESSOR:-

The efficiency of the Turbojet Engine is determined by its air compressibility.

There many types of compressors.

(j) Single Stage Single Entry Centrifugal Compressor

(ii) Single Stage Double entry Centrifugal Compressor.

(iii) Multi Stage Axial flow compressor

The compressor consist Shaft, Drum and rotor blades. The Stator blades are
fitted in the Compressor casing. The blades are made of steel/aluminum alloy
as per the requirement. Each row of stator and rotor blades forms one stage.
The number of stages is determined by the number of stator and rotor blades.
Each row of rotor will have a row of Stator blades to direct the air to the next
phase. Each set of Stator Blades row and Rotor Blades row will be called as
Stage. The centrifugal compressor does not have more stages than one. The
Axial Flow Compressor has many stages. The Stator blades are fitted on the
compressor casing itself. The rotor blades are fitted on the rotor disc and the
disc are assembled on the rotor shaft. Each blade is designed in Impulse at
the root and Reaction at the tip. One third of the blade length from the root will
be of Impulse design and the remaining two-third towards the tip will be of
reaction design. i.e. the root will have impulse and the tip will have reaction
type.

COMBUSTION CHAMBER:-

The combustion chambers are:-

(a) Can type

(b) Annular type

(c) Can-annular type

Many of the turbojet engines are fitted with Can-Annular combustion chamber
only. The air after the compressor enters in to the combustion chambers
through the diffuser casing for mixing with fuel. Only 30% of the air enters

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inside the combustion chambers and the remaining air get added up later.
The air enters in side the combustion chambers for burning is called as
primary air. The remaining air called as secondary air used for cooling and
dilution of the burnt gas to increase the volumetric efficiency.

The combustion chambers are interconnected for flame propagation, since

only two combustion chambers are fitted with igniters plug for giving initial
ignition. The inter connectors helps in equalizing the pressure in all the
combustion chambers and also propagates the flame to other combustion
chambers. A spring loaded combustion chamber drain is located in the bottom
most point of the Engine (Combustion Chamber outer casing). During wet
start/ engine stops the excess unburned fuel is drained through this drain.
Since it is spring loaded during engine running the internal pressure will be
more and do not permit the drain to get open.

BURNERS:-

The fuel supply from the aircraft fuel tank, booster pump, reaches the fuel
pump. The fuel from fuel pump enters into Fuel Control Unit (F C U). The fuel
control unit only regulates the fuel supply to burner as per required operation
of the engine. Each burner is connected from Fuel Control Unit by a common
pipe line which is called as primary line and in addition a separate pipe line is
connected to each burner from fuel control unit to supply additional fuel when
RPM increases beyond 60% (Acceleration). The Fuel Pump will maintain
sufficient pressure to prevent Vapor Lock in the fuel system. The fuel control
unit is having a accelerator unit which supply fuel during sudden opening of
the throttle to prevent starvation of fuel.

IGNITOR PLUGS:-

There are 02 ignitor plugs fitted in the 2 ‘o clock and 7 ’o clock position in the
combustion chamber diagonally. The Electrical Supply from the Battery is
sent to High Energy Ignition Unit (HEIU). During initial starting the ignitor
plugs will ignite the fuel air mixture inside the combustion chamber. Then the
flame from that combustion chamber will get propagate to other combustion
chamber through inter connectors and get stabilized with pressure in all the
combustion chambers. The Ignitor Switch in the Cockpit will be released after
the engine attained the self sustained RPM.

HIGH ENERGY IGNITION UNITS (H.E.I.U)

The High energy ignition units are the Electrical source of supply of spark to
the combustion Chamber. The electrical supply from the Battery is taken to
the HIEU and multiplied. The spark is supplied through IGNITOR PLUGS.

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WARNING:

NEVER TOUCH THE H.E.I.U FOR TWO MINUTES AFTER

ENGINE

SWITCHED OFF. OTHERWISE IT WILL GIVE A FATAL SHOCK.

NOZZLE GUIDE VANE

The N G V is the unit located in between combustion chambers and Turbine.

This will make the exhaust gases to flow uniformly to Turbine Blades, so that
the gases are prevented from creating turbulence before Turbine disc.

TURBINE:-

The turbine is the main part of the jet engine which takes the rotation from
compressor shaft and in turn rotates the turbine by the velocity of the exhaust
gases. The high speed rotation obtained by the turbine disc due to exhaust
gases in turn rotates the compressor to the selected speed. The turbine
blades are retained to the turbine disc by” fir tree” method of attachment and
penned for retention. The turbine blades are designed in Impulse & Reaction
type.

EXHAUST UNIT:-
The exhaust unit is the attachment made to the engine rear side to evacuate
the exhaust gases away from the aircraft .Further is covered with thermal
Blanket to prevent the heat getting transferred to Aircraft Structure. The
exhaust unit is a convergent duct (Pipe) to augment the jet velocity .At the
end of the exhaust pipe trimmers may be fitted to increase the jet velocity or
thrust or may be fitted thrust reversal attachment to reduce the engine thrust
during aircraft landing.

LUBRICATION SYSTEM:

Dry sump lubrication system is employed in the jet engine. The lubricating oil
after lubrication is taken back to the oil tank through oil filter, oil scavenge
pump, oil cooler to the tank. The lubricating oil after lubrication to the rear
bearing is not taken back to the oil tank since the oil might have lost its
property due to high temperature. This is called as “Total Loss Lubrication”.
The oil after lubrication to the rear bearing is let off to atmosphere along with
exhaust gases.

RESULT:

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 The study has given the detailed idea about construction, operation and
working principle of Turbojet Engine. This basic study will help in long way to
study about any other Jet propelled Aircraft/Space craft/Space shuttle.

EXPERIMENT NO.3

STUDY OF HYBRID ROCKET

AIM:-

It is to study the Hybrid rocket propulsion system and its components.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

· Meter Scale
· Vernier scale
Description and working Principle:

The main components of Hybrid Rocket are:

· Setting chamber
· Combustion Chamber
· Nozzle section
Here the propellant is a combination of Fluid Oxidizer (O 2 Gas)& solid fuel (Poly
Propylene ). O2 is connected to the setting chamber.

The setting chamber consists of an ignitor which is the coil made of nickel-
chromium alloy around the mixture of chamber powder& ammonium phasparate.

When the battery is switched “ON” the mixture gets ignited. This flame
propagated by high pressure oxidizes into the combustion chamber. As the result
of the combustion a high pressure gas is produced and passes through the
convergent/ divergent nozzle to produce thrust.

Further studies on burning rate of fuel can be made by measuring the thickness
of the fuel rod after the Oxygen is stopped.

DIMENSIONS
Setting Chamber---------------------- Diameter-------------------- 97.60
mm

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 Length ---------------------- 87.25
mm
Combustion Chamber--------------- Outer Diameter------------ 97.60
mm
Inner Diameter------------ 64.30
mm
Length --------------------- 194.00
mm
Fuel iod----------------------------------Outer Diameter------------64.30
mm
Inner Diameter------------35.90
mm
Length-----------------------182.25
mm
Convergent/ Divergent Nozzle :
Convergent diameter--- 61.60
mm
Divergent diameter -- 52.50
mm
Length--------------------- 99.10
mm
Result : Thus the working of hybrid rocket propulsion system is studied.
EXPERIMENT NO.4

STUDY OF SUBSONIC RAM JET

AIM:-
It is to study the subsonic ramjet and its components.
Apparatus Required:
· Meter Scale
· Vernier Scale
Description and Working Principles:

When the flight speed of a Turbojet Engine is very high, i.e. in the range of Mach
No. 2 to 4, the pressure raise in the diffuser is very high. At this situation of the
flight speed, the discharge to the compressor, the total static pressure raise is
significant. Therefore it can be removed from the engine along with its prime
moves the turbine.

Main Components of Supersonic Ramjet

· Diffuser
· Combustion Chamber
· Nozzle

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The diffuser decreases the velocity of the incoming air to sufficiently low value, so
that addition of required quantity of heat is possible before chocking. The diffuser
consists of number of fuel inlets. The fuel gets mixed with incoming air in the
diffuser and attains a very high pressure while entering the combustion chamber.
On combustion the high pressure and temperature the gas expands to very high
velocity while leaving the nozzle. A high thrust is developed on account of large
change in momentum flux into the engine.
Dimensions:

Diffuser: Inlet Diameter------------------50.00 mm

Outlet diameter---------------127.30 mm
Length -------------------------- 285.00 mm
Combustion Chamber: Diameter------------------------ 127.30 mm
Length ------------------------- 205.00 mm

Nozzle: Inlet Diameter--------------- 127.30 mm

Outlet diameter------------- 65.00 mm
Length ------------------------- 263.50 mm

RESULT: Thus the working principle of the subsonic ramjet engine is studied.

EXPERIMENT NO.5
HEAT TRANSFER BY FORCED CONVECTION

AIM:-

To determine the temperature distribution across pin-fin due to heat transfer by

forced convection.

DESCRIPTION:-

The apparatus consist of a Pin-Fin placed inside an open duct (one side open)
and the other end of the duct is connected to suction side of the blower. The
delivery side of the blower is taken through the gate valve and orifice meter to the
atmosphere. The flow rate can be varied by the gate valve and can be measured
by the mercury “U” tube monometer connected to the orifice meter. A heater is
connected to one end of the Pin-Fin and five thermocouples are connected at
equal distances all along the length of the fins the sixth thermocouple is left in the
duct.

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 The panel on the apparatus consists of a Voltmeter, ammeter, digital temperature
indicator, dimmer to control the power input to heater, thermocouple selector
switch,’U’ tube monometer, neon indication lamp and a schematic diagram.

OPERATION:-

i) Connect the 3 pin plug to a 230V, 50 Hz, 15 Amps power socket. The
indicator lamp is ” ON.”

(ii) Keep the Thermocouple selector switch in ZERO position.

(iii) Turn the Dimmer knob clock wise and set power input to the heater to any
desired value by looking at the voltmeter & ammeter.

(iv) Allow the unit to stabilize.

(v) Switch ON the blower.

(vi) Set airflow rate to any desired value by looking at the difference in
mercury ‘U’ tube manometer.
(vii) Note down the different temperatures on each step.
(viii) Repeat the experiment.
(a) Vary the air flow rate by keeping the power input to
Heater constant.
(b) Varying the power input to the heater and keeping the air flow
rate
constant.

(ix) Tabulate all the readings and calculate different conditions.

(x) After the knob is clicked” OFF” and thermocouple selector switch is
turned” OFF” to ZERO after the experiment is over.

Tabular column

VALVE MANOMETER POWER Ts AMBIENT

POSITION READING SURFACE (Pin Fin) ° TEMP (T6)
HM (cm) TEMPERATURE IN C °C
°C FIN Size

H1 H2 VOLTS AMPS T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
(V) (A)

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 First Test

Second Test

Third Test

Observation:
Duct Size (a X b) = 0.15 X 0.10 m
Diameter of the fin D = 0.012m
Diameter of the Orifice (d) = 0.02m
Length of the fin (L) = 0.15m
Co-efficient of discharge of Orifice meter = 0.61
CALCULATION:

1. Experimental heat transfer Co-efficient

q
hexpt = -------------------
As (Ts-Ta)
q = v x a; v = Voltage ; a = ammeter reading
As = ЛDL Where (D) = Diameter of the fin
(L) = Length of the fin
T1+T2+T3+T4+T5
Ts = -------------------------------; Ta= T6 = Ambient Temp.
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ρM
2. HA = HM X ----------------
ρA
(ρ a)N.T.P X 273
(ρa )R.T.P. = ------------------------; ρ M (Density of mercury) = 13.6 X
1000Kg/m3
273 + room temp in oC

3. Volume flow rate of air through the duct

Q = Cd a (2g HA) ½

a = Л (D) 2/ 4 where D = Diameter of the orifice

Cd = 0.61

4. Velocity of air through the duct

V= Q/ A ; where A = Area of Duct (a x b)

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 5. Velocity of air at T mf
V T s __ T ambient
Vmf = ---------------- X T mf ; Where T mf = ____________
T Ambient
Vmf X D e 2
6. Reynolds number Re = ------------
v
Where D e = 4 x a x b
--------------
2 (a + b)

Find out v, k, Pr values from H.M.T. table for the corresponding temperature T
mf
v = Kinematic Velocity
k =Thermal conductivity of Air ; P r = Pranatl number

7. Theoretical heat transfer coefficient

Nuk
h theo =------------
D
Where D = Diameter of the fin
k = Thermal conductivity of Air
N u = Nusselt number
Find out Nusselt number from H.M.T. table for range of Re, Pr

8. Theoretical Heat Transfer

Q = {h theo X C X k X A } ½ X ( T1- Ta) X T anh ( m X L )
Where C = Л D; D f = Diameter of fin; L = Fin Length
Kf (Brass) = 110.7 W ( m.K)
T 1 = Temperature where the first thermocouple is fixed
m = { htheo X C / Kf X Af } ½
Where A = Л D2/4 D == Diameter of the fin
9. Efficiency of the Fin = T an h (mL)
------------------ ; L = Fin Length
mX L

10. T x --- T a Cosh {m (L – X)

------------- = -----------------------
T 1 -- Ta Cosh ( m L )

Ta = Ambient Température ; X = Thermocouple position

Tx = Temperature at X distance

Graph: - Distance between the thermocouple and the base of the fin Vs
Experimental
temperature has been plotted.

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Distance between the thermocouple and the base of the fin Vs Theoretical
temperature has been plotted.

RESULT: The temperature distribution was determined across pin fin due to
heat transfer by forced convection.

EXPERIMENT NO.6
HEAT TRANSFER BY NATURAL CONVECTION

AIM:

To determine the temperature distribution across pin fin due to heat

transfer by natural convection

DESCRIPTION:-

The apparatus consists of a pin fin placed inside an open duct (one side open).
A heater is connected to one end of the fin and five thermocouples are connected
at specified distances along the length of the fins. The sixth thermocouple is left
in the duct.

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 The panel on the apparatus consists of a voltmeter, ammeter, digital
temperature indicator, dimmer to control the power input to heater, thermocouple
selector switch, neon indicating lamp and a schematic diagram.

OPERATIONS:

1. Connect the 3-pin plug to a 230 V, 50 HZ, 15 Amps power socket. The
indicator lamp is “ON”.
2. Keep the thermocouple selector switch in ZERO position.
3. Turn dimmer knob clockwise and set power input to the heater to any
desired value by looking at the voltmeter and ammeter.
4. Allow the unit to stabilize.
5. Note down the different temperature position.
6. Repeat the experiment by varying the power input to the heater.
7. Tabulate all the readings and calculate different conditions.
8. After the knob is clicked OFF and thermocouple selector switch is turned
OFF to zero after the experiment is over.

TABULAR COLUMN

SURFACE (Pin-Fin) AMBIENT

Sl.No. POWER TEMPERATURE TS TEMP( T 6 ) ŋ
IN ° C °C °C FIN

VOLTS AMPS T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
(V) (A)

OBSERVATION

Duct Size (a x b) = 0.15 X 0.10 m

Diameter of the fin D = 0.012 m

Diameter of the Orifice (d) = 0.02 m

Length of the fin ( L ) = 0.15 m

Coefficient of discharge orifice meter = 0.61

CALCULATION:
1. Experimental heat transfer coefficient:-

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 q
h expt= ----------------
As (Ts-Ta)
q= v x a ; v = Voltage ; a = Ammeter reading
As = Л DL
Where (D) = Diameter of the fin T 1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T 5
(L) = Length of the Fin ; Ts = ------------------------------- ; Ta= T6= Ambient
Temperature
5
gL 3 β d T
2. Grashof Number (Gr) =----------------
v2
Where g = 9.81 m/ s2
1
Co-efficient of volume expansion β = ------------
T f + 273
Ts+Ta
T f = ---------------------- in ° c ; L = 500 x 10 -3
2
dT = T s - T a

v = Kinematic Viscosity. Find out values v, k, Pr from H.M.T Table from the
corresponding temperature T f .

3. Use of empirical relation:

(a) For 104 ≤ Gr Pr ≤ 10 8 , Nu = 0.56 (Gr. Pr ) 0..25

h theo L
------------- = Nu
k

(b) For10 8 ≤ Gr Pr ≤ 10 12 ,Nu = 0.13 (gr.Pr) 0.33

h theo L
----------- = Nu
K
k = Thermal conductivity of Air h theo = Theoretical heat transfer coefficient

L = 500 x 10 -3 ; Pr = Prandtl number

L (m) h theoretical
W/ ( m2 .K )

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Find out v,k, P, Values from H.M.T Table for the corresponding temperature T mf

v = Kinematic Viscosity
k = Thermal conductivity of air P r = Prandtl number

4. Theoretical heat transfer coefficient

h theo = N u k Where D = Diameter of Fin

-------- k = Thermal conductivity of air
D Nu = Nusselt number
Find out Nusselt number from H. M. T. Table for range of Re, P r

5. Theoretical Heat Transfer

Q = { h theo x C x k x A } ½ x ( T 1 - T a ) T anh (m x L )
where C = Л D ; D f = Diameter of fin ; Kf ( Brass ) = 110.7 W ( m.K )
L = Length
T 1 = Temperature where the first thermocouple is fixed

m = { h theo x C / kf x A f } ½

Where A = Л D 2 /4 D= Diameter of fin

6. Efficiency of the fin = Tan h (m L)

------------- L = Fin Length
mxL

7. Tx -Ta Cosh { m ( L - X ) }
-------------- = -----------------------------
T1–Ta Cosh ( mL)

Ta = Ambient Température ; X = Thermocouple position

T x = Température at X distance

GRAPH

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 Distance between the thermocouple and the base of the fin Vs Experimental
temperature has been plotted.

Distance between the thermocouple and the base of the fin Vs Theoretical
temperature has been plotted.

RESULT:

The temperature distribution was determined across pin fin due to heat transfer
by natural convection.

EXPERIMENT NO.7

SAY BOLT VISCOMETER

AIM:

To determine the viscosity of an oil expressed as a time of flow in seconds

through specified hole made in a metallic piece.

SCOPE:

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(a) The method of test shall be used to determine the SAYBOLT viscosity of
petroleum products and lubricants.

(b) The SAYBOLT universal viscometer shall be used only for oils with times
of flow more than 32 seconds. There is no maximum limit to viscosity to
be measured by the SAYBOLT viscometer but in general liquids having
an outflow time of the order of 1000 secs and higher. SAYBOLT
viscometer are tested more conveniently by means of SAYBOLT FUROL
viscometer.

(c) The SAYBOLT FUROL viscometer shall be used only for oils with 0 time
of flow more than 25 seconds. The out flow of FUROL instrument is
approximately one-tenth that of the universal.

NOTE:

The word FUROL is the contraction of the phrase Fuel and road Oils.

TEMPERATURE OF TESTING:

(a) With the SAYBOLT Universal viscometer determinations shall be made at

21° C, 37.5°C, 54 ° C. and 99° C.

(b) With the SAYBOLT FUROL determinations shall be made at 25°C,37.5°

C,50° C
or 98° C . In tests on road and paving materials, determination may also
be
made at 60° C and 82 °C.

PROCEDURE:

(a) The oil tube shell is first cleaned with an effective solvent , such as benzol
and excess solvent shall be removed from gallery .

(b) All oil shall pass through a mesh wire strainer before it is introduced in oil
tube. After the tube is cleaned, a quantity of oil to be sufficient to wet the

22
 entire surface of the tube shall be poured into the tube and allowed to
drain out. The cork stopper shall be inserted not less than 4 inches , not
more than 3/8 inch, into the lower end of the cur chamber at the bottom
of the oil tube. The cork shall fit tight enough to prevent the escape of oil,
as evidence by the absence of oil on the cork after it is withdrawn.

(c) If the test temperature is above that the room, the oil shall be heated more
than 20° C below the temperature of the test. In no case, however shall be
preheated to a temperature above 28° C below the flash point. The oil
shall be poured into the oil tube unit.

If ceases to overflow into the gallery, the oil in the oil tube shall be kept
well stirred with the oil tube thermometer, care being taken to avoid lifting
the outflow tube. The bath temperature shall be adjusted until the oil
temperature remains constant. After thermal equilibrium has been attained
no further adjustments shall be made in both temperature.

(d) After the temperature of the oil in the oil tube has remained constant with
in 0° C- 1° C of the desired temperature for 1minute with constant stirring ,
the oil tube thermometer shall be with drawn and the surplus oil removed
quickly from gallery by means of the withdrawal tube so that the level of
the oil in the gallery is below the level. The tip of the withdrawal tube shall
be started over again, if the tip of the withdrawal tube touches the overflow
firm. Under no conditions shall be excess oil be removed by rotating the
withdrawal tube around the gallery.

(e) The receiving flask shall be placed in position so that the steam of oil from
the out let tube will strike the neck of the flask. The graduation marks on
the receiving flask shall not be less than 10 cm not more than 13 cm from
the bottom of the bath. The cork shall be snapped from its position and at
the same instant the timer shall be started or shall be stopped when the
bottom of the meniscus of the oil reached the mark on the neck after
receiving the flask.

TABULAR COLUMN:

Sl.
No Temperature of Temperature of Time for 60 ml of oil collected
oil in ° C water in ° C ( in Secs)

23
 1
2

CALCULATION:

SAYBOLT VISCOMETER

Kinematics viscosity = (At- B/t) Stokes

A = 0.0026
B = 1. 88
t = Saybolt Viscosity No. in seconds
ρr = Density of oil at room temperature gm/cc
Tr = Room Temperature
T = Temperature at which the experiment is
conducted.

RESULT :

The time in seconds is determined by the prescribed procedure, with the

Universal
(or Saybolt Furol) viscosity of the oil at the temperature at which the test is made.
Results shall be reported to the nearest 0.1 seconds for viscosity values 200
seconds and to the nearest whole seconds for values 200 seconds or above.
With proper attention to details of method of procedures, results in different
laboratories with different operators under refree or standardization condition of
testing shall not differ by more than 0.5 percent.

EXPERIMENT NO.8

REDWOOD VISCOMETER

AIM:

24
This is used to determine the viscosity of oil expressed as a time of flow in
seconds through specified hole made in a metallic piece.

SCOPE:

The Redwood Apparatus measures viscosity in empirical units and not in

absolute units such as centistokes. It is possible to convert Redwood viscometer
readings to absolute units, for which the specifications IP 70/68 issued by the
Institute of Petroleum, London may be consulted. The method is primarily
applicable for viscosity determination of oil which flows in a Newtonian manner
that is if it possesses a linear relationship between shearing stress and rate of
shear under the test condition.

MODE OF OPERATION

The flow time measurements for petroleum products should be made at the
following temperature:-

21 °C, 37.8° C, 50 °C , 60° C, 90 °C, 121° C, 149°C, and 204°C

For Fuel oils the minimum temperature is 49°C

For Flux oils the temperature of test to be 93°C

The apparatus REDWOOD, No. 1 will correctly indicate the viscosity flow if it
stands between 30 seconds to 2000 seconds. If the flow time measured with this
apparatus for any oil exceeds2000 seconds, the test should be repeated with
Redwood Viscometer No. 2 which will give the correct value of viscosity for such
highly viscous oils.

SAMPLING:

For determination at temperature of 93°C or lower, heat the samples with out
stirring, in the loosely stoppered container filled as completely as possible, for a
hour at 100 °C by immersing in a suitable liquid bath maintained at the
temperature, e.g. a boiling water bath. Then adjust the temperature of the sample
by immersion in a liquid bath the temperature of which is slightly below the below
the test temperature. Carryout subsequent heating using a source of heat not
higher than 121°C and in no circumstance heat the sample over a flame before
pouring the oil into the cup or immersion of hot bodies in it. In determination at
temperature of 121°C or higher do not heat the sample to a temperature more
than 28°C above that of the test temperature. When a series of viscosities is to
be determined at several temperatures, all these may be done on the same
sample of oil the determinations at the higher temperatures being and before
those at the lower temperatures. Determine the viscosity with in 1 hour of the
sample reaching the desired temperatures.

25
PREPARATION OF THE APPARATUS

(a)Clean the oil cup with suitable solvent e.g. carbon tetrachloride and then dry it
thoroughly using soft tissue paper, or some similar material which will not
leave any fluff. Clean the jet hole by any fine thread.

(b) Set up the viscometer, using the circular spirit level to ensure that it is in level.
Fill the bath with water for determinations at 93°C and below, and for the
higher temperature, with oil having a suitably low viscosity at the test
temperature.

PROCEDURE

(a) Heat the viscometer bath to a few degrees above the desired test
temperature. Pour the prepared sample into the oil cup through a filter of metal
gauge not coarser than BS 100 mesh (152/u). Adjust the temperature of the bath
until the sample in the cup maintained at the test temperature, stir the contents of
the bath and cup during this process preferably by continuous stirring of the bath.
Stir the sample during preliminary period e.g. by means of the ball valve, closing
the bottom of the jet by suitable means, but do not stir the sample during the
actual determination. When the temperature of the sample has become quite
steady at the desired value, adjust the liquid level by allowing the sample to flow
out until the surface of the sample touches, the filling point. Place the oil cup, and
swing the oil cup thermometer towards the closed end of the curved slot in the
cover. Place the clean, dry stamd 50 ml. Flask centrally below the jet, with the top
of the neck a few millimeters from the bottom of the jet. Do not insulate the flask
in any way, lift the ball valve and simultaneously start time recorder. Suspend the
valve from the clip supporting the oil cup thermometer by means of the cook in
the wire stemma. Stop the time recorder at the instant the sample reaches the
graduation mark of the flask and note the final reading of the oil cup
thermometer.

(b) Reject any determination if the temperature of the sample in the oil cups
various during the run by more than 0.1° C for temperatures of 60° C or
below by more than 0.3° C and 93° C or by more than 8.5 °C at 121 ° C.

CALCULATION AND REPORTING

Report the time in seconds to the nearest 0.5° C for the value below 200 seconds
and to the nearest whole seconds for value above 200 seconds as the RED
WOOD/ SAYBOLT viscosity, IP 70, starting which viscometer was used and the
test temperature.

26
TABULAR COLUMN

Sl.No. Temp. of Oil in Temp. of Water Time for 60 ml of oil

°C in ° C collected
(t Sec)
1
2

Calculations :-

Kinematic viscosity = (At- B /t ) Stokes

A = 0.0022

B = 1.8000

t = Redwood Seconds

Absolute Viscosity = Kinetic Viscosity x Density

Draw the following graphs :

(i) Temperature vs Redwood Seconds

(ii)Temperature vs Kinematic Viscosity

(iii)Temperature vs Absolute Viscosity

(iv) Temperature vs Density

27
 EXPERIMENT NO.9

CLEVELAND FLASH POINT & FIRE POINT APPARATUS

( OPEN CUP )

AIM

The aim of this Experiment is to determine the Flash Point & Fire Point of the
given oil using Cleveland Flash & Fire point apparatus.

Introduction:

Mineral oil when heated to a sufficiently high temperature, it decomposes

chemically. The hydrocarbons get breaks up into volatile combustible Gas.

The Flash point of oil is defined as the temperature to which it must be heated to
give off sufficient vapor to form an inflammable mixture with air.

The Fire point is the lowest temperature at which the production of combustible
gas from the oil is enough to maintain a steady combustion after ignition.

CLAVELAND APPARATUS :-

This instrument consists of a brass cup with handle to fill oil for experiment. The
cup is placed over an electric heater. The cup is open to atmosphere. A
thermometer is positioned in the clamp provided to find the oil temperature. The
test flame is admitted to the oil during heating up. To find out flash point and
power point the flame is admitted at a oil periodically.

PROCEDURE:-

1. Clean the oil cup thoroughly and dry it.

2. Fill the oil in the cup to sufficient level to carryout the test.

3. Place the clamp in position to insert the thermometer.

4. Connect the heater to main heater electrical supply and

adjust the voltage by control box.

5. When the oil temperature is raising apply the test flame

over the oil at certain interval of 20 ° C for finding Flash &
Fire Point.

28
TABULAR COLUMN

Sl. Room
No. Temperature FLASH POINT IN ° C FIRE POINT IN ° C

1
2

REPORT

The Flash and Fire point for the given oil in this condition was found to be 48 ° C
and 54 ° C.

RESULT :

The flash and Fire point of the given oil was determined in open cup condition.

29
 EXPERIMENT NO.10

PENSKY MARTENS FLASH POINT & FIRE POINT APPARATUS

( CLOSED CUP )

AIM : -

This experiment is carried out to determine the Flash and Fire Point of the given
oil using Paskey Martens Flash & Fire Point Apparatus.

INTRODUCTION :-

Mineral oil when heated up to a sufficiently high temperature, it gets decompose

chemically. The Hydrocarbons breaks into volatile combustible gases.

The Flash Point of oil is defined as the temperature to which it must be heated up
to give off sufficient vapour to form an inflammable mixture with air.

The Fire Point is the lowest temperature at which the production of combustible
gas from the oil is enough to maintain a steady combustion after ignition.

PENSKY-MARTENS APPARATUS

This instrument consists of a brass cup with a filling mark inscribed inside. The
cup
The cup is surrounded by electrical heating elements. The brass cup is closed
with a cover. There are 03 openings in the cover. Thermometer is inserted in one
of the openings into the oil. The test flame is admitted through the central hole
and
stirrer is connected through the other opening.

PROCEDURE

i) Clean and dry the oil cup.

ii) Fill the oil in the cup upto the leveling point.

iii) Place the lid in the position and insert the thermometer.

iv) Connect the heater to the main power and adjust the rate of
heating by control Box.

30
 v) When the oil temperature is raising apply the test flame at the
interval of 20 ° C for finding flash point and fire point.

TABULAR COLUMN

Sl.No. Room Temperature FLASH POINT IN ° C FIRE POINT IN ° C

1
2
3
.4
5
6

REPORT:-

The flash and Fire point for the given oil in the open cup condition was found to
be 118.4 ° F ( 48 ° C) and 129.2 ° F ( 54° C).

The flash point in the closed cup condition was found to be 114.8 ° F (46° C).

RESULT

The flash and Fire Point of the given oil was determined in the closed cup and
open cup condition.

31