I] Water and Energy Budget

Earth’s Water Budget

 Water Budget
• Water budget reflects the
relationship between
input and output of water
through a region.
• Water inputs are precipi-
tation, irrigation, dew,
capillary rise
• Water outputs are evapo-
transpiration, runoff, deep
percolation
3
Water Balance Equation
Energy Budget Equation
II] Precipitation
 3 Major Categories of Precipitation Types

• Convective
– Typical of the tropics and is brought about by
heating of the air at the interface with the ground
• Orographic
– Results from the mechanical lifting of moist
horizontal air currents over natural barriers such
as mountain ranges.
– Factors involved are land elevation, local slope,
orientation of land slope, and distance from the
moisture source.
3 Major Categories of Precipitation
Types, cont./

• Cyclonic Precipitation
– Associated with the movement of air masses from
high-pressure regions to low-pressure regions.
– Classified as frontal and non-frontal
Measurement of Precipitation
Standard Rain Gage
• Non-recording gage
• But more accurate than
tipping bucket rain gage
• A metal cylinder with a
funnel on top & a
plastic measuring tube
in the middle.
• The measuring tube can
handle up to 2.0 inches
 Precipitation Gages

• 3 Common types of precipitation gages

– Standard Rain Gage
– Tipping Bucket Gage
– Weighing Gage
– Float Gage
 Tipping Bucket Gage

• collects rainfall in a two-chambered bucket

until the weight of the precipitation causes
the bucket to tip, dump the collected water
and move to the other chamber under the
funnel.
 Tipping Bucket Gage, cont./

Tipping Bucket of Phil. PAGASA

Photo by Miranda and the Group
 Tipping Bucket Gage, cont./
• The top bucket is held in place by a magnet until it has
filled to the calibrated amount ( ~ 0.001 inches of
rain).
• When the bucket has filled to this amount, the
magnet will release its hold, causing the bucket to tip.
• The water then empties down a drainage hole and
raises the other to sit underneath the funnel.
• When the bucket tips, it triggers a reed switch (or
sensor), sending a message to the display or weather
station.
Weighing Type Gage

• Collects rainfall in a
weighing bucket
• The weight of the
precipitation in the
bucket causes a pen to
move and make a trace
on the graph.
Float Gage
• The rise of the float
with increasing catch of
rainfall is recorded.
• Some are emptied
manually, others
automatically.
• Most float gages are
placed in a receiver.
 Precipitation Gage Network

• The spatial variability of precipitation and the

intended uses of the data determine network
density.
Recommended Minimum of Precipitation
Networks for General
Hydrometeorological Purposes

1. Flat regions of temperate, 600 – 900 km2 per station

Mediterranean, and tropical zones
2. Mountainous regions of temperate, 100 – 250 km2 per station
Mediterranean, and tropical zones
3. Small mountainous islands with 25 km2 per station
irregular precipitation
4. Arid and polar zones 1500 – 10,000 km2 per station
 Other Precipitation Measurements

• Radar
– Transmits a pulse of electromagnetic energy as a
beam in a direction determined by a movable
antenna
• Satellite
– Can not measure precipitation directly
– Estimation is based on relating brightness of cloud
photographs to rainfall intensities
Interpretation of Precipitation
 Estimating Missing Precipitation Data

• If the normal annual precipitation (NAP) at

each of the index stations is within 10% of
that for the station with the missing record, a
simple arithmetic average of the precipitation
at the index stations provides the estimated
amount.
 Estimating Missing Precipitation Data, cont./

• If NAP at any of the index stations differs from

that at the station more than 10%, the
normal-ratio method (NRM) is used.
 Normal-Ratio Method

• The amounts at the index stations are

weighted by the ratios of the normal-annual-
precipitation values.
Normal-Ratio Method, cont./
 Double-Mass Analysis
• Tests the consistency of the record at a station
by comparing its accumulated annual or
seasonal precipitation with the concurrent
accumulated values of mean precipitation for
a group of surrounding stations.

• Inconsistency is represented by departure

from the slope.
 Double-Mass Analysis, cont./
• A change in slope indicates a change in the
precipitation regime.

• A change due to meteorological causes would

not change the slope as all base stations
would similarly affected.
 Average Precipitation Over Area
• Mean Arithmetic Method • Grid-Point Method
– Yields good estimates in – Averages the estimated
flat country if gages are precipitation at all
uniformly distributed & stations of a super
the individual catches imposed grid.
don’t vary widely from the • Isohyetal Method
mean.
– Most accurate method
• Thiessen Method when used by
– For non-uniform experienced hydrologist.
distribution of gages
 Grid-Point Precipitation

– Events are recorded by gauges at specific locations

– Used collectively to estimate areal variability of
rain
– Used to derive intensity – duration – frequency
curve
– Used to determine a representative precipitation
to complete missing records
Intensity-Duration-Frequency
Curve
Intensity – Duration – Frequency
(IDF) Curve
IDF Curve, 3 – 24 Hours
 IDF Curves
• Are graphical representations of the probability
that a given average rainfall intensity will occur.
• Commonly used in determining the rainfall rate
for the rational methods.
• Are not plots of real storm data but composite of
multiple storms.
• The curves represent average intensities
• Should not be used to obtain storm runoff
volumes
• The duration is not the duration of the actual
storm
Examples of Methods in Estimating
Precipitation